Network Theory

Fundamentals
One port network
Linear
Superposition is valid
Consider the one port or two
terminal elements
 Resistor / Conductor
V= R*I I is the independent variable and
V is the dependent variable. R,the
resistance is the parameter of the network
under consideration. In a linear network,
we can use I &V interchangeably.
I= G*V and then G is called the
conductance.
• R=( Resistivity )*L/dW
L=W Ohms per
= ρL / Wd
Square
• Designer has control
only over number of
squares used.
• IC resistor has poor tolerance, high
• Temperature coefficient and takes lot of
area. Further it dissipates power.
• Resistor is needed only for converting one
variable to the other
 Capacitor
• C=(permittivity) W*L/d
• IC capacitor has
=∈ WL / d
better tolerance than
resistor and low
temperature
coefficient
• As area taken is large
only less than pf are
permitted
∫
i= C ( dv/dt ) or v=(1/C) idt
 Inductor
• Technology does not
permit ease of
fabrication

L = µN A / l
• Inductor does the
same signal 2
processing job as the
capacitor (integration
and differentiation)
• Storing energy in
electrostatic form
(Charge, Q)
 All the above devices are area
hungry and are not ideally suited
for monolithic IC form
• The only passive one port device which is
part of the active device we use in ICs is
the diode.
• Ideal diode is a non-linear device.
 IDEAL DIODE
• Here, the variables i & v become
independent and dependent based on the
operating region.
• When the diode is “ON”
• Voltage, v is zero across it current, I can
be any thing. I therefore is the
independent variable and v is the
dependent variable.
Ideal Diode characteristic
 Ideal Diode When “OFF”
• Now the current is the
dependent variable
(i=0) and voltage can
be any thing
• Voltage therefore
becomes the
independent variable.
• Mathematically
• Forward bias means;
i ≥ 0, v = 0
v ≤ 0, i = 0
• Reverse bias means;
 Can we think of an active device
which is one port?
• What is the difference between an active
• device and a passive device?
• A passive device is a device that can not
give power gain where as an active device
is capable of power gain.
• A negative resistance is an active devices
• Example of one port active devices ;
• Tunnel diode and Diac.
 Independent Sources
Ideal Voltage Source
Terminal voltage is the independent variable
Current is dependent (on load) variable
Internal impedance is zero
Never Short Circuit it!
Ideal Current Source
Current through the load is the independent
variable
Voltage across the load is the dependent variable
Internal impedance is infinity
Never open circuit it!
 Tunnel Diode
N-type of negative resistance
 Diac characteristic
S-type of negative resistance
 How to simulate a negative
resistance of 1K?
• When across a voltage source,Vs a
resistance of 1K is connected a current of
• Magnitude (Vs/1K) flows out of it
• If the same magnitude current flows into it
then the source sees a negative
resistance of 1K.
• This can be achieved using a VCVS of
gain 2 as shown:
 Simulation problem 1
• (a) Simulate a negative resistance of 10K
• and drive it by a voltage source with a
• source resistance of 9K.Measure the
voltage gain.
• (b) Simulate the negative resistance using
• CCCS (current controlled current source in
place of VCVS.
-10K simulated using CCCS of -2
-10K simulation
Driving by a voltage source
Response of negative resistance
 Issue regarding Stability ?????
• Stability means predictability of behaviour
• What is meant by “S” type and “N” type of
• Negative resistance?
• Practical two terminal (one port) negative
resistance devices are capable of exhibiting
negative resistance only in a certain region of
operation. In the other regions they show
positive resistance value. Hence, they are
necessarily non-linear.The way change of slope
occurs can happen two ways(S &N)
 N & S types of -R
• V versus I
N-type of negative resistance
SC stable OC unstable
 S-type Negative resistance using
a macro-model for DISO Op-Amp

• Open Circuit Stable but Short Circuit

Unstable
N-type negative resistance
S-type negative resistance
Problem 2: Simulate N-type and
S-type using Op-Amp
Simulation result
Negative resistance S-type
using Op-Amp
S-type negative resistance
Op-Amp simulation
 **********************************************************

Stability can be studied only using

perturbation for the system
 Application of negative resistance
in sine wave oscillators
• Harmonic oscillator

∂ V0
2
+ kV = 0
∂t 2 0
 Harmonic oscillator ouput
when loss component is exactly
compensated by negative
resistance
Over compensation
Under compensation
When capacitor sees effective
positive resistance
RC (Stable)
Unstable -RC
 S-domain

• Admittance function of the port has

positive real axis root! On the RHP!
If such admittane function is excited by
current,the voltage generated will have a
pole on the RHP and therefore response
goes to infinity.
 Two Port Networks
• Two port network can be three terminal with one
terminal common to input and output ports. The
common terminal can be ground.
• Or four terminals with only ground as common
terminal
• We can have four variables two of which can be
independent and the other two become
dependent.
• If we further restrict our choice to one
independent variable at input port and one at
output, we have four types of representations
possible. They are z,y and h,g parameters.
 Y-parameters
y - parameters :
voltages are independent
variables & currents are dependent.
I i = yiVi + yrV0
I 0 = y f Vi + y0V0
These are called Short Circuit parameters
based on the method of measuring.
These are the most popular parameters
as shorting at high frequencies can easily be done
Passive network two-port
parameters

y f = yr , z f = z r
h f = −hr , g f = − g r
 An ideal amplifier
• Has separate input and output ports
• Input is connected to the source or transducer
and the output is connected to the load
• It is unilateral. Only forward transmission exists.
No reverse transmission (feedback)
• occurs.
• It is either Voltage Controlled or Current
controlled at the input.
• It is either a Voltage Source or Current Source
• at the output.
Ideal Trans-conductance Amplifier
• Voltage at the input is
transferred as current at
the output.
• Most important parameter
is trans-conductance, y f
• The ideal y-matrix 0 0
• Representation is:
yf 0
• Voltage Controlled
Current Source (VCCS)
yi = 0,VC
y0 = 0, CS & yr = 0, unilateral
 Ideal Trans-resistance Amplifier
dual of Trans-conductor
• Forward transfer
parameter is zf
• Ideal z-matrix is
0 0
zf 0
• It is a CCVS
zi = 0, CC
z0 = 0,VS & z r = 0, unilateral
Example of a resistive ladder
Interchange input and output ports
as also driving source and mode of
output
 h & g are hybrid parameters
• h-parameter has
independent variable
at Vi = hi I i + hrV0 ,
• Input as current and
at output as voltage
• Here forward transfer
I 0 = h f I i + h0V0
parameter is short
circuit current gain
and reverse transfer
parameter is the open
circuit voltage gain
 Ideal Current/Voltage Amplifier
• Current gain (SC) is the
most important
parameter. The ideal
0 0
CCCS can only be
represented by h-matrix:
• Voltage gain (OC) is the
hf 0
most important
• parameter. The ideal
VCVS is represented 0 0
• by g-matrix:
gf 0
 Ideal Operational Amplifier
• Any one of the four types
of ideal amplifiers can be
in general represented by
an immittance (
pi pr
immaterial what
parameter you take)
matrix :p-matrix. pf p0
• These ideal amplifiers
have zero input power pi = 0, VCorCC
• and finite output power.
• Infinite power gain
p0 = 0, CSorVS
pr = 0, unilateral
Ideal Immittance matrix for Op-Amp
Ideal Amplifiers have
either input voltage
(CC) is zero or input
0 0
∞ 0
current (VC) is zero.
Now when forward
transfer parameter
tends to infinity, the
other variable at the
input tends to zero for
finite output!!!
 Nullator
• Input port of Op-Amp becomes a Null i.e.
• Both voltage and current are dependent variables and
take on zero value.
• This is made possible by the existence of another
element at the output port a source which can deliver
any current and sustains any voltage across it!!!
• This element is termed “Norator”
• Nullators and Norators must occur always in pairs.
• A DIDO (differential input differential output) Op.Amp.
• is represented by an equivalent circuit in terms of a pair
of nullator and norator.
Nullators and Norators forming a
Nullor an two port active element
 Synthesis using Nullors
• Short Circuit (CC)= nullator keeping
voltage as zero shunted by norator to
accept any current driven in.
• Open Circuit (VC)=nullator in series with
norator to keep any voltage across without
drawing current.
MOS FET,JFET & BJT equivalent
circuits in terms of Nullors
BJT in terms of Nullor
CCCS with unity gain
Diode connected MOS FET
VCVS with unity gain
 Role of Symmetry in IC Design
• Devices with matched geometries can
• easily be designed in monolithic ICs.
• This has to be exploited in topology
selection.
• Noise and bias currents and voltages
must be made to appear symmetrical to
the network and signal to be applied and
taken out must appear differential.
 Problem 3
• For the symmetric network shown
determine the differential output{v(1,4)}
due to w component (for a differential input
of 2V) and common mode output due to 2w
component at the common point
• node 5.
Symmetric network with noise and
signal as inputs
Improved signal to noise ratio
at the output
Negative Resistance synthesis
MOS based NIC
Biasing the NIC
 Problem 4
• Design and bias S-type of MOS NIC
• Design and simulate an ( LC) oscillator
using N-type NIC
Trans-conductor
Trans-resistor
 BASIC AMPLFIERS
• Out of the four types of amplifiers
discussed which are basic amplifiers?
• VCCS & CCVS are more basic than the
• other two. Why?
Voltage Amplifier
Current Amplifiers
An alternate VCVS
CCCS realization
NIC/NII using DISO Op-Amp
 NII/NIC

Za

Za zb
Z a Zl
Zl
Zi = −
Zb
PII/PIC synthesis
Gyrator
 Probem 5
• Design an oscillator using simulated
inductor