Module 6: Feelings and Values

• Feelings are very easy to describe. However, defining the concept of feelings in the context of moral philosophy has
proved to be an elusive and difficult task.
• Immanuel Kant is one of the first philosophers who explored the nature of feelings and attempted to explain the
relationship between feelings and morality.

IMMANUEL KANT'S VIEW OF FEELINGS

Kant defines moral feelings as "the susceptibility to feel pleasure or displeasure merely from being aware that
actions are consistent or contrary to the law of duty" (Borges, 2013)
FEELINGS AS INSTINCTIVE RESPONSE TO MORAL DILEMMAS
Ethics is also a matter of emotion;
moral judgments at their best should be emotional;
feelings are deemed as instinctive and trained response to moral dilemma.
FEELINGS AS OBSTACLES TO MAKING THE RIGH DECISION
feelings/emotions can become obstacles or impediments to becoming ethical.
2 theories: ethical subjectivism and emotivism
ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM
It holds that the truth or falsity of ethical propositions is dependent on the feelings, attitude, or standards of a
person or group of persons.
• Moral judgments simply describe our personal feelings
• Moral truths are ordinary fact about the world; It is based solely in FEELINGS
EMOTIVISM
It is an improved version of subjectivism;
• To say that an act is right, or a person is good, is merely to emote, just to express emotions
• It based on Logical Positivism that states that all truth claims must be empirically verifiable.
FEELINGS CAN HELP IN MAKING DECISIONS
There are situations in which our feelings and likings are relevant to the rightness of our decisions and actions.
Emotions like our love for our family and friends play crucial part in giving meaning to life. Feelings should not be
removed in the sphere of morality
MEANING AND THEORY OF VALUES
Values determine behaviors. They influence decision-making. Common sources of values are one's personal
experiences and relationships with others. Major influence in values formation is one's family, peers, education,
and the media.
MAX SCHELER
• An important theory of values has been developed by philosopher Max Scheler, values are the intentional
objects of feelings, qualities given originally in the "feeling of something".
• He constantly stresses the objectivity immunoturbidity, and eternal characteristics of values that are
"aprioristic" in character.
Axiology is the study of values. Generally, values are things considered important in life. Values are beliefs that influences
people's behavior and decision-making.
• Values can refer to objects, people, places, and behaviors.
• Values are a culture's standard for discerning what is good and bad, right and wrong, beautiful and ugly,
desirable and undesirable, and what ought to perform and not to perform.
FILIPINO VALUES
Filipinos strive to obtain fulfillment not only individually but also collectively, particularly for their families.
An important theorization on Filipino Values is developed by Thomas Quintin Donato Andre's (1980).
THOMAS ANDRES' HIERARCHY OF FILIPINO VALUES
1. Closeness to the Family
The basic and most important unit in Philippine society is the family. Filipinos emphasize the importance
if close family ties which remain even throughout adulthood.
2. Debt of Gratitude
This value called utang-na-loob in Filipino reflects the value of reciprocity among Filipinos. It refers to the
value in which one remembers the favor other people has given to him/her.
3. Social Acceptance
Among Filipinos, social approval, social acceptance, and the sense of belongingness are essential to
enable them to function in society.
4. Social Mobility
Filipinos work hard for the comfort of their families. Some Filipinos
provide for their loved ones.
5. Self-esteem
This is the value of the highest level among Filipinos. It refers to the high regard for amor proprio (self-
esteem) or the strong desire to be respected.
 Module 7: HIERARCHY OF VALUES

MAX FERDINAND SCHELER

Max Ferdinand Scheler was a prominent German philosopher known for his work in phenomenology,
philosophical anthropology, and ethics (Frings, 2018). He was greatly interested in the philosophy of American
pragmatism. He was born on August 22, 1874 in Munich, Germany. He studied philosophy at the University of
Jena (1846- 1926) and received a doctoral degree in 1897. He taught at Jena from 1900 to 1906. From 1907 to
1910, he taught at the University of Munich.
FEELING STATES AND VALUES-MODALITIES
He contends that reason. consciousness, and ego are characteristics of a human being and the pure form of
these characteristics cannot be found outside of humans. Knowing a human being as an essentially loving
creature, Scheler states the existence of a human being is due to his or her heart and not his or her ego, will, of
reason. He considers love as the center of all emotions and goes on to agree that love and feelings have their
own type of logic that is different from the logic of reason
SCHELER’S HIERARCHY OF VALUES
1. Sensory Value-Modality
- These values range from agreeable to disagreeable. People who conform to these values primarily consider
whether something leads to pleasure or pain
2. Vital Value-Modality
- This value-modality pertains to the recognition of health and sickness, strength and weakness, and excellence
and flaw. Emotional reactions are also included in this category such as "being happy about something" or "being
annoyed at something.
3. Spiritual Value-Modality
- The feeling-states relative to this value-modality are connected to spiritual feelings, more specifically, love and
hatred, beauty and ugliness, joy and sorrow, delight and disgust, and reverence and contempt. They may also
include feelings of pleasure and displeasure, approval and disapproval, and respect and disrespect.
THE THREE MAIN TYPES OF SPIRITUAL VALUES ARE:
a. values of "beauty" and "ugliness," including the whole span of purely aesthetic values;
b. values of "right" and "wrong," and
c. values of the "pure cognition of truth."
4. Value of holiness modality
- This level includes the highest type of values that appear only on objects given intentionally as "absolute
objects." By absolute objects, Scheler means every object in the "absolute sphere." Thus, the values connected
to these values are those things from sacraments, cults, and other forms of worship. In this modality, the feelings
range from "blissfulness" to "despair," which are not dependent on "happiness" or "unhappiness."
THREE SPECIFIC ELEMENTS OF DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY
1. The object or The Act it Self
2. The motive or ends of the act
3. Circumstances of the act
PRINCIPLES FOURFOLD WAY
1. Circumstance may either increase or decrease the wrongfulness of an evil act.
2. Circumstances also may either increase or decrease the merits of good act.
3. Circumstances may alter the nature of the act.
4. Circumstances do not prove the guilt of the person.
 MORAL STANDARDS AS SOCIAL CONVENTION AND THE SOCIAL CONDITIONING
Theories Explained. The things we regard as moral laws (moral standards or rules) some purports are nothing but just
social conventions. By convention, they mean those things agreed upon by people like through the authorities.
Convention also refers to the usual or customary ways through which things are done within a group.

The philosopher C.S. Lewis offers two reasons for saying that morality belongs to the same class as mathematics:
1. Although there are differences between the moral ideas of one time or another country and those of another,
the differences are not really very great.
2. We affirm that the morality of one person is better or worse than that of another which means that there is a
moral standard or rule by which we measure both moralities and that standard is real.
Cultural Relativism vs. Moral Relativism
• Cultural Relativism is the most famous and dominant form of moral relativism.
• Moral Relativism fundamentally believes that no act is good or bad objectively.
Cultural Relativism defines ‘moral’ as what is ‘socially approved’ by the majority in a particular culture.
Cultural relativists claim the following:
1. Different societies have different moral codes.
2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong within that society.
3. There are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times.
4. The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is but one among many.
5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We should always be tolerant of them
Cultural relativism: an analysis
1. Valuable lessons from ethical relativism
− In proposing that there’s no independent standard in ethics, moral relativism does encourage tolerance. Without
a doubt, tolerance is necessary for people of different cultural origins to co-exist and live peacefully in a society.
2. The theory’s ethical faults
− Cultural relativism discourages analytical thinking and independent decision-making in ethics.
− Cultural Relativism is inconsistent in promoting tolerance.
− The theory is practicable only if people don’t belong to more than one institution.
− Moral relativism is fundamentality self-defeating.
3. Rachel's evaluation of cultural relativism
− The Cultural Differences Argument
a. Different societies have different moral codes. (PREMISE)
b. therefore, we are no universal or moral truths that hold for all people at all times. (CONCLUSION)
− STRENGTHS: this means that only the customs of different societies
* The Disagreements among Cultures
1. The Bad Consequences of Cultural relativism (by Rachels)
2. We could no longer say that the customs of other societies are morally inferior to our own
3. We could decide whether actions are right or wrong just by consulting the standards of our society.
4. The idea of moral progress is called to doubt.
Asian and Filipino understanding of moral behavior the difference between western and eastern ethics.
Filipino Moral Character: Strength and Weakness SIR (smooth interpersonal relationship)
SIX BASIC FILIPINO VALUES
1. Pakikisama is having and maintaining good public relations.
2. Hiya - inhibition of shyness which is experienced as somewhat distressing.
3. Amor propio has been characterized as the high degree of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to criticism
and causes him to have an easily wounded pride.
4. Utang na loob is likewise a fundamental aspect of upholding group harmony and relationships that demand the
balancing of obligations and depts.
5. Filipino hospitality refers to the innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be courteous and entertaining to their
guest.
6. Respect for Elders. Filipinos are not only respectful to elders but also have unique ways of expressing this
respect.
Universal Values
− Universal values are a set of core principles or beliefs that are shared by people across different cultures,
societies, and historical periods.
− These values often serve as the foundation for moral and ethical judgments, helping individuals differentiate
between right and wrong, good and bad.
A. DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS A HABIT
1. Moral Character and Virtues
− The term “character” is derived from the Greek word “charakter”, which was initially used as a mark
impressed upon a coin. It means a distinct mark or quality by which one thing was distinguished from others.
Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, the Greek philosopher Aristotle tells us that there are two distinct of
human excellences:
1. Excellences of Thought
2. Excellences of Character
Excellences of character are often translated as ‘moral virtue(s)’ or ‘moral excellence(s)’. ‘Ethikos’ (ethical) is the
adjective cognate with ‘ethos’ (character). So when we speak of ‘virtue’ or excellence of moral character, the
highlight is on the blend of qualities that make a person the sort of ethically admirable individual that he/she is.
excellence of character is a disposition to act effortlessly and. willingly as reason dictates
MORAL CHARACTER
− refers to the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty. If or lacks
virtue, he/she may have any moral vices, or he/she may be marked by a condition somewhere in between
virtue and vice. Moral character means that you're a good person and a good citizen with a sound moral
compass. Moreover, philosophers usually think that moral character traits, unlike other personality or
psychological traits, have an irreducibly evaluative dimension; that is, they involve a normative judgment.
THE CIRCULAR RELATIONS OF ACTS AND CHARACTER
− There are some ACTS THAT BUILD character and moral character itself. But not all acts help to build moral
character. A person’s actions determine his/her moral character, but the moral character itself generates acts
that help in developing either virtue or vice. Habitual practice of moral and intellectual excellences, or
‘virtues.’
− For Aristotle, the function of a human being consists of activities that manifest the best states of his rational
aspects, that is, the virtues. To determine regularity and reliability, what individual acts are appropriate and
reasonable in certain situations.
MORAL CHARACTERS AS DISPOSITIONS
− The moral characters that constitute a person’s moral character are characteristically understood as behavioral
and affective dispositions. Generally speaking, dispositions are particular kinds or characteristics that objects can
possess. Among human beings, moral character traits-either virtue or vices are also considered dispositions.
Moral character traits are those dispositions of character for which it is suitable top hold agents morally
responsible. A moral character which a person is deserving of a positive reactive attitude such as praise or
gratitude is a virtue.
SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
− The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg is best known for his theory of stages of moral development.
Level 1 – Pre-Conventional Morality
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange
Level 2 – Conventional Morality
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order
Level 3 – Post- Conventional Morality
Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
Stage 6. Universal Principles
SYNTHESIS/GENERALIZATION
1. Culture includes all the things individuals learn while growing up among a particular group: attitudes, standards of
morality, rules of etiquette, perceptions of reality, language, notions about the proper way to live, beliefs about how
females and males should interact, ideas about how the world works, and so forth, it is without a doubt that culture
has a role in the development of man’s moral behavior.
2. Moral law is not a social convention; it is not something that human beings have just made up for themselves and
might have been different had they liked it. Whether or not people know and like them, they are as they are.
3. Cultural relativism has both positive lessons and negative consequences. Let us make ourselves the judge of its
worth.
4. Eastern, Western, and Filipino cultures provide different perspectives about ethics and morality. Nevertheless all of
them contribute in making man become better equipped to face moral issues and problems.
5. Universal values are present in society. They help create peaceful and harmonious communities and societies.
6. The moral character that man projects are dependent on his acts. Good moral character elicits virtuous actions; bad
moral character elicits vicious actions. Virtuous actions make a good character and vicious actions make a bad
character
7. Kohlberg believes that man’s moral development has to
undergo stages.
 Module 8: MORAL CHARACTER AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
CHARACTER
− The word “character” is derived from the greek word ‘kharakter’ meaning a stamping tool used to make coins.
Later, the word came to refer to the collection of qualities that distinguish one individual from another
− Character comprises a wide range of attributes including the existence or lack of virtues such as courage,
fortitude, honesty, and loyalty.
MORAL VIRTUE (EXCELLENCE OF CHARACTER)
− When speaking of a moral virtue or an excellence of character, the emphasis is not an mere uniqueness or
individuality, but on the combination of qualities that make an individual the sort of ethically admirable person
that he or she is.
DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL CHARACTER
− In childhood and adolescence, it is crucial to learn how to distinguish between right and wrong or good and bad
to develop moral character. To be a moral person is to think morally and act accordingly. Children begin to
imitate the ideals, values, and standards they learned from their family and community.
− Understanding moral development in children involves three aspects:
• Emotions
− Are the feelings and values that shape or develop the moral standards of an individual.
• Knowledge
− Refers to the process of learning the moral code of one’s community and making judgements about
whether something is good or bad.
• Actions
− How one decides on the appropriate actions to take in controlling negative impulses, responding,
obeying, or behaving in a caring helpful manner, depending on the situation.
THEORIES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Social Learning Theory
− Children develop moral behaviors through observation and imitation of other people’s behavior
through the process of modeling.
2. Cognitive Development Theory
− The focus of this theory is on how people acquire and organize knowledge such as moral codes.
− 1st stage of moral development is heteronomous morality, children follow strict rules and are
completely obedient to authority figures.
− 2nd stage of moral development is autonomous morality, children learn how to critically evaluate
rules and apply them based on mutual respect & cooperation.
3. Psychoanalytic Theory
− Proposes that much of the person’s moral behavior is governed by unconscious ideas and impulses
that are rooted in childhood conflicts. Child’s consciences as the superego.
− Superego develops during the phallic stage (between the ages of 3 to 6)
4. Evolutionary Theory
− Focuses on the neurobiological bases or moral development that all humans share. The theory
suggests that certain areas of the brain such as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex plays a role in the
inhibition of emotional responses, and in the process of decision-making and self-control.
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT BY LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
− Moral Development is the gradual development of an individual’s concept of right and wrong—
conscience, values, social attitudes, and other moral behaviors.
− He clustered these six stages into three basic levels:
1. Preconventional morality
− Before age 9, in this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute
2. Conventional morality
− By early adolescence (10-15 yrs. old) In this stage, one becomes conscious that he or she
is living in a society w/ many people who have interests that may be similar or different
from one’s own.
3. Postconventional morality
− People begin to account for the different values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.
They see that rules of law are important in maintaining a society, but members of the
society should agree upon these standards.
 Module 9: Understanding human acts
Human Acts are actions performed by a person who has full knowledge through free will.
Human Acts are grounded in the very nature of a person - that he or she is intelligent and free.
The substantial elements of human acts are knowledge, freedom, and voluntariness.
ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACTS
1. Knowledge - when the doer is conscious of his/her actions, his/her senses are active and he/she is aware of
the reason and the consequences of his/her actions.
2. Freedom - when the doer acts through his/her own initiative and choice without being forced by another
person or situation, then the act is done on the basis of freedom.
3. Voluntariness - the act is done willfully when the doer consents to the act, accepting it as her/his own, and
assumes accountability for its consequences.
• In moral philosophy, human acts are acts that is freely chosen in consequence of a judgment of conscience
and which can be morally evaluated.
• The morality of a human acts resides in the object chosen, the intention, and the circumstances surrounding
the act.
• Catechism of the Catholic Church (1994) - explains that the object chosen is a good toward which the will
deliberately directs itself.
• Intention - is an element essential to the moral evaluation of an action. The end is the first goal of the
intention and indicates the purpose to pursued in the action.
• first goal of the intention and indicates the purpose to pursued in the action.
• St. Thomas - the moral content of every human act resides in the intention of the person. If the intention
includes harmful consequences to the victims of his/her act, those consequences contribute to the extent of
of his/her guilt.
• Circumstances - including the consequences, are secondary elements of a moral act. They contribute to
increasing or diminishing the moral goodness or evilness of human acts. Circumstances themselves cannot
change the moral quality of acts ; they can make neither good nor right an action that is evil in itself.
• St. Thomas holds that for a human act to be good, it must conform with the sovereign good and the will of
God. He further says that there are acts that are intrinsically evil.
Acts of Man - are acts which by their very nature, are not reliant on the proper use of reason.
Acts of Man - actions and behavior that humans share with each other are involuntary and physiological in nature. These
are acts common to mankind.
Acts of Man - as opposed to human acts, are actions done instinctively without reflection and free will.
Instinctive acts - are those that are dictated by nature.
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN ACTS
Human acts are classified into two: acts of will and acts of reason
Acts of will refer to actions that humans perform freely or with their free will.
Acts of reason are actions conceived by reason as morally good or morally bad.
Babor (2005) described two kinds of acts of will:
1.Elicited acts
2.Commanded acts
Elicited acts-are acts initiated, performed, and completed by the will alone Elicited acts includes:
• Wish- refers to the primordial desire, want, or inclination of the will to do something conceived by the will as
good
• Intention- refers to the purposive tendency of the will toward a thing regarded as realizable, whether the thing is
done or not
• Counsel- refers to the series of thoughts and judgements concerning the most suitable means toward the
attainment of the desired good or end
• Consent- refers to a definite decision as to what means should be used
• Choice- refers to the active commitment of the person to follow what means the intellect has opted as the right
pick
• Command- refers to the active interplay between the intellect and the will where the intellect commands the
will toward a goal.
• Fruition- refers to the actual attainment of the desired good.
• Commanded acts- are acts of will that are carried out by the mind and body as ordered by the will.
• Commanded acts includes:
• internal acts- refer to actions which a person does by way of his or her internal mental functions under the
command of the will
• external acts- refer to acts affected by the bodily functions of an individual under the command of the will.
• mixed acts- refer to actions which make use of both bodily and mental functions.
ACTS OF REASON ARE CATEGORIZED:
• morally right or wrong
• judged as morally good or bad
For St. Thomas,
• -moral is what reason dictates one ought to do (O'Donnell, 1996), morality is founded on his notion of the
natural law by which people discern what is good and evil.
• -good act is an act that is directed toward a true good as dictated by reason, in order for a human act to be good,
it has to involve reason and employ a means which reason determines to be appropriate and thus, also good.
• -there can be nothing that is pure evil.
Murder is an example of an evil act, the immorality of this act is determined by
• examining the act and in relation to the person who did it.
Norms of Human Acts
Norms- are the accepted standards of behavior of social groups. They are unwritten rules about how people should
behave.
-The idea of norms provides a key to understanding social influence in general and conformity in particular (McLeod,
2008).
Moral norms are the rules of morality that people ought to follow.
In ethics, there are two kinds of norms:
Conscience-is the 'inner voice' that tells a person to do what is good and to avoid evil.
• - also judges particular choices, approving what is good and denouncing what is evil
• - a judgement of reason where the human person recognizes the moral quality of a concrete act that he or she is
going to perform, is in the process of performing, or has already performed
Law- is a rule of conduct enacted by competent figures of authority for the sake of the common good
-St. Thomas defines it as an ordinance of reason, promulgated for the common good by the one who has charge of
society.
LAWS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO:
1. Divine laws- are laws at work within religions
- formations that are believed to come directly from a higher being
2. Human laws- are laws made by humans
- usually considered in opposition to natural laws
3. Temporal laws- All human laws are temporal laws.

4. Eternal laws - are the law of a higher being that directs all the actions and events of the universe

5. Natural laws - are based on the use of reason and are held to be natural or common to all humans

6.Positive laws- are man-made laws consisting of codes, regulations, and decrees that oblige or specify people to
obey.

7. Affirmative laws- are also called permissive or suppletory laws

8. Negative laws- also called prohibitory laws -are laws humans are obliged to comply with at every moment

9. Moral laws- are based on the laws of God, the State, and the Church

10.Penal laws-are usually laws enacted by the State prescribing a penalty (fine or imprisonments) for anyone
who violates it.

THE MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS

Just like in any judicial system, general laws will always have exceptions. There are circumstances where human
acts may be modified and be deemed as acts of man. This is when the actions are done under the circumstances where
ignorance, passion, fear, violence, and habit is present.
FACTORS THAT DIMINISH ONE’S RESPONSIBILITY AND IMPAIR THE ELEMENT OF VOLUNTARINESS OF HUMAN ACT
1. Ignorance – It pertains to lack, want, or absence of knowledge in a person capable such.
Four Kinds of Ignorance
a. Ignorance of the Law – pertains to the lack of knowledge that a particular law, mores, or
principle exists. As the saying goes, the ignorance of the law does not excuse anyone from
compliance therewith.
b. Ignorance of the fact – pertains to one’s lack of realization that a law, mores, or principle is
being violated.
c. Vincible ignorance – pertains to the lack of knowledge that a rational person is capable of
acquiring by making an effort but he or she did not do it or at least has not yet done it.
d. Invincible ignorance – want or lack of knowledge that a person has no way to obtain.4
 2. Passion or Concupiscence – is defined as a compelling desire for something. It can also refer to a person’s sexual
desire or lust. Another term for concupiscence is passion.

Positive emotions - like love, desire, hope, and bravery

Negative emotions - such as hatred, horror, sadness, and anger

Passion Generally has two types:

Antecedent Passion – those that precede an act

Consequent Passion – those that are intentionally kept

3. Fear - defined as a feeling induced by perceived danger or threat.

• is that it is an instinct which engenders to self-preservation
4. Violence – is a physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the purpose of compelling the said
person to act against his or her will.
Perfect violence is categorized into two:
Physical Perfect Violence – if a person uses all possible forms of resistance, he or she is
subjected to physical perfect violence.
Moral Perfect Violence – if someone is in a situation that all forms of resistance should be used
but are not employed for a good reason, he or she is subjected to moral perfect violence.
5. Habits – inclination to perform specific acts required by repetition, and characterized by decreased power of
resistance and increased facility of performance. It is also called second nature, at times embedded in an
individual.

Module 10: Fundamental Option and Fundamental Stance

FUNDAMENTAL
- means necessary, foundational, or basic. A factor that is fundamental to human life can be described as
something that is necessary for one to live and properly function in society.
FUNDAMENTAL OPTION
- is described as a basic commitment, an extraordinary choice that will eventually be a part of ones all other
choices.
- emphasizes one’s basic or fundamental disposition or orientation for a higher being or against a higher being
which is necessary for one’s salvation.
- it is a decision or obedience of faith, or disobedience which is a life away from God.
- It is a covenant, a voluntary and full self-commitment, a kind of self-offering to a higher being.
- is not final
- It is an ongoing process that is affirmed, strengthened, weakened, or contradicted by one’s daily or future
decisions and actions.
- is a question of whether one has chosen to be predominantly good or bad, a fundamental choice to develop
good or bad tendencies and characteristics.
- some theologians believe that the concept of fundamental option is deeper, more mysterious than a basic
commitment.
- one’s relationship with his or her spirituality is deeply than a single choice or ordinary act.
FUNDAMENTAL OPTION AND SPECIFIC CHOICES
- The notion of fundamental option stresses the fact that the very source of human acts comes from the
innermost part or core of one’s being. One should not focus too much on the acts alone, or a single act, or just
on the legality of the act. The main source of these acts lies at the deeper level of the person, the fundamental
option of one’s heart in connection with morality.
FUNDAMENTAL OPTION THEORY
- asserts that it is only one’s fundamental choice to be good or otherwise which is decisive to remain in the state
of morality. Other individual acts do not matter; they cannot lead one away from morality if his or her
fundamental choice to be good remains constant.
- Most theologians oppose that particular, concrete actions and behaviors can be considered lightly in favor of a
fundamental option. That will lead to complacency and contentment; that no particular actions are serious
enough to destroy one’s first fundamental decisions.
- This is contrary to the Catholic doctrine of the distinction between mortal and venial sins.
Mortal Sins
- are serious sinful actions; the consequences of such acts are grave enough to separate one’s from the
higher being he or she believes in.
- According to John Paul II, “For mortal sin exist when a person knowingly and willingly, for whatever
reason, chooses something gravely disordered...... The person turns away from God loses charity”
ASPECT OF FUNDAMENTAL OPTION
1. It is conscious and non-reflexive. One is fully conscious and aware of his or her fundamental option.
2. It involves one's basic or transcendental freedom.
3. One's fundamental option is not temporary. An individual comes to terms with his or her fundamental option
throughout his life.
4. It is predominant but not irreversible.
5. Although choosing the fundamental option is a lifetime process, it is difficult to change.
6. Only a moral adult can choose the fundamental option because he or she is expected to be capable of making
moral choices.
7. It has a religious aspect. Choosing a fundamental option is rooted in one's spiritual identity.
FUNDAMENTAL STANCE
- also, an important aspect of the fundamental option.
- covers the more specific situations that show one’s preferences, priorities, and values.
- It is a state that refers to one's disposition, total direction, or orientation in life, made up of all of one's concrete
thoughts, decisions, and actions in line with his or her fundamental choice.
- it is an expression of what kind of person one wants to be.
- involves the strength of character, will, and on one side.
- it is always a consonance with one’s spiritually.
- it is one's stubbornness or firmness in his or her decision to live in violence and hatred.
ASPECT OF FUNDAMENTAL STANCE
1. It is a state, not a process. It is the condition of being strongly oriented Toward good or evil. It remains in a
person for a long time and it is not Easily attained or abandoned.
2. One's fundamental stance is caused only by his or her fundamental Option.
3. It is more valuable than one's fundamental option. The fundamental Option is just the means to establish
one's fundamental stance. Specific Actions and choices of an individual are the expressions of one's
Fundamental stance.

MODULE 11: MORAL COURAGE

MORAL COURAGE
Courage is derived from the Latin word “cor” meaning heart. Here, it is implied that the heart is the seat of one’s
feelings. Courage is defined as the ability to do something that one is fearful of. This suggests the idea that
courage is “to speak one’s mind by telling all one’s heart.” Speaking from one’s heart is ordinary courage.
COURAGE AS VIRTUE
Both Plato and Aristotle wrote about courage as a virtue. Plato’s Laches is a dialogue about the nature of courage
(literally translated. “manliness”). Aristotle defined virtue as a purposive disposition, lying in a mean and being
determined by the right reason. Virtue requires the right desire and reason.
THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES AS STRONG FOUNDATION FOR MORAL COURAGE
Any person of good will can easily apply moral courage to different situations in his or her life. Moral courage
comes alongside the willingness to apply it. The three theological virtues serve as examples of how virtues shape
an individual’s moral courage. In the context of the teachings of the Catholic Church, they help man discern what
is moral and immoral. Man’s attitudes, motives, emotions, and thoughts must be inspired by theological virtues.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church lists the following as theological virtues.
1. Faith – Faith is the theological virtue by which an individual believes in the divine and in all that a higher being
has said and revealed to humankind. Faith is a total bond with the divine.
2. Hope - In the teachings of the Catholic Church, hope is a theological virtue by which an individual desires the
kingdom of heaven and eternal life as his or her source of happiness, and maintains trust and reliance on God’s
promises and help.
3. Charity – According to the Catholic Church, the greatest law is the law of love or charity. This virtue is
understood by St. Thomas as “the friendship of man of God” that helps in fostering one’s relationship with God
and his or her neighbors.
THE TEN COMMANDMENTS: AN EXCELLENT GUIDE TO DEVELOP MORAL COURAGE
The Ten Commandments can also serve as an excellent guide in the understanding of moral courage. These
commandments indicate what virtues and values one must have in order to have moral courage. Although these
commandments are contextualized in the teachings of the Catholic Church, they are also important in the
understanding of moral courage.
1. I am the Lord thy God, you shall not have any 8.You shall not hear false witness against your
other gods before me. neighbor.
2. You shall not use the name of the Lord thy 9.You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife.
God in vain. 10.You shall not covet your neighbor’s goods.
3. Remember to keep holy the Sabbath Day.
4. Honor your father and your mother.
5. You shall not kill.
6.You shall not commit adultery.
7.You shall not steal.
 The three theological virtues and the Ten Commandments are what guide Christians in establishing their moral
courage. People of other religions also have similar principles that guide them to be morally courageous.
LACK OF COURAGE AND COURAGE THAT IS IMMORAL
The definition of courage provided in this module implies that persons with courage know how to confront
things in the face of adverse consequences. Thus, a coward person who shrinks from fear, pain, humiliation,
danger, difficulties, and sufferings lacks courage. A rash person who retreats or withdraws at the moment of
action also lacks courage.

Module 12: REASON AND IMPARTIALITY

- The great King Solomon of Israel once said that "man has dominated man to his injury". Racial hatre, national
conflicts, and family feuds are dominant in the society. Conscious effort is needed to control one's attitudes and
get rid of any bias and prejudice.
- A person may not be aware that he or she carries prejudicial dispositions that were formed by his or her social
and educational environment and rooted in his or her own family, racial, and cultural backgrounds.
- Although one may be aware of having partial views, he or she will be held responsible for his or her partiality.
Impartiality defined as the principle of fairness or objectivity. One is impartial if he or she is free from any biased
or favoritsm. Impartially requires that one is not swayed by any circumstance or factor to favor an individual. It
assures that everyone is treated fairly, according to what each person deserves and needs.
THE COMPLEXITY OF IMPARTIALITY
- Defining impartiality is a complex task for it can be viewed from different perspectives. Impartiality has always
been associated with appositive, unitary ideas and usually linked with morality.
- However, despite this there are instances where actions may be defined as impartial but may have nothing to do
with morality. Take for instance the case of a serial killer who chooses his victim on the basis of their
resemblance to his or her past relationships. The killer may be impartial with regards to the victims age,
occupation, and other details, but it is absurd to take this as a form of moral impartiality.
VIEWS ON IMPARTIALITY
- Bernand Gert (1998) defined impartiality as a decision made by an agent directed towards a particular group. He
emphasizes the importance of identifying who is impartial and distinguishing between different types of
impartiality. For example, a human resource manager who is a mother of three children can be considered
impartial in her love and care for her children and in choosing the best candidates for a job posting. Impartiality
in this context refers to different practices, with merit applying to one case but not to another.
CONSEQUENTIALISM
- emphasizes the importance of moral evaluations based on the value of consequences of actions. It asserts that
individuals must evaluate themselves if their actions promote good, and impartiality is achieved by excluding
actions that might harm others. This means not prioritizing one's loved ones over others, and accepting actions
that may bring pleasure but may harm others.
DEONTOLOGY
- advocates for impartiality in moral judgements, requiring them to be universalizable and independent of any
particular point of view. It suggests that one must be morally consistent in their judgments, applying the same
standards to actions as those of others, regardless of the individual's identity. This principle emphasizes the
importance of impartiality in decision-making.
Seven Steps Guide to Ethical Decision-Making
- Michael Davies argues that in order to arrive at an impartial decision must follow the seven� step guide to
ethical decision-making. Davis emphasizes the importance of identifying multiple responses to ethical
challenges.
THE SEVEN-STEP GUIDE TO ETHICAL DECISION- MAKING ACCORDING TO DAVIS (1999) APPEARS AS FOLLOWS:
1. State your problem
o Ask yourself if there is something about this decision that makes you uncomfortable.
2. Check the facts
o Examine the situation carefully.
3. Identify relevant factors
o Identify the people involved, policies, and other practical constraints.
4. Developed a list of options
o Explore all options. Be imaginative.
5. Test options:
Use such tests as the following:
- Harm test: Does this option do less harm compared to the others?
- Defensibility test: Could you defend your choice?
- Reversibility test: Would you still choose this option if you were adversely affected by it?
6. Make a tentative choice based on steps 1 -5.
7. Make final choice (after reviewing steps 1- 6)