Chapter 9

Rail energy usage and

related emissions
Various types of trains in Sweden
 Facts

The transport sector is responsible for:

• 25% of the global energy use
• 25% of the global CO2 emissions

Rail transport is responsible for:

• 7% of transport volume
• 2% of energy use in transport sector
• 4% of CO2 emissions in transport sector

https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/handbook_iea-uic_2017_web3.pdf
 Energy use and related CO2 emissions

Split into three phases:

• Construction

• Operation and maintenance

• Recycling
 Form of energy used in train operation:
• Fuel onboard vehicles (combustion engine / fuel cell)

• Electricity intake from public grid (electric traction)

Energy for propulsion system and auxiliary & comfort systems

Efficiency is expressed as kWh/pkm or kWh/tkm

Conversion ratio:
1 litre diesel = 10 kWh, 1 litre petrol = 9 kWh

pkm = passenger kilometre, tkm = net tonne kilometre

 Energy use

Where energy is used in train operation:

• Rolling resistance

• Air resistance

• Losses at braking (friction at brake pads etc)

• Losses at propulsion (engines/motors, transmissions etc)

• Auxiliary and comfort systems (HVAC, lighting, WiFi etc.)

 Low running resistance

• The wheels can roll easily on the rails

(steel-steel contact: smooth, stiff and small contact patches)
• Low rolling resistance – low energy consumption
• But also long distances for braking and acceleration
 Low air resistance

• The train air resistance is low (v.s other modes

of transport if running at the same speed)
• Trailing vechiles are shielded by the front vehicle
• Streamline design (front and rear vehicle)
• Carbody and bogies are well shielded
 Very high transport capacity

Heavy-haul train, 682

• Trains are normally long wagons, 7.3 km, 70k tons
• Each car/wagon can carry a lot of passengers/goods
• Narrow corridor
• Modest land use

Metro 1 track
36 000 persons/hour

Car

Road with 18 lanes

36 000 persons/hour

CR400AF–B, 350 km/h, 17 cars (440 m), ca. 1300 seats

Where does energy go?
 Energy efficiency of rail passenger transport

Reference trains for comparision

, L = Locomotive

Average new rail vehicles in EU by 2009 at mixed operation

11
Andersson E, Berg M, Nelldal B-L, Fröidh O: Rail Passenger Transport: Techno-economic analysis of energy and greenhouse gas reductions, TOSCA Report, 2011.
TOSCA = Technology Opportunities and Strategies toward Climate-friendly trAnsport, EU project 2009-2011.
 Energy efficiency of passenger rail systems

kWh/pkm
0.25
0.208
0.2
pkm=
0.15 passenger
0.106 kilometre
0.100
0.1
0.067
0.05

0
High-speed Regional Regional Local city
electric electric diesel electric
Average new rail vehicles in EU by 2009 at mixed operation

Affecting factors:
Propulsion system, Train design, Track topography, Stopping pattern, Driving
style, Line speed limit, Occupancy rate, Weather condition, Facility onboard
Andersson E, Berg M, Nelldal B-L, Fröidh O: Rail Passenger Transport: Techno-economic analysis of energy and greenhouse gas reductions, TOSCA Report, 2011.
 Energy use

Comparison of electric passenger trains:

Long-distance electric trains

0.108 Max 160 km/h; B=44%

0.077 Max 200 km/h; B=55%

0.046-0.062
250-320 km/h; B=60-65%

0.050 0.100 kWh/pkm

pkm=
Japanese Shinkansen (E4) is one of the passenger
most energy efficient trains in the world: kilometre
285 km/h, B=65% => 0.050 kWh/pkm
 Energy efficiency

Comparison of different passenger transport modes

pkm=
passenger
kilometre

Average
Average new vehicles in EU by 2009 at mixed operation
14
EU project TOSCA, 2009-2011.
 Energy-efficient living style

Energy use for passenger transport in major cities

(MJ per inhabitant and year)
100 000 MJ corresponds to 3100 litre petrol

Railway Gazette,
Metro Report, 2007

Share of daily trips by public transport, on foot and by bicycle (%)

 Energy efficiency of rail freight transport

Reference trains for comparision

Average new rail vehicles in EU by 2009 at mixed operation

Andersson E, Berg M, Nelldal B-L, Fröidh O: Rail Freight Transport: Techno-economic analysis of energy and greenhouse gas reductions, TOSCA Report, 2011.
 Energy efficiency of rail freight transport

kWh/tkm
0.12
0.106
0.101
0.1
0.08
tkm= tonne
0.06 0.055 kilometre

0.04 0.034

0.02
0
Ordinary Ordinary Intermodal High-value
electric diesel electric electric

Average new rail vehicles in EU by 2009 at mixed operation

Affecting factors:
Track topography, Stopping pattern, Driving style, Speed limit, Payload etc.

Andersson E, Berg M, Nelldal B-L, Fröidh O: Rail Freight Transport: Techno-economic analysis of energy and greenhouse gas reductions, TOSCA Report, 2011.
 Energy efficiency

Comparison of different freight transport modes

kWh/tkm
0.25 tkm= tonne
kilometre
0.200
0.2

0.15
0.101 0.100
0.1

0.05 0.034

0
Electric Diesel Diesel Diesel
train train truck ship

Average new vehicles in EU by 2009 at mixed operation

EU project TOSCA, 2009-2011.
 Energy-related emissions (CO2)
CO2 intensity of energy
• Diesel (fossil): 265 gCO2/kWh (energy of fuel)

• Electricity: ??? gCO2/kWh

Rail transport relies on electricity, but CO2 emissions vary a lot
from country to country.
CO2 intensity of electricity production (2019)

• EU-27: 275 gCO2e/kWh

• Sweden: 8 gCO2e/kWh
• Norway: 19 gCO2e/kWh
• Finland: 86 gCO2e/kWh
• Denmark: 126 gCO2e/kWh
• ...
 CO2 emissions

CO2 intensity in electricity production (1990-2019)

CO2e = CO2 equivalent
524 gCO2e/kWh

275 gCO2e/kWh

in EU 27

Source: https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/overview-of-the-electricity-production-3/assessment
 CO2 emissions

Comparison of passenger transport modes

pkm=
passenger
kilometre

Electricity production:
low = 100 gCO2/kWh
high= 600 gCO2/ kWh

Average new vehicles in EU by 2009 at mixed operation

EU project TOSCA, 2009-2011.
 CO2 emissions

Comparison of freight transport modes

gCO2/tkm
60 53 tkm= tonne
kilometre
50
40
27 Electricity production:
30 26
low = 100 gCO2/kWh
20 high= 600 gCO2/ kWh
20
10 3
0
Electric Electric Diesel Diesel Diesel
train train train truck ship
(low) (high)

Average new vehicles in EU by 2009 at mixed operation

EU project TOSCA, 2009-2011.
 Goal: Reducing CO2 in transport modes
Passenger transport
Passenger transport GHG emissions
Freight transport
Freight transport GHG emissions

2010 2050 Baseline 2050 with low GHG el.prod 2010 2050 Baseline 2050 with low GHG el.prod
160 120

140
100

120
g / passenger-kilometre

80

g / tonnes-kilometre
100

80 60

60
40

40

20
20

0 0
Car Rail Airplane Heavy truck Rail

Main source: TOSCA project, 2011. GHG = GreenHouse Gases

EC White Paper (2011)

• Reducing freight
transport on road
• Building new high-
speed railways
 Energy usage
Proposal for rail vehicle energy labelling
Example for passenger train
Train categories (EN 50591):
- metro
- suburban
- regional
- intercity
- high speed
p = passenger capacity
s = seat capacity

Operational conditions as in EN 50591

Energy split based on EN 50591

pkm=
Energy efficiency in Wh/pkm passenger
kilometre

EU research programme Shift2Rail: Project FINE-1, 2019, https://projects.shift2rail.org/s2r_ipcc_n.aspx?p=FINE%201 25

Chapter 9
Rail noise and vibrations
 Rail traffic noise and vibrations

Residential area

Noise and vibration are key obstacles

to further development of the
railway networks.

27
 Rail traffic noise and vibrations

Noise source

28
 Rail traffic noise and vibrations

Noise = undesired airborne sound in air

• External => Noise in the vicinity of trains (outdoor, indoor)

• Internal => Noise inside trains (passengers, staff)

(f = 20 – 20000 Hz)

Vibrations = motions in solid materials

• External => Vibrations in the vicinity of trains (ground, indoor)

• Internal => Vibrations inside trains (passengers, goods, staff)

f ≤ 20 Hz: vehicle dynamics, f > 20 Hz: structural vibrations

29
 Noise map (Stockholm)

30
Noise level (dB)
 Rail traffic noise and vibrations

Increased attention to rail traffic noise and vibrations

due to:

• Increased environmental awareness in general

• Increased rail traffic volumes on many lines

• Increased vehicle speeds

• Increased axle loads

• New railway lines

31
 Consequences of noise and vibrations

External noise may cause:

• Interrupted sleep
• Reduced working performance
• Communication problems (talking)

External vibrations may cause:

• Ground settlements
• Cracks in building foundations
• Low-frequency noise inside buildings

32
Rail traffic noise

... based on dB of sound pressure level, Lp

• A-weighted sound pressure level, LpA

• Maximum LpA at train passage (e.g. 7.5 m from track)

• Equivalent LpA (often over 24 hours)

A-weighting

Attenuation

33
 Rail traffic noise

Noise sources:
• Wheel rolling on rail
• Aeroacoustics
• Traction motors and gears Courtesy: Bombardier Transportation

• Pneumatics
• Hydraulics
• Mechanical braking
• Ventilation
• ...

Sensors

34
 Rail traffic noise
Dominating noise sources vs speed

Traction Rolling Aerodynamic 35

Example of noise levels, unweighted

Comparision of three trains - Noise

25 m from track

36
 Example of noise profile
Train passing

Diesel train with

locomotives at
the ends passing
at 200 km/h

37
Noise abatement

At source (often most efficient)

• Wheels with absorbents
• Suspended wheels
• Avoid wheel out-of-roundness (waviness)
• Avoid rail corrugation
• Damping rail pads

Along transmission path

• Noise ”hills”
• Noise screens

At receiver
• Tightened windows
• Three-glass windows
• Heavy walls
38
 Rail traffic noise

Noise abatement

Noise barrier 39
for low speed
 Rail traffic noise

Noise abatement

Noise barrier for

higher speed

40
 Rail traffic noise
Noise abatement

Rail dampers

Absorbers
2022-10-11 KTH School of Engineering Sciences www.kth.se 41
Rail traffic noise

Noise
abatement
(steel bridge)

42
Rail traffic noise: TSI regulation

43
Rail traffic ground vibrations

44
 Rail traffic ground vibrations

Vibration transmission (Tunnel to House)

45
 Rail traffic ground vibrations
Recommended limit values (Sweden)
• v < 1 mm/s for good living environment

• v < 0.4 mm/s, a < 14 mm/s2 (weighted rms)

Vibration abatement
• (Reduced train speed)

• Polymer layers in track substructure

• Piling under or at the track

Vibration isolation Ballast mat

46
Under-sleeper pad
Rail traffic vibration and noise abatement

Apartments
suspended
on springs

47
Questions?

Zhendong Liu
zhendong@kth.se

Rail Vehicles unit

Dep. of Engineering Mechanics
 Comparison of transport modes

Type of system High-speed German Japanese MLX Virgin Aeroplane

train Transrapid Hyperloop
Operational condition Beijing- Shanghai L0 series on XP-2 on Boeing 777-
Shanghai Maglev line Chuo DevLoop test 200ER
CRH400AF-B Shinkansen track
Top operational km/h 350 430 500 1 200* 890
speed
Max. speed in test km/h 486 (2010) 501 (2003) 603 (2016) 387 (2017, 950
without
passenger)
Capacity Seat 1283 446 1 000 (now 28* (now 2) 223
728)
Frequency Train/ h 12 12 10 30* 15
Hourly transport Seat/h
capacity
15 396 5 352 10 000 840* 3 345
Train length m 440 153 392 (now 296) 25* (now 5.5) 64
Weight ton/sea 0.74 0.7 0.42 (Now 1.25) 1.26
t
Energy supply Electricity Electricity Electricity Electricity Kerosene
Energy usage Wh/sea -
t/km 46 70 74 150
Technology In commercial In commercial Under Under In
maturity operation operation construction development commercial
operation
Construction cost million 200 (2011 in 260 (2001 in 1 400 (2014 in 680* 0 (in
SEK/k China) China) Japan) (estimation in between
m USA in 2016) airports)
* Theoretical estimation
 What would the future transport system look like ?

Highspeed train Maglev train Hyperloop Aeroplan

Share your thoughts and tell others the reasons.

Electric car & truck

Electric aircraft
 ‘Record-breaking’ test
One of the main factors limiting
the maximum operational speed
• High-speed pantograph
• Large cross-section: 150 mm2
• High tensile force: 40 kN TGV V150 reaching 574 km/h in 2007
• High voltage: increased from 25 kV to 31 kV
(to compensate contact loss)

Excessive wear, Large vertical

displacement, High off-line rate
and a lot of arcing

https://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=8skXT5NQzCg
 EMU for suburban traffic in Stockholm – X60

Top speed 160 km/h

Acceleration ca 1.2 m/s2 (at start)
Max rating at wheels ca 4250 kW
Total places Sitting: 374 ; standing: 550
Weight in service206 ton

52
 Double deck EMU for fast regional traffic– X40

Double-deck train for high capacity

Low height and stair

(+20~25% more seats)
Top speed 200 km/h

Acceleration (at start) ca 0.66 m/s2

Number of seats 254
Length o.b. 81.5 m
Weight in runing order 209 ton
53
Rail passenger transport

Example of regional electric train

Three-car Regina train 0.087 kWh/pkm

Length: 80 m As measured in the
Outer width: 3.45 m Stockholm region. pkm=
Seats: 272-293 Seat occupancy rate: passenger
kilometre
Tare weight: 165 tonnes 0.35 on average
Top speed: 180-200 km/h
Energy recovery at
electrical braking
 Wide body EMU for fast regional traffic– X50

Wide-body train for high capacity

Top speed 180 ~ 200 km/h

Acceleration ca 0.73 m/s2
Number of seats 272 ~ 293
Length o.b. 80 m
Weight in running order 165 ton
Narrow seats and unpopular middle seats
(ca. 20% more seats)
55
 Demands on Metro vehicles

• High passenger capacity – many standees

• Several wide doors with entrance - at
platform level Metro Stockholm– C30
• High start acceleration and power (to be delivered)

• Moderate speeds (70-100 km/h)

Adaption to local situation
- Tunnel cross section
- Platform length and height
- Etc.
Almost always “tailor-made”.

56
 Demands on Trams

Trams have to be able to run on streets.

• High start acceleration – up to 1.5 to 1.7 m/s2

• Very high brake capacity (like buses)

- up to 1.5 m/s2; emergency up to 2.5 m/s2

• Tight curves – down to 15 m radius

• Low entrance level from street - 35-40 cm.

Tram in Stockholm– from
• Equipment in the car– often on roof Spanish manufacturer CAF

Moderate speed (70-90 km/h).

Often adapted to local situation

57
 Coaches
Sleeping car–WL4
SJ A7

Non-driven driving trailer

AFM7

Washbasin

58