Grade 10 Year Note - 2023

A straight to the point note
compiled in compliance with CAPS

documents and the Life Sciences
Examination guidelines.
ISRAEL ADEYANJU
LIFE SCIENCES
YEAR NOTE
GRADE 10
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. Important information 2023 3
2. Orientation to Life Sciences 4
3. The Chemistry of Life 10
4. Cells: The Basic Units of Life 22
5. Cell Division: Mitosis 33
6. Plant Tissues 39
7. Plant Organs 41
8. Support and Transport Systems in Plants 43
9. Animal Tissues 51
10. Support Systems in Animals 59
11. Transport Systems in Mammals - Human 70
12. Environmental Studies – Biosphere to Ecosystem 82
13. Biodiversity and Classification 100
14. History of Life on Earth 107
15. Reference 119
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COMPILED BY ISRAEL ADEYANJU
IMPORTANT INFORMATION 2023
A. FORMAT OF PROGRAMME OF ASSESSMENT (MPUMALANGA PROVINCE)
Term Task Marks DATE

1 Practical Task 1 Min. 30 15 FEB. 2023
Controlled Test 1 100 15 MAR. 2023
2 Assignment 100 23 MAY. 2023
Controlled Test 2/June Exam 100/150 08 JUNE 2023
3 Practical Task 3 Min. 30 25 AUG. 2023
Controlled Test 3 100 20 SEPT. 2023
4 Final Examination (Paper 1 and 2) 300 NOVEMBER
B. FORMAT OF LIFE SCIENCE EXAMINATION PAPER
C. END OF THE YEAR EXAMINATION (NOVEMBER)
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ORIENTATION TO LIFE SCIENCES
What is Life Science?
It is the scientific study of living things from molecular level to their interactions with
one another and the environment.
Living systems exhibit levels of organisation from molecules to biomes. Life on Earth
is dynamic, with homeostasis maintaining balance at every level of organisation. Life
is characterised by changes over time.
Science involves contested knowledge, and non-dogmatic inferences based on
evidence and peer review.
Non-dogmatic conclusions – conclusions that are not influenced by any religious
conviction.
Peer review – when scientists that research the same topic, evaluate and contribute
using their own logic and data to confirm claims.
Strands in Life Sciences

- Life at the Molecular, Cellular and Tissue level
- Life processes in Plants and Animals
- Environmental Studies
- Diversity, Change and Continuity
Making drawings
- Use a sharp HB pencil to draw
- Drawings must be an appropriate size so that all labelled parts are clearly
visible
- Do not shade your drawings, it makes them unclear
- Labels and label lines must be written in pen
- Label lines must be drawn with a ruler and they must not cross each other
- Label line must point to the exact labelled part and it must not end in an arrow
head
- A drawing must have an appropriate heading that describes it.
Variables
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE – the variable that you control and may change during the
experiment. It will have an effect on the dependent variable.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE – variable that is measured during the investigation because
it will be influenced by the change in the independent variable.
FIXED VARIABLE – it remains constant in an investigation in order not to influence it.
This variable is not shown on a table or a graph. It is also known as the CONTROLLED
VARIABLE.
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Example:
In this investigation, variables might include: the amount of sunshine, the types of soil
in which the tomatoes are growing, the water available to each of the plants, etc.
To which variable type does each factor belong?
Dependent variable: mass of tomatoes

Independent variable: how much light the tomato plants receive.
Fixed/ Controlled variables: all tomato plants will:

- Be the same species of tomato
- Get the same fertiliser (type and amount)
- Grow in the same type of soil
- Grow in the same type of container
- Get the same amount of water
- Can you think of more?
Hypothesis
It is a statement or prediction as to what you think will be the outcome or result of your
investigation.
The hypothesis should:

- be speciﬁc
- relate directly to the question you are asking
- be expressed as a statement that includes the variables involved (the ‘cause’
and ‘effect’)
- be testable (might be right or wrong)
- not expressed as a question but rather as a prediction
- be written in the future tense
e.g. the more sunlight a tomato plant receives, the larger the tomatoes will grow
Evaluation of results
Discuss how you ensured the validity and reliability of the investigation.
Validity: Was it a fair test and did it test what it set out to test?
Reliability: If the experiment were to be repeated would the results obtained be similar?
The best way to ensure reliability is to:

- repeat the experiment several times and obtain an average.
- Increase sample sizes (if any)
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Presentation of data
Scientific data can be represented in various ways i.e. in table form or graphically.
TABLE
- It must have an appropriate heading
- A table consists of different columns
- The independent variables are usually in the left-hand column
- The dependent variables are usually in the right-hand column
- The names of the variables must occur at the top of each column as a heading
- The unit in which the variables are being measured must be written alongside
or under the heading.
LINE GRAPH
- It consists of two axes: x-axis (horizontal) represents the independent variable,
y-axis (vertical) represents the dependent variable.
- The graph must have an appropriate heading.
- Choose the correct scale; all intervals must be of equal size.
- Axes must be labelled; correct measuring units must be indicated on the
respective axes.
- A line graph only starts at 0 if there is a coordinate at 0.
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BAR GRAPH
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HISTOGRAM
PIE CHART
Pie charts are used when you want to give a visual representation of percentages as
a relative proportion of the total of a circle. They are a type of graph even though they
do not have any axes.
A pie chart is a circle divided into sectors (think of them as the slices of a cake).
100% represents the whole complete circle (360º), 50% represents a half circle (180º),
25% is a quarter circle (90º), and so on.
Example:
1. Count the number of each species and record it in a table.
2. Work out the total number of species in the ecosystem.
3. Calculate the percentage of each species.
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TOPIC 1:
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE (PAPER 1 – 33 MARKS)
MOLECULES FOR LIFE

Chemical compounds are divided into groups:
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Chemical compounds that do NOT contain the element carbon (C) and are not
produced by living organisms e.g. water, gases. Exceptions are carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and carbonates that do contain the element carbon.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Chemical compounds that contain the element carbon (C) and are produced by living
organisms. Organic compounds are composed of carbon C, hydrogen H and oxygen
O, while some also contain other elements such as nitrogen N, phosphorus P and
sulphur S. Examples are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and vitamins,
which form the building blocks of cells.
INORGANIC COMPOUND
Water
The most important inorganic compound for living organisms, without which there can
be no life. One molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom
(H2O).
Functions
- Water serves as a solvent for both organic and inorganic compounds to
dissolve in.
- Medium in which chemical reactions occur.
- Serves as transporting agent (digested nutrients, metabolic waste products,
gases as well as mineral salts).
- Serves as lubricant (chewing and swallowing, movement of food, tears in the
eye, fluids at joints etc.).
- It regulates body temperature.
- It gives shape and rigidity – hydrostatic animals (earthworm), water in plant’s
vacuoles.
Mineral salts
Inorganic substances or elements that are needed and absorbed by living organisms
(plants, animals and humans). Plant roots absorb mineral salts from the soil,
whereas animals obtain from the food they eat.
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Mineral salts can be divided into TWO groups:
- Macro-elements: mineral salts that are needed in large quantities.
- Micro-elements: mineral salts that are needed in small quantities.
Macro-elements
Micro-elements
Phosphates (PO4) and nitrates (NO3) are also minerals. They are not elements but
compounds.
Phosphate ions are the main source of the element phosphorus (P) in plants.
Nitrate ions are the main source of the element nitrogen (N) that is needed for protein
synthesis. Nitrogen forms part of the nucleotides of DNA and RNA and is also needed
for the synthesis of chlorophyll in plants.
In humans, a lack of nitrogen-containing protein results in the deficiency disease –
kwashiorkor (results in stunted growth).
In plants, a lack of nitrate ions causes the deficiency disease – chlorosis (yellowing
of leaves due to shortage of chlorophyll).
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Fertilisers and eutrophication
Fertilisers are used when the soil becomes depleted of mineral salts. Fertilisers
containing mostly nitrogen, potassium and phosphates are added to the soil in large
quantities.
During heavy rain, many of these minerals are washed away into rivers and dams.
This causes a drastic increase in the growth of freshwater algae (algal bloom).
This drastic increase in algae blocks the sunlight from other photosynthesising
organisms, which results in the death of many water plants. This will deplete the
oxygen supply in the water. Large numbers of fish and other water organisms die as
a result of an oxygen shortage. This phenomenon is known as eutrophication.
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ORGANIC COMPOUND
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made up of the elements carbon C, hydrogen H and oxygen O.
The ratio of H atoms: O atoms is 2:1.
Carbohydrates are made up of ring-shaped units – saccharides. Carbohydrates are
divided into THREE groups according to the number of saccharides they contain:
- Monosaccharides (one saccharide or single sugars)
- Disaccharides (two saccharides or double sugars)
- Polysaccharides (many saccharides)
Mono- and disaccharides are sugars because they taste sweet and are water-soluble.
Polysaccharides are not sugars because they do not taste sweet and are insoluble in
water. Glucose is the basic building block (monomer) of all carbohydrates.
Monosaccharides – are single-ring structures. There are THREE types of

monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, galactose.
Disaccharides – formed when two monosaccharides are joined. One water molecule
is removed to form a disaccharide. This reaction is known as a condensation reaction.
There are THREE types of disaccharides: maltose, sucrose, lactose.
glucose + glucose = maltose + H2O
glucose + fructose = sucrose + H2O
glucose + galactose = lactose + H2O
Polysaccharide – long chains of monosaccharides that bind to one another by a

condensation reaction. There are THREE types of polysaccharides: starch, glycogen,
cellulose.
- Starch – form in which glucose is stored in plants
- Glycogen – form in which excess glucose is stored in the liver and skeletal
muscles of animals
- Cellulose – forms the structural component of plant cell walls.
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Importance of carbohydrates
- Source of energy – during cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose
while CO2 & H2O are formed.
- Source of reserve energy – starch and glycogen are stored in plants and
animals respectively and are insoluble in water. When energy is needed, they
can easily be converted into glucose.
- Structural component – plant cell walls consist primarily of cellulose, which
strengthens the cell wall.
Lipids (fats and oils)

Lipids are made up of the same three elements as carbohydrates (C, H, O). The ratio
of H:O is far greater than 2:1, more than double the number of H atoms than O atoms.
Lipid molecules consist of two types of building blocks – glycerol and fatty acids.
1 lipid molecule = 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids.
Lipids are:
- Insoluble in water
- Soluble in ether and alcohol
- Hydrophobic – water repelling
Examples of lipids are fats, phospholipids and steroids.
SATURATED FATS – are mainly derived from animals e.g. butter and lard. They are
solid room temperature. Saturated fats are used by the body to synthesise cholesterol
(a white, wax-like substance that forms part of cell membranes and hormones).
Excessive intake of saturated fats leads to high cholesterol levels in the blood which
cause fatty deposits (plaque) in arteries, thereby narrowing them – atherosclerosis.
Blood platelets aggregate (clump together) at these narrowed areas and form a blood
clot.
If the coronary artery for example is blocked by a blood clot, the cardiac muscle does
not receive oxygen and cannot function. This leads to a heart attack.
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UNSATURATED FATS – are mainly derived from plants e.g. olive oil, canola oil and
sunflower oil. These fats are liquid at room temperature and are known as oils.
Importance of lipids
- Source of reserve energy – a large amount of energy is released when fat
molecules are broken down.
- Insulating material – fat is a poor conductor of heat and maintains the body
temperature e.g. whales, dolphins, seals etc.
- Shock absorption – organs like kidneys and eyes are surrounded by a layer of
fat to protect them from mechanical injury.
- Cell membrane consist of a double layer of phospholipid molecules with a
protein layer on either side.
- Waterproofing – birds for example, have oil glands that secret oil to make their
feathers waterproof.
- Fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K can only be absorbed when dissolved in fat.
- Source of water – animals that hibernate in cold weather, or others that survive
hot, dry conditions, store fat that is broken down to CO2 and H2O during
respiration. Camel is an example of animal that uses metabolic water.
Proteins
Protein is a polymer (a very large molecule) with amino acids as monomer (building
blocks). Amino acids are made up of the elements carbon C, hydrogen H, oxygen O
and nitrogen N. in some amino acids, phosphorus P, sulphur S and iron Fe are also
present.
There are only twenty different amino acids. The sequence (arrangement) and type of
amino acids determine the type of protein. The bond or link formed between two amino
acids is known as a peptide bond.
Dipeptide – two amino acids linked by a peptide bond.

Tripeptide – three amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Polypeptide – long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Protein – 51+ amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Every protein has its own particular shape. The specific shape of a protein determines
the function it must perform.
Proteins are sensitive to temperature and pH. High temperature and extreme pH will
denature protein.
Denature – protein loses its shape and can no longer perform its function.
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Importance of protein
- Structural component of protoplasm - ± 15% of protoplasm consists of proteins.
- Building materials – myosin in muscles, collagen in bone, chondrin in cartilage,
keratin in skin, hair and nails.
- Structural component of cell membrane together with phospholipids.
- Acts as carrier molecules that transport other molecules through the cell
membrane.
- Source of reserve energy – excess amino acids are broken down, through the
process of deamination, into urea and GLUCOSE.
- Some hormones are proteins and acts as chemical messengers.
- Haemoglobin transports O2 and CO2 in the blood.
- Antibodies are blood proteins that respond to antigens and in this way fight
bacteria and viruses.
- Chromosomes are made up of proteins and DNA (genetic material).
- Enzymes are proteins that accelerate chemical reactions.
ENZYMES
They are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions without itself being
changed by the reaction.
Chemical reactions that take place in living cells are known as metabolic reaction.
During digestion of food, complex molecules are broken down into simple soluble
molecules by adding water. This catabolic process is known as HYDROLYSIS. This
reaction is made possible because of enzymes which catalyse the reactions.
During a chemical reaction, a substance is changed from one to another.
- The substance on which the enzyme acts is known as the substrate.
- The substance formed during the reaction is the product.
- Enzymes are substrate-specific (can only act on a specific substrate).
- The enzyme remains unchanged during the reaction and is ready to bind with
the next substrate molecule.
- Enzymes can be used over and over again.
- A small amount of enzyme can change a large amount of substrate.
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Influence of Temperature and pH on Enzyme action
TEMPERATURE – Enzymes are very sensitive to temperature changes. The
temperature at which most enzymes work best is known as their OPTIMUM
temperature (around 35°c - 40°c in humans).
Enzymes become INACTIVE at low temperature while at high temperature, enzymes
become DENATURED. Denaturation is an irreversible process. When an enzyme
denatures, it cannot return to its proper shape when the temperature is lowered again.
If an enzyme becomes inactive because of low temperature, it can become active
again once the temperature rises.
pH – each enzyme has a narrow pH range within which it can function (OPTIMUM
pH). Some enzymes work optimally in an acidic medium, whereas others work better
in a neutral or alkaline medium.
Enzymes denature at extreme pH levels.
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Examples of different enzymes:
- Maltase – acts on maltose
- Sucrase – acts on sucrose
- Lactase – acts on lactose
- Amylase – acts on starch
- Lipase – acts on lipids
- Protease – acts on proteins
Meat tenderisers, washing powders and bleaching agents contain enzymes.
Nucleic acids
They are made up of the elements carbon C, hydrogen H, oxygen O, nitrogen N and
phosphorus P.
There are TWO types of nucleic acids:
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
- RNA (ribonucleic acid)
DNA – found in the nucleus of a cell and forms part of the chromatin network and
chromosomes.
Function
- DNA carries the hereditary characteristics and controls the structure and
function of the cell.
RNA – found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of a cell and forms part of the ribosomes.
Function
- RNA plays a role in protein synthesis.
Vitamins
Vitamins are essential for normal metabolism, growth and development of the human
body. They are needed in small quantities and are produced by plants.
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In order for vitamins to perform their functions, they must be in solution. Vitamins can
be classified as water-soluble or fat-soluble.
WATER-SOLUBLE (vitamins B and C) – these vitamins are absorbed by the body

together with water. Excess vitamins are not stored in the body but are excreted in
urine and must therefore be taken regularly.
FAT-SOLUBLE (vitamins A, D, E and K) – these can only be absorbed when dissolved

in fat. These vitamins are stored in the body.
Insufficient vitamins cause deficiency diseases.
FOOD TESTS
Carbohydrates
Test for the presence of glucose
Benedict’s solution is the reagent used to test for the presence of glucose. It is a deep
blue liquid that indicates the presence of monosaccharides (e.g. glucose) as well as
certain disaccharides (e.g. lactose, maltose).
The results can be interpreted as follows:
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Colour change Glucose present or absent
Blue No glucose present
Green
Yellow Low concentration of glucose
Orange Glucose present
Orange-red High concentration of glucose
Test for starch

Iodine solution (yellow-brown colour) is the reagent used in testing for starch. 2-3
drops of the solution are dropped onto a test material (e.g. potato or bread). If the test
material turns a blue-black colour, starch is present.
Lipids (fats and oils)

Test for fats
- Grind the test material (e.g. peanuts) to a fine consistency.
- Place a small amount in a test tube.
- Add 5 cm3 of ether and shake the test tube well. Fats are soluble in ether.
- Allow the test tube to stand for approximately half an hour.
- Filter the ether and the finely ground peanuts will stay behind.
- Allow a drop of the filtrate to fall onto a clean filter paper.
- The ether will evaporate quickly.
- If any fats are present, a translucent greasy spot will form on the filter paper.
*filtrate – liquid that filtered through
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Protein
Test for proteins
Test material could be beans or soup powder or milk powder. This test is known as
the Biuret test.
- Grind the test material, add a little water and boil until it forms a thin soup.
- Pour ± 5 cm3 of the soup into a test tube and add 2-3 drops of dilute copper
sulphate solution.
- Add 5 – 10 cm3 of sodium – hydroxide solution to the mixture.
- Shake the test tube.
- Heat the mixture over a Bunsen burner to obtain a deeper colour.
- Blue – no protein present; Purple/violet – protein present.
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TOPIC 2:
CELLS: Basic units of life (PAPER 1 – 19 MARKS)
MICROSCOPY
Microscope – an instrument used to see objects that cannot be seen with the naked
eye.
In 1674, the Dutchman Antonie van Leeuwenhoek built a simple microscope with only
one lens in order to study among other things blood, yeast and insects. He is regarded
as the father of microscopy. He was the first person to describe bacteria.
In 1839, Theodore Schwann, Mathias Schleiden and Rudolf Virchow, formulated the
cell theory. Cell theory can be summarised as follows:
- All living organisms are made up of cells
- The cell is the basic and smallest unit of life
- All cells originate from existing cells
Electron microscope was invented in 1939 by the Germans Max Knott and Ernst
Ruska. Greater magnifications were achieved (about 1000000 times). Today’s light
microscopes can magnify up to 1250 times in ordinary light.
Parts of a light microscope
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CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Cells are mostly made up of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and water.
Both animal and plant cells consist of a cell nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane.
Not all cells contain nucleus, e.g. bacteria. A cell without a nucleus is known as a
prokaryotic cell. The one with a nucleus is known as a eukaryotic cell.
All cells do not look the same: their size, shape and structure change in order to
perform specific functions – differentiation.
Cells become specialised to perform a specific function – specialisation e.g.
- Muscle cells contract and relax
- Nerve cells conduct impulses
- Glandular cells secrete substances (secretion).
Main Components of Plant & Animal Cells

All cells are made up of protoplasm. Protoplasm refers to the living material in plant
and animal cells. Plant cells have a non-living part, cell wall.
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CELL
Cell wall (in plant cells) Protoplasm
Cytoplasm Nucleus
Cell membrane Organelles

(plasma membrane)
Cell wall
The only non-living part of a cell and only occurs in plant cells. The cell wall consists
of three parts:
Primary cell wall: All plant cells have a primary cell wall. It is thin and occurs on the
outside of the cell membrane. It mainly consists of cellulose fibres that can stretch as
the cell grows.
Middle lamella: consists of pectin (a soluble jelly-like polysaccharide) and occurs
outside the primary cell wall. The cell walls of adjacent plant cells are connected by
the middle lamella.
Secondary cell wall: develops between the cell membrane and the primary cell wall as
the cells grow older. It consists of thick cellulose fibre. The secondary cell wall is
inelastic.
The cell wall is permeable. It allows free movement of all substances.
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Functions
- It gives rigidity to the plant cell.
- It protects the living contents of the plant cell
Cytoplasm
The inside of the cell. Some of the cytoplasm is in liquid (sol) form, while some is in a
jelly-like (gel) state.
Functions
- All chemical processes (metabolic processes) that are responsible for the
survival of an organism takes place in the cytoplasm.
- It stores substances essential to life e.g. globules of fat.
- It helps to maintain the shape of the cell.
- Substances circulate through the movement of the cytoplasm. This process is
known as cyclosis.
Cell (plasma) membrane

It is very thin and forms the outer, living boundary of the cytoplasm.
In animal cells, the cell membrane encloses and protects the contents of the cell as
the cell wall is absent.
The cell membrane consists of a double layer of phospholipid molecules, with large
protein molecules embedded in the layer of phospholipids.
Function
- The cell membrane is selectively/differentially permeable and controls the
movement of substances into and out of the cell. Selectively permeable means
it allows certain substances to enter or leave the cell, but not others.
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MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANES
Substances such as water, gases, dissolved salts as well as amino acids and glucose
continuously move into and out of a cell.
The following processes are responsible for this movement:
- Diffusion
- Osmosis
- Active transport
DIFFUSION – it is the spontaneous movement of molecules of a liquid or gas from an

area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached
(molecules are evenly distributed).
The movement of the molecules takes place because each particle has kinetic
energy.
The difference between the high concentration of molecules in one area and the low
concentration of the same molecules in another area is known as the concentration
gradient.
OSMOSIS – it is a special type of diffusion. It is the movement of water molecules

from an area of high-water potential to an area of low water potential, through a
selectively permeable membrane, until equilibrium is reached.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT – molecules move from a low concentration to a high

concentration through membranes, against the concentration gradient. Energy is
needed for this process. Example of active transport is the absorption of food from the
small intestine into the bloodstream.
In diffusion and osmosis, molecules move from a high to a low concentration as a
result of their kinetic energy. This is known as PASSIVE TRANSPORT; no energy is
required for this type of transport.
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Nucleus
It consists of four parts:
- NUCLEAR MEMBRANE: double membrane that contains small pores and
encloses the nucleus. The pores control the passage of substances into and
out of the nucleus.
- NUCLEOPLASM: jelly-like fluid that filled the nucleus.
- NUCLEOLUS: dark body that consists of RNA and proteins and is visible in the
nucleoplasm.
- CHROMATIN NETWORK: tangled threads in the nucleoplasm. When the cell
divides, the chromatin network condenses (shortens and thickens) to form
chromosomes. Chromosomes are structures that consist of DNA and proteins
(histones) and carry hereditary characteristics.
Functions
- It controls all the activities of the cell (control centre).
- It also carries hereditary characteristics from cell to cell and to the next
generation.
Mitochondria (Singular: mitochondrion)

They are dispersed throughout the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells. It is a
cylindrically shaped hollow rod.
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Function
- The process of cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria.
During cellular respiration, energy is released from carbohydrates (GLUCOSE), in the

presence of oxygen. The energy that is released forms part of the compound ATP
(adenosine triphosphate), which is energy-carrier in cells.
Due to large amount of energy that is released during cellular respiration, the
mitochondria are often known as the “power house” of the cell.
The number of mitochondria that occur in a cell depends on the energy need of the
cell. The more active the cell is, e.g. a muscle cell, the more mitochondria it will contain.
Ribosome
Ribosome consists of RNA and proteins. They occur in the ER, in mitochondria,
chloroplasts and in groups in the cytoplasm (known as polyribosomes).
Function
- Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis (formation of protein).
Endoplasmic reticulum
There are TWO types of ER:
- Rough ER – has ribosomes on its surface
- Smooth ER – has no ribosome on its surface
Functions
- It transports substances from one part of the cytoplasm to another.
- It increases the internal surface area of the cell.
Golgi body
It occurs in plant and animal cells near the nucleus. Abundant in cell that have a
secretory function.
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Functions
- Plays a role in producing and processing secretions such as mucus and saliva.
- It prepares protein for transport to other parts of the cell.
Plastids
Only occur in plant cells
There are THREE types of plastids:
- CHLOROPLASTS – occur in the photosynthesising parts of the plant (in the
leaves of green plants). It contains the green pigment chlorophyll in its
lamellae.
- CHROMOPLASTS – occur in yellow, orange and red flowers, leaves and fruits.
They contain the pigment called carotenoids. Chloroplasts change into
chromoplasts when fruit ripens, or when autumn leaves change colour.
- LEUCOPLAST – colourless plastids that mainly occur in cells that store food in
an insoluble form. Leucoplasts can change into chloroplasts if exposed to light
e.g. potatoes that turn green in light.
Vacuoles
Fluid-filled compartments in the cytoplasm. It is filled with a fluid, the CELL SAP. The
cell sap consists of water and dissolved substances.
Functions
- The cell sap in the vacuole causes a TURGOR PRESSURE, that gives the plant
cell rigidity.
- The cell sap often contains pigments known as ANTHOCYANINS, which gives
the blue, violet and purple colour to flowers and fruit.
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Lysosome
Small vacuoles that are filled with digestive enzymes. They occur only in animal cells.
Function
- They play a role in digestion of food in unicellular animals.
Centrosome
It is an area in the cytoplasm near the nucleus of an animal cell. Plant cells do not
have centrosome. There are TWO small cylinder-shaped structure known as
CENTRIOLES.
Function
- The centrioles play a role in cell division by forming SPINDLE threads or fibres.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Plant cell Animal cell
Cell wall present Cell wall absent
Plastids present Plastids absent
Large vacuole present Small or no vacuole present
Lysosome absent Lysosome present
Centrosome absent Centrosome present
Regular/fixed shape Irregular shape
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Structure of a plant cell
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Structure of an animal cell
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TOPIC 3:
CELL DIVISION – MITOSIS (PAPER 1 – 19 MARKS)
Cells in multicellular organisms have the ability to divide continually.
There are TWO types of cells in the human body:
- Somatic cells (body cells)
- Sex cells or gametes – sperm cells in male, egg cells/ova (ovum) in female
The division of somatic cells, which results in growth, is known as MITOSIS.
During mitosis, a mother cell (original cell) divides to form two identical daughter
(new) cells which are also identical to the mother cell. They have the same genetic
material in their cell nuclei as in the nucleus of the mother cell.
The process of cell division, during which gametes are formed, is known as MEIOSIS
– This topic will be discussed later in Grade 12.
CHROMOSOMES
Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the cell nucleus of virtually ALL cells.
Chromosomes transfer hereditary characteristics from generation to generation.
When the cell is not dividing, the chromosome appears as a mass of threads, the
chromatin network. When the cell Is dividing, the chromatin network condenses (the
threads become shorter and thicker) and is visible as single-stranded chromosomes.
A chromosome consists of DNA and proteins known as HISTONES. There are various
segments of DNA known as GENES which determines a particular hereditary
characteristic.
Before a cell divides, all genetic material in the nucleus (i.e. the DNA) has to be
duplicated. Exact or identical copy of DNA is made. This process is known as
replication.
Replication makes sure that the two new cells formed during mitosis have exactly the
same genetic information as in the original mother cell.
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THE CELL CYCLE
This is a period during which a cell grows, replicates genetic material and divides. The
cell cycle is divided into:
- Interphase
- Mitosis
Interphase
The period before cell division. The chromosomes are visible as the chromatin
network. Cell growth and DNA replication take place during this phase.
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Mitosis
Mitosis takes place in TWO stages:
- Karyokinesis – division of the nucleus and chromosomes.
- Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane.
FOUR clear phases can be distinguished during the process of mitosis.

- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
Prophase
- The chromatin network condenses to become visible as chromosomes
- The chromosomes are double-stranded (because of replication).
- Each chromosome consists of 2 identical chromatids joined to each other by a
centromere.
- The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
- The centrioles separate and move to the opposite poles of the cell.
- Spindle fibres form between the two centrioles to form the spindle.
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Metaphase
- The chromosome moves to the equator and arrange themselves in a single row
on the equator of the cell.
- Spindle fibres attach to the centromere.
Anaphase
- The two chromatids separate from each other and move to the opposite poles.
The chromatids are now known as daughter chromosomes.
- Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) begins.
Telophase
- Two identical daughter (new) cells are formed.
- Cytokinesis is complete.
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The role/importance of mitosis
- Ensure that the organism grows and increase in size.
- Ensure that worn-out and damaged cells are repaired and replaced.
- Mitosis results in asexual reproduction in some simple plants and animals.
CANCER
Cancer is the result of uncontrolled mitotic cell division in the body. A group of cells is
formed that lose their original function. Repeated divisions lead to a growth known as
TUMOUR.
A tumour can be BENIGN or MALIGNANT. Benign tumour does not penetrate the
tissues and is usually enclosed in a capsule. A malignant tumour spreads between the
cells of the tissues, damaging them.
Causes of cancer
Any agent that causes cancer is known as a CARCINOGEN or a CARCINOGENIC
AGENT. Possible carcinogenic agents are:
- Cigarette smoke
- Sun
- Exposure to certain chemicals e.g. asbestos
- Radiation (e.g. x-rays)
- Pollutants
- Hormonal imbalances
- Hereditary factors
Beliefs and attitudes toward cancer

- Many people still believe that cancer is a death sentence.
- Some people believe that exercising sufficiently and eating organic food will
prevent cancer, or indeed cure it if they do get the disease.
- Others firmly believe in the power of modern medicine, the latest and best
treatment and the effects of a positive attitude.
- Some assumed that aged cancer patients will not be able to handle the severe
treatment, or it is a waste of resources to treat them.
Treatment of cancer
Many types of cancer can be prevented, but MOST cannot. If diagnosed early, cancer
can be cured with the appropriate treatment. Even in cases where it is not fully cured,
it is possible to lead an active life for years in spite of the condition.
Cancer that has already spread throughout the body is difficult to treat.
Cancer can be treated by:
SURGERY – tumours or growth can be surgically removed
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CHEMOTHERAPY – the use of chemical agents to destroy cancer.
RADIOTHERAPY – use of radioactive radiation to destroy cancer.
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TOPIC 4:
PLANT TISSUES (PAPER 1 – 14 MARKS)
PLANT TISSUES
Plant tissue is divided into TWO main groups:
- Meristematic tissue
- Permanent tissue
MERISTEMATIC TISSUE – is actively dividing tissue in which new cells are

continually formed by mitosis. The cells are not yet differentiated to perform a specific
function. It includes apical meristem and lateral meristem.
PERMANENT TISSUE – is tissue that is already differentiated to perform a specific

function. It includes epidermis, parenchyma, sclerenchyma, collenchyma and vascular
tissue.
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TOPIC 5:
PLANT ORGAN – leaf structure (PAPER 1 – 9 MARKS)
Organ – group of different tissues that perform a specific function (common function).
There are different plant organs – ROOTS, STEMS, LEAVES and FLOWERS.
DICOTYLEDONOUS LEAF
Main functions of leaves
- Trap sunlight for photosynthesis.
- Allow gaseous exchange to take place through the stomata for photosynthesis,
respiration and transpiration (loss of water vapour).
- Transport water and produced nutrients.
Internal structure of a leaf

There are THREE main sections: epidermis (upper and lower), mesophyll, vascular
bundles.
EPIDERMIS – it protects the underlying tissues. A waxy, transparent cuticle covers

the epidermis, reducing excessive moisture loss while still allowing sunlight through
for photosynthesis. The lower epidermal cells contain stomata. The guard cells of a
stoma are responsible for the opening and closing of the stomata. Stomata are
responsible for gaseous exchange into and out of the leaf during photosynthesis,
respiration and transpiration.
MESOPHYLL – there are TWO types of mesophyll cells i.e. palisade and spongy
mesophyll cells. Palisade mesophyll cells are elongated, thin-walled parenchyma cells
and contain large numbers of chloroplasts (enabling them to absorb the maximum
amount of sunlight for photosynthesis. Spongy mesophyll cells are round and loosely
packed parenchyma cells which contain fewer chloroplasts than the palisade
mesophyll cells.
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VASCULAR BUNDLES/VEINS – the veins consist of xylem and phloem that are
continuous with the xylem and phloem of the root and stem.
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TOPIC 6:
SUPPORT AND TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN PLANTS (PAPER 1 – 23 MARKS)
DICOTYLEDONOUS ROOT
Main Functions:
- It absorbs water and mineral salts from the soil.
- It firmly anchors the plant in the soil.
External Structure: The root is made up of FIVE regions:

- Root cap – surrounds and protects the growing point
- Meristematic region – continuously forms new cells
- Region of elongation – in this region new cells elongated
- Root hair region – has root hairs that increase the absorption surface of the
root.
- Mature region – where lateral roots develop and branch off, increasing the
absorption surface and anchoring the plant more firmly in the soil.
Internal Structure: Three regions can be distinguished:

- Epidermis (cuticle is absent)
- Cortex
- Central cylinder
DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM
Main Functions:
- It bears the leaves in a favourable position for the absorption of light for
photosynthesis.
- It bears the flowers in a favourable position for pollination
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- It bears the fruits in a favourable position for the distribution of seeds
- It transports water and mineral salts from the roots to the rest of the plant
- It transports organic substances from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
- It stores reserve nutrients and water
External Structure: it consists of
- Node (where the leaves and side branches develop)
- Internode (the region between two nodes)
- Terminal bus at the tip of the stem (which consists of meristematic tissue)
- Axillary buds which develop into lateral branches
Internal Structure: three regions can be distinguished

- Epidermis (which is covered with a waterproof cuticle)
- Cortex
- Central cylinder
SECONDARY THICKENING
Stems of dicotyledonous plants grow in thickness as the plant get older. This is known
as secondary growth or secondary thickening.
The cambium that occurs in the vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) of
dicotyledonous stems is a meristematic tissue that continuously divides to form new
cells. New xylem tissue (secondary xylem) is formed towards the inside, while new
phloem tissue (secondary phloem) is formed towards the outside. Each year, the
cambium forms a new ring of secondary xylem and secondary phloem.
As the secondary tissue is formed year after year, the primary xylem and primary
phloem are pushed further away from each other. The original xylem and phloem that
occurred in the vascular bundles of young stems are known as the primary xylem and
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primary phloem. In some places, the cambium does not form secondary xylem or
phloem but parenchyma cells.
The formation of the secondary tissues causes the stem’s circumference to increase
and become thicker.
Annual rings
Concentric rings are visible in a cross-section of a perennial, woody, dicotyledonous
stem. These concentric rings are the secondary xylem that consists of xylem vessels
and tracheids with thickened walls and are known as annual rings.
UPTAKE OF WATER AND MINERAL SALTS BY THE PLANT

The absorption of water and mineral salts by the plants can be explained in three
steps:
- Uptake of water and mineral salts by the roots
- Movement of water to the xylem of the root
- Upward movement of water in the xylem from the roots to the leaves
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Uptake of water and mineral salts by the roots
The soil water between the soil particles contains less dissolved substances (solutes)
than the cell sap in the vacuoles of the root hairs. The water potential of the soil
solution is therefore higher than the water potential of the cell sap. This causes a water
potential gradient between the soil solution and the cell sap.
Water molecules move by osmosis down a water potential gradient through the
permeable cell wall through the selectively permeable cell membrane, cytoplasm and
selectively permeable tonoplast, until they reach the vacuole.
Mineral salts are absorbed against the concentration gradient (from a low
concentration to a high concentration) because there is a higher concentration of
dissolved nutrients (solutes) in the cell sap than in the soil. Therefore, mineral salts
are actively absorbed out of the soil, which means that energy is required for the
process.
Movement of water to the xylem of the root

The water potential in the vacuole of the root hair is higher than that of the adjacent
parenchyma cells in the cortex
Water can move via two routes down a concentration gradient to the xylem in the
central part of the root:
- The main route that water takes is from cell to cell by osmosis through the
selectively permeable membranes of each cell – movement occurs slowly.
- Water can move through the cell walls and intercellular air spaces between the
cells by diffusion – movement occurs faster.
When the water reaches the endodermis containing the Casparian strips, it cannot
pass through the cell walls but moves through the passage cells of the endodermis,
through the pericycle to the root xylem.
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Upward movement of water in the xylem from the roots to the leaves
There are three forces involved in the upward transport of water in a plant:
- Capillarity (capillary action) whereby liquids will spontaneously move up tubes
(xylem vessels and tracheids) that have a very small bore (cross-section).
Capillarity is a very weak force.
- Root pressure – the upward force that develops in roots due to the continuous
influx of water from the soil. Root pressure is not strong enough to push water
high up into the stem.
- Transpiration pull – the main force drawing water upwards in the plant. The
water that was lost through the leaves by transpiration is replaced by the
absorbed water from the soil solution through the root hairs.
Transpiration is the loss of water, in the form of water vapour through the aerial parts
of the plant, mainly through the stomata of the leaf.
Translocation is the movement of substances manufactured in the leaves during

photosynthesis to other parts of the plant. The manufactured substances are sugars,
mainly sucrose. The sucrose is transported by the phloem tissue from the leaves to
the stems and roots.
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TRANSPIRATION
Importance of Transpiration
- Water and mineral salts are drawn up from the roots to the leaves of a plant by
the suction force of transpiration
- The evaporation of water from the leaf surface leads to the cooling of the plant.
Structural adaptations of leaves to limit transpiration

- Size of leaves: the smaller the leaves, the smaller the surface area for
evaporation.
- Thorns: leaves can be reduced to thorns, which have fewer stomata and
therefore limit transpiration.
- Leaf organisation: the leaves in some plants are arranged in a way that the rays
from the sun, at the hottest time of the day, do not fall directly on the flat surface
of the leaves, but at an angle.
- Position of stomata: in many plants, the majority of the stomata occur in the
lower epidermis of the leaf. Therefore, the stomata are not exposed to the direct
rays from the sun and transpiration is limited.
- Thickened cuticle: the thicker the cuticle outside the epidermis, the lower the
rate of transpiration.
External factors influencing transpiration

- Temperature – high temperature increases the kinetic energy of the water
molecules, which increases the rate of transpiration.
- Light intensity – stomata open in light and close in darkness. High light intensity
also increases the leaf temperature, which increases the kinetic energy of the
water molecules.
- Humidity – when there is a lot of moisture in air, the humidity is high. Diffusion
takes place more slowly and the transpiration rate decreases.
- Wind – during transpiration there is an increase in water molecules just outside

the leaf. Movement of air (wind) removes the accumulated water vapour outside
the leaf and the transpiration rate increases.
Wilting – when a plant loses more water through transpiration than the roots of the
plant can absorb, the plant wilts. Wilting can be reversed when the plant absorbs
enough water again.
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Guttation – when the humidity in the air is high, transpiration occurs slowly or
completely stops. The plant absorbs more water from the soil and at a faster rate than
what is lost through transpiration. Water droplets are forced out through small
openings, the hydathodes, on the edges of the leaves.
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TOPIC 7:
ANIMAL TISSUES
Animal tissues includes;
- Epithelial tissue
- Connective tissue
- Muscle tissue
- Nerve tissue
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
They are specialised to form linings that cover internal and external surfaces. The cells
are arranged tightly against one another, with almost no intercellular spaces and little
materials between the cells. There are FOUR types of epithelial tissue:
- Squamous epithelium
- Cuboidal epithelium
- Columnar epithelium
- Ciliated epithelium
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CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Connective tissue binds, supports or surrounds other tissues or organs. There are
FIVE types of connective tissue:
- Areolar connective tissue
- Dense connective tissue
- Cartilage
- Bone
- Blood
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The atmospheric pressure determines the number of red blood corpuscles in a
person’s blood.
At sea level, the atmospheric pressure is high, meaning that a person will have fewer
red blood corpuscles. In areas high above sea level, where the atmospheric pressure
is lower, the body produces more red blood corpuscles.
When an athlete who lives at the coast plans to compete inland (lower atmospheric
pressure), he should ensure that he arrives there a couple of days before the event.
His body will acclimatise and produce extra red blood corpuscles for effective oxygen
transport.
If the athlete does not acclimatise before the time, he will tire quickly because he will
have too few red blood corpuscles to transport sufficient oxygen to the muscles for
respiration and the resultant release of energy.
MUSCLE TISSUE
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NERVE TISSUE
Made up of specialised cells called neurons.
Location: Nerve tissue forms the brain and spinal cord and is known as the central
nervous system (CNS). Nerve tissue outside the central nervous system, which
conducts nerve impulses to and from the brain, is known as the peripheral nervous
system (PNS).
Basic structure: a typical neuron consists of a cell body and two types of outgrowths
(dendrites and axon).
- The cell body has a cell membrane that encloses the cytoplasm. In the
cytoplasm is a prominent nucleus.
- Dendrites conduct nerve impulses to the cell body.
- Axon conduct nerve impulses away from the cell body.
There are THREE types of neurons:

- Sensory neurons which conduct nerve impulses from the receptors (sensory
organs) to the CNS.
- Motor neurons which conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to the effectors
(muscle and glands).
- Interneurons which conduct nerve impulses between the sensory and motor
neurons in the brain and spinal cord.
Functions of nerve tissue

- Nerve tissue allows an organism to perceive stimuli and to respond by
transmitting nerve impulses along neurons.
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APPLICATION OF INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM AND BIOTECHNOLOGY
Indigenous knowledge refers to knowledge that certain communities or cultures have
acquired over generations through their interaction with the environment.
BIOTECHNOLOGY – the use of living organisms or biological systems in industrial

processes (e.g. food processing, production of antibiotics and genetic manipulation of
crops).
TRADITIONAL BIOTECHNOLOGY – indigenous medicinal plants are used by more
than 60% of South African, most especially traditional healers. Two examples of plants
with medicinal value are: Devil’s claw and the African potato.
MEDICAL BIOTECHNOLOGY:
IMMUNITY – the way in which the human body protects itself against pathogenic
(disease-causing) viruses, bacteria, protozoans or fungi is known as the immune
response. The immune response is divided into two primary categories: natural and
acquired immunity
Natural immunity – external barriers that prevent harmful substance from entering
the body e.g. the skin, coughing and sneezing reflexes, the rinsing action of tears,
mucus, fever and inflammation.
Acquired immunity – this type of immunity is developed when:

- Antibodies are transferred from the mother to the foetus via placenta and
through mother’s milk to the baby.
- In contact with pathogens which stimulates the immune system to produce
antibodies.
- The body is injected with antibodies that are produced in another organism.
- The body is inoculated with a dead or weakened form of a pathogen, which
stimulates the immune system to form antibodies.
Immunisation and vaccines

Immunisation (inoculation) is the administration of vaccine by means of an injection or
orally (through the mouth) in order to develop immunity to a disease.
A vaccine usually consists of a dead or weakened form of the pathogen
(microorganism) that causes the disease.
The vaccine stimulates the body’s immune system to produce antibodies and also to
develop a memory of the response. When the body is attacked by the actual pathogen
at a latter stage, the immune system will be able to react quickly, produce more
antibodies and destroy the pathogen. This person is now immune to the disease.
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Antibiotics
Antibiotics are chemical substances that destroy pathogenic bacteria. Antibiotics only
destroy bacteria and not viruses. Most antibiotics are manufactured from moulds
(fungi).
Blood groups and blood transfusion

Blood groups – The human population’s blood groups can be divided into four (A, B,
AB and O).
Blood transfusion – transfer of blood from one person to another with the same blood
group. When blood from different blood groups is mixed, agglutination (blood clot) can
occur if the blood groups are incompatible. This can cause death.
Blood group O is known as the universal donor and blood group AB is known as the
universal recipient.
Cloning – the process in which a genetically identical replica of a molecule (e.g. DNA),
cell or entire organism is made.
Stem cell research

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells in the human body that have the ability to
differentiate into virtually any type of specialised cell.
Stem cells are obtained from human embryos, the umbilical cord of a new-born baby,
placenta. Stem cells can be used to:
- Study human development
- Replace damaged tissue and organs
- Treat diseases like diabetes, leukaemia (cancer of the blood) and Alzheimer’s.
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TOPIC 8:
SUPPORT SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS (PAPER 1 – 19 MARKS)
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SKELETONS
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THE HUMAN SKELETON
Functions of the skeleton
- Movement – it plays a role in movement together with the muscles and joints.
- Protection – it protects sensitive organs such as the brain, heart and lungs.
- Support – it gives the body strength and shape.
- Mineral storage – calcium and phosphate are store in bone.
- Hearing – three ear ossicles in each ear transmit sound waves to the internal
ear which makes hearing possible.
- Blood cell formation – white and red blood cells are formed in the red bone
marrow.
Structure of the skeleton

The human skeleton consists of 206 bones and can be divided into TWO main
sections:
- Axial skeleton
- Appendicular skeleton
AXIAL SKELETON – it consists of:

- Skull
- Vertebra column
- Rib cage
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Skull – It consists of two groups of bones:
- Cranium – The cranium consists of eight flat bones that are immovably joined
to each other with serrated sutures. The cranium encloses the brain and
protects it.
- Facial bones – The facial part of the skull consists of fifteen irregular bones that
form the forehead, cheeks, nose, temples and the upper and lower jaws. All
these bones are immovable except for the lower jaw. On the edges of the upper
and lower jaw are the teeth sockets. The adult human has thirty-two
permanent teeth.
There is a large opening at the base of the skull, the foramen magnum, for the spinal
cord to pass through.
Vertebra column – It consists of thirty-three bones (vertebrae), which are joined

together by ligaments. There are FIVE different types of vertebrae:
- Cervical vertebrae – 7
- Thoracic vertebrae – 12
- Lumbar vertebrae – 5
- Sacral vertebrae – 5
- Coccyx – 4 fused vertebrae
Functions
- The vertebral column supports the skull.
- It surrounds and protects the spinal cord.
- It is a place of attachment for ribs, the pectoral and pelvic girdle.
- It is a place of attachment for back muscles.
- The S-shaped curvature provides flexibility and absorbs shock.
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Rib cage – It consists of twelve thoracic vertebrae, twelve pairs of ribs and the
sternum. All twelve pairs of ribs are attached to the back of the vertebral column.
The first seven pairs of ribs are attached directly to the sternum in front by cartilage
and are known as true ribs.
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The next three pairs of ribs are attached to the preceding rib with cartilage and are
known as false ribs.
The last two pairs of ribs are not attached to the sternum at all and are called floating
ribs.
Functions
- It protects the organs in the thoracic cavity, i.e. the heart and lungs.
- It plays a role in breathing because the movement of the rib cage increases and
decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON – it consists of:

- Pectoral girdle
- Upper limbs
- Pelvic girdle
- Lower limbs
Pectoral girdle – It consists of two scapulae (shoulder blades) at the back and two
clavicles (collarbones) in front. The scapula is a large, flat, triangular bone with a
prominent ridge on the back for the attachment of muscles. The clavicle is an S-shaped
bone that joins with the scapula on the one side and with the sternum on the other
side.
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Upper limbs – are made up of six different bones.
- Humerus – a long bone that stretches from the pectoral girdle to the elbow.
- Ulna – the larger bone of the two in the forearm and is situated on the little
finger side. It articulates with the humerus to form the elbow joints.
- Radius – the thinner one of the two bones in the forearm and is situated on the
thumb side. The lower end of the radius is wider than the upper end and it
articulates with the carpals to form the elbow joint.
- Carpals – eight small, short bones that are arranged in two rows of four.
- Metacarpals – five bones that form the palm of the hand.
- Phalanges – form the fingers and consist of fourteen bones (three in each finger
except in the thumb, which has only two).
Pelvic girdle – It consists of two hip bones that are joined in the middle by a semi-
movable joint, the pubic symphysis. The hip bones are made up of three fused
bones: the ilium, the ischium and the pubis (pubic bone). The head of the femur fits
into the acetabulum to form a ball and socket joint. At the back, the hip bones are
attached to the sacrum.
Lower limbs –they are made up of seven different types of bones:

- Femur – the longest and largest bone in the human body.
- Patella (knee cap) – a flat, triangular bone that occurs in front of the femur and
forms a knee joint.
- Tibia – the larger of the two bones in the lower leg.
- Fibula – the thinner of the two bones in the lower leg and is situated slightly
behind and on the outside of the tibia.
- Tarsals – seven bones that form the ankle. The largest of the bones is the
calcaneum (heel bone) at the back.
- Metatarsals – five bones that form the arch of the foot.
- Phalanges – form the toes and consist of fourteen bones (three in each toe,
except for the big toe, which has only two).
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BONE, CARTILAGE, TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS
Bone – the endoskeleton of humans mainly consists of bone, which is living tissue.
Two types of bone tissue can be distinguished:
- Compact bone – consists of hard, dense bone tissue. It forms the surface of
bones and the shafts of long bones. Compact bones provide strength and
support to the skeleton.
- Spongy bone – consists of softer, lighter bone tissue. It forms the heads of long
bones and contains red marrow which produces red blood corpuscles and white
blood corpuscles. Spongy bones exert resistance against forces that act on
bones.
Cartilage – also forms part of the human endoskeleton. It is a semi-transparent, tough,

elastic connective tissue.
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Tendons – it consists of inelastic, white fibrous connective tissue that attaches muscle
to bone.
Ligaments – consist of tough, yellow elastic connective tissue that attach bone to
bone. Ligaments stretch only enough to control the movement in a joint. They hold the
bones in a joint in position and in so doing, stabilise the joint.
JOINTS
A joint is a junction in the skeleton where two or more bones meet and are joined by
ligaments or cartilage.
Classification of joints
A joint is classified according to the degree of movement it permits.
- Immovable joints: this type of joint does not allow any movement. Example is
the serrated sutures between the bones of the cranium.
- Semi-movable joints: this type of joint allows a slight degree of movement. E.g.
joints between the vertebrae and the pubic symphysis (between the two pubic
bones in the pelvic girdle).
- Freely movable (synovial) joints: this type of joint allows free movement.
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Types of synovial joints
- Ball and socket joint e.g. shoulder and hip joint. This joint allows movement in
any direction.
- Hinge joint e.g. elbow and knee joint. This joint permit movement in only one
plane.
- Pivot joint e.g. the first cervical vertebra (atlas) rotates around a bony projection
of the second cervical vertebra (axis). This rotation makes the turning of the
head possible.
- Gliding joint e.g. bones of the wrist and ankle joint. In this joint, the flat articular
surface of one bone slides over another.
SKELETAL MUSCLE
They are muscles that are attached to the skeleton and bring about movement of parts
of the body by contraction and relaxation. They are attached to the skeleton by
inelastic tendons. They have dark and light bands (striated muscles). They are under
voluntary control.
Skeletal muscles are often arranged in pairs (one contracts as the other relaxes).
These muscles are known as antagonistic muscles and they make coordinated
movements possible.
When one of the antagonistic muscles in the pair contracts and the other one relaxes,
a controlled movement is brought about. A good example of antagonistic muscles are
the biceps and triceps in the arm.
- Biceps is situated at the front of the upper arm. It has two tendons attached to
the pectoral girdle.
- Triceps occurs at the back of the upper arm. It has three tendons attached to
the pectoral girdle.
When the biceps contracts and the triceps relax, the elbow joint bends and the forearm
is lifted.
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When the triceps contracts and the biceps relax, the elbow joint extends, and the
forearm is lowered.
The biceps is also known as a flexor muscle and the triceps is also known as an
extensor muscle.
DISEASES THAT AFFECT THE SKELETON

Rickets – a deficiency disease where the bones become soft, bend and weaken the
skeleton. It is caused by a shortage of vitamin D. It occurs in children.
Osteoporosis – bones become porous and less dense due to a shortage of calcium.
It is more common in older women.
Arthritis – a disease that causes severe pain and a loss of movement in the joints.
There is inflammation in the joints.
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TOPIC 9:
TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN MAMMALS (HUMANS) PAPER 2 – 32 MARKS)
BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

The blood circulatory system in humans consists of three main components:
- The Heart – the pumping organ
- The Blood vessels – tubes in which the blood flows
- The Blood – the fluid that acts as a transport medium in the blood vessels
CLOSED BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Humans have a closed blood system circulatory, where blood is limited to the blood
vessels. Blood is pumped from the heart into blood vessels which reach all the body
tissues. Larger blood vessels branch to form smaller ones, which transport blood
between the cells for the exchange of gases, nutrients and wastes. Blood flows back
to the heart in blood vessels with valves, which ensure that the blood flows in one
direction only (i.e. to the heart).
The heart consists of four chambers which function as two separate pumps.
After the blood has circulated through the body, it is pumped to the lungs under high
pressure to absorb oxygen. The high-rate of oxygen-rich blood flowing through the
body makes it possible to maintain a high level of activity.
THE HEART
External structure
The human heart is a hollow, pear-shaped muscular organ and is approximately the
size of a closed fist.
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The walls of the heart consist of cardiac muscle tissue, which contracts and relaxes
automatically.
The heart is situated in the thoracic cavity, above the diaphragm and between the
lungs. It is protected by the ribs and sternum.
The upper end of the heart is slightly wider than the lower end, which points
downwards and to the left.
The heart is kept in position by the large blood vessels that enter and leave it.
The heart is enclosed by a double-walled membrane, the pericardium. A watery fluid
occurs between the two membranes, which prevents friction between the heart and
surrounding organs when the heart contracts and relaxes.
The coronary blood vessels are visible on the outer surface of the heart. These vessels
transport blood to and from the cardiac muscle.
Internal structure
The heart is divided into a left and right half by a strong muscular wall, the septum.
The left side contains oxygenated blood (which has a high concentration of oxygen)
while the right side contains deoxygenated blood (which has a low concentration of
oxygen). The blood in the left side never mixes with the blood in the right side,
therefore the heart can be seen as a double pump.
Each half is further divided into two chambers so that the heart consists of four
chambers. The two upper chambers are known as atria (receiving chambers) and
are smaller, with thinner muscular walls than the lower two chambers, which are
known as the ventricles (pumping chambers).
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The inside of the heart is lined with a thin membrane of squamous epithelium, the
endothelium.
Right atrium (RA)

- The right atrium is one of the upper chambers of the heart and receives
deoxygenated blood from the whole body.
- The walls are thin because the blood only needs to be pumped from the right
atrium to the right ventricle.
- Two large veins open into the right atrium: the superior vena cava and the
inferior vena cava.
- The superior vena cava transports deoxygenated blood from the head and arms
to the heart.
- The inferior vena cava transports deoxygenated blood from the lower limbs and
abdomen to the heart.
Right ventricle (RV)

- The right ventricle is situated directly below the right atrium and it has thicker
muscular walls than the right atrium.
- The blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle through an opening,
the atrio-ventricular opening.
- Deoxygenated blood is then pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries.
Left atrium (LA)

- The left atrium is situated at the top left and it receives oxygenated blood from
the lungs.
- Four pulmonary veins open into the left atrium.
- The structure of the left atrium corresponds to that of the right atrium.
Left ventricle (LV)

- The left ventricle is situated directly below the left atrium.
- It is the largest chamber with the thickest muscular walls because the left
ventricle pumps oxygenated blood throughout the whole body.
- The blood flows from the left atrium to the left ventricle through the atrio-
ventricular opening.
- The oxygenated blood is then pumped to the rest of the body via the largest
artery in the body, the aorta.
NOTE:
- Arteries transport blood away from the heart while veins transport blood to the
heart.
- Pulmonary arteries – the only arteries in the body that transport deoxygenated
blood. All other arteries transport oxygenated blood.
- Pulmonary veins – the only veins in the body that transport oxygenated blood.
All other veins transport deoxygenated blood.
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CARDIAC VALVES
The valves prevent backflow of blood in the heart and ensure that blood only flows
through the heart in one direction.
There are three different cardiac valves:

Tricuspid valve: It is situated between the right atrium and the right ventricle. This
valve consists of three flaps. When the right atrium contracts, the flaps of the valves
are pushed open and the blood flows through the atrio-ventricular opening to the right
ventricle. When the right ventricle contract, the blood pushes the valve flaps up and
closes the atrio-ventricular opening.
Bicuspid (mitral) valve: It is situated in the opening between the left atrium and the
left ventricle. This valve consists of two flaps. The functioning of this valve corresponds
to that of the tricuspid valve; it prevents backflow of blood into the left atrium when the
left ventricle contracts.
Semilunar valves: semilunar valves occur at the base of the aorta and pulmonary
artery, where these blood vessels leave the ventricles. When the ventricles contract,
the blood pushes the flaps flat against the artery walls and the valves are open. When
the ventricles relax, the blood flows back and fills the pockets, which then push against
each other and close the valves.
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FUNCTIONING OF THE HEART
The heart pumps blood throughout the body to transport oxygen and nutrients to all
the cells and to transport carbon dioxide and waste products away from the cells.
THE CARDIAC CYCLE

The human heart beats an average of 72 beats per minute. Each heartbeat lasts 0,8
seconds. All the changes that occur in the heart during one heartbeat are known as
the cardiac cycle. The contraction of any part of the cardiac muscle is called systole,
while the relaxation of any part of the cardiac muscle is known as diastole.
The cardiac cycle can be divided into three phases:
- Atrial systole
- Ventricular systole
- General diastole
Atrial systole (0.1s) – Both atria are filled with blood and contract simultaneously.
The openings of the vena cavae and the pulmonary veins are squeezed closed due to
the contraction of the atria. The tricuspid and bicuspid valves are forced open and the
blood is pumped through the atrio-ventricular openings to the ventricles.
Ventricular systole (0,3s) – The ventricles contract simultaneously. The contraction

closes the tricuspid and bicuspid valves so that no blood can flow back into the atria.
Deoxygenated blood is pumped out of the RV into the pulmonary artery and
oxygenated blood is pumped from the LV into the aorta. The semilunar valves in the
pulmonary artery and aorta are open.
General diastole (0,4s) – The ventricles and atria relax. The cycle starts all over
again.
BLOOD VESSELS
The blood is transported in a continuous system of tubes, the blood vessels, from the
heart to all the body tissues and back to the heart again. The body contains about 5
litres of blood which circulates in the blood vessels.
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Three types of blood vessels can be distinguished:
Arteries – transport blood away from the heart. The lumen (inner space) of an artery
is smaller and more regularly shaped than that of a vein. Arteries branch and become
smaller and smaller to form thinner arteries known as arterioles. Because blood flows
under high pressure, no valves occur in arteries except in the aorta and pulmonary
artery, each of which have semilunar valves at their bases.
Capillaries – arterioles branch and later become microscopically small tubes, the
capillaries, which form a branched network between cells in the tissue. The walls of
capillaries consist of only one thin layer of endothelium. The lumen in a capillary is so
small that red blood corpuscles can only move through in a single file. This slows the
blood flow so that the exchange of gases into and out of cells can take place more
effectively.
Veins – capillary vessels reunite and form larger blood vessels, the venules, which
combine to form the veins. Veins transport blood back to the heart. Blood in vein flows
under very low pressure.
The contraction of skeletal muscles close to the veins helps the blood to move in the
direction of the heart. There are semilunar valves in the veins which only allow blood
to flow in one direction (to the heart) and prevent backflow.
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HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Humans have a double circulatory system. Two main circulatory systems can be
distinguished:
Pulmonary circulatory system

Blood flows from the heart to the lungs and back. Deoxygenated blood leaves the RV
through the pulmonary artery and flows to the lungs. The blood absorbs oxygen from
the lungs via diffusion and releases carbon dioxide. Oxygenated blood flows back to
the left atrium via the pulmonary veins.
Systemic circulatory system

Blood flows from the heart to the rest of the body and back. Oxygenated blood leaves
the LV through the aorta and branches throughout the body into smaller arteries,
arterioles and eventually into microscopically small capillaries, which branch between
all tissue cells.
The exchange of substances occurs between the blood in the capillaries and the tissue
cells. The capillaries join to form venules and veins. Oxygenated blood flows through
the superior and inferior venae cavae to the right atrium.
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MECHANISMS CONTROLLING THE HEARTBEAT
The cardiac muscle has the property of automatism – it can contract and relax without
any external stimuli. The contractions begin within the muscle.
Each cardiac cycle results in a lub-dup sound known as heartbeat.
- Lub sound is caused by the closing of the bicuspid and tricuspid valves and is
louder than the dup sound.
- Dup sound is caused by the closing of the semilunar valves.
The heartbeat can be heard using an instrument, the stethoscope.
How the heart beat

Specialised conducting tissue occurs in the wall of the heart.
Groups of specialised muscle cells:
- Sino-atrial (SA) node, in the wall of the right atrium. SA node initiates the
impulses for contraction (known as the pacemaker of the heart).
- Atrio-ventricular (AV) node, at the lower end of the septum between the right
atrium and left atrium.
Bundle of His (a special muscle tissue) extends throughout the septum between the
two ventricles and conducts impulses from the atria to the ventricles.
The bundle of His branches into a network of fibres (Purkinje fibres) at the apex of
the heart. These fibres branch throughout the walls of the ventricles to conduct
impulses faster and more effectively.
During cardiac cycle,
- Contraction begins at the SA node and spreads across the two atria (RA and
LA) to the AV node.
- The two atria contract simultaneously.
- The impulses from the AV node passes along the bundle of His to the Purkinje
fibres.
- The ventricles contract simultaneously from their lower ends.
CONTROL OF THE HEARTBEAT

The heartbeat is controlled by the nervous system as well as by hormones.
A healthy adult’s resting heart rate is approximately 72 beats per minute but can
increase to about 200 beats per minute after strenuous exercise.
The autonomic nervous system controls the heartbeat by conducting impulses via
two types of nerve fibres, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves, from brain
to the SA node.
Sympathetic nerves accelerate the heartbeat.
Parasympathetic nerves slow the heartbeat down to normal.
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The hormones adrenalin and thyroxin, which are transported in the blood, also
accelerate the heartbeat.
Adrenalin is a hormone that is released during stressful conditions. It causes a faster
heartbeat as blood is pumped faster to the brain and muscles, which need the most
oxygen in stressful conditions.
EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON THE HEARTBEAT

More respiration occurs in the muscles during exercise, to release more energy for
muscle contraction.
More CO2 is released into the blood.
Receptors in the carotid arteries (neck arteries) detect the increase in CO2
concentration in the blood and send nerve impulses to the brain.
Sympathetic nerve fibres transmit nerve impulses to the SA node which accelerates
the heartbeat.
Blood is pumped faster so that more deoxygenated blood can be pumped to the lungs
to release excess CO2.
Oxygenated blood also reaches the muscles faster.
NOTE:
Pulse: the regular contraction and relaxation of an artery, caused by the heart
pumping blood through the body.
Pulse rate: number of heart beats per minute.
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The blood on the arterial side of the capillary network is under higher pressure than
on the venous side. Because of the high pressure, most of the liquid part of the blood,
the blood plasma, is forced through the walls of the capillaries and lands between the
cells of the tissue. This fluid that surrounds the cells is now known as tissue fluid.
The cells absorb the nutrients and oxygen from the tissue fluid and release the waste
products and carbon dioxide back into the tissue fluid.
Only a small amount of the tissue fluid goes directly back into the capillaries. A
separate system of vessels, lymphatic system, drains the tissue fluid between the
cells and transport it back to the bloodstream.
Once the tissue fluid is in the lymphatic vessels, the fluid is known as lymph.
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Structure of the lymphatic system
A system of small, blind – ending lymphatic vessels known as the lymph capillaries
originate and branch between the cells of the tissues.
These lymph capillaries unite and form larger lymphatic vessels which eventually open
into two main lymphatic vessels: the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct.
All the lymphatic vessels in the lower limbs, intestines, left side of the chest, left arm,
left side of the head and neck open into the thoracic duct. The thoracic duct joins the
blood system by opening into the left subclavian vein.
The lymphatic vessels of the right side of the chest, right arm, right side of the neck
and head open into the right lymphatic duct, which joins the right subclavian vein.
The pressure in the lymphatic vessels is very low because there is no pump organ
(heart) in the lymphatic system to move the lymph through the lymphatic vessels.
Lymph is moved through the lymphatic vessels in the direction of the heart by the
movement of internal organs and by the contraction of voluntary skeletal muscles.
There are semilunar valves in the lymphatic vessels which prevent the backflow of
lymph in the vessels.
Small bean-shaped structures, the lymph nodes, are distributed throughout the body,
especially close to the lymphatic vessels, with larger concentrations in the armpits,
groin and neck.
- Lymph nodes act as filters and trap foreign particles.
- Lymphocytes (white blood cells), which engulf and destroy bacteria, are
produced in the lymph nodes.
- Lymph nodes also produce antibodies, which protect the body by providing
immunity against disease-causing viruses and bacteria.
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Functions of the lymphatic system
- It prevents the accumulation of tissue fluid between the cells by transporting it
back to the blood circulatory system.
- Plasma proteins, which accumulate in the tissue fluid, are transported back to
the bloodstream. High concentrations of plasma proteins in the tissue fluid can
be life-threatening.
- Villi in the small intestine have small lymphatic vessels (lacteals), which absorb
fats and open into larger lymphatic vessels, which transport these fats back to
the bloodstream.
- Lymph nodes produce lymphocytes and antibodies which protect the body
against disease-causing bacteria and viruses as well as foreign particles.
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CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
• High blood pressure (hypertension) and low blood pressure (hypotension.
• Stroke – loss of brain function due to a disturbance in the blood supply to the
brain. There is a shortage of oxygen supply to the brain.
• Heart attack – the supply of blood to the cardiac muscle is interrupted, which
leads to the death of a part of the cardiac muscle tissue.
Treatment of cardiovascular diseases

- Medication
- Angioplasty – a procedure that is carried out to stretch a narrowed artery and
to remove the blockage.
- Bypass operation – arteries or veins are cut from other parts of the body and
used as an alternative route for blood flow to the cardiac muscle.
- Heart transplant
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TOPIC 10:
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES - BIOSPHERE TO ECOSYSTEMS (PAPER 2 – 54
MARKS)
Biosphere
It is the part of the earth where living organisms occur. It consists of:
Atmosphere: layer of air that surrounds the earth and consists of a mixture of various
gases e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen etc.
Lithosphere: soil and rocks comprising the outer layer of the earth.
Hydrosphere: includes all the water on the surface of the earth (oceans, rivers, lakes
and even water vapour). Water covers approximately 75% of the surface of the earth.
Biomes
Any area with a particular climate, together with all the living organisms occurring in
the area. A biome derives its name from the dominant type of vegetation occurring in
the area. There are two major types of biome: terrestrial (land) and aquatic (water)
biomes.
Savannah
The largest biome in South Africa and covers about 34.3% of the surface of the
country.
Climate: warm wet summers and cold dry winters.
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Type of soil: sandy soil and lacking in nutrients.
Vegetation: predominantly grasses, e.g. red grass, and trees, e.g. baobab, mopane,
camel thorn, monkey thorn (apiesdoring) and knob thorn. Frequent veld fires prevent
trees from dominating and encourage the germination of seeds. A part of this biome
is known as the Bushveld.
Animal life: the savannah is known for the wild animals that occur here, including the
‘Big Five’ (lion, elephant, leopard, rhinoceros and buffalo).
Grassland
It covers the high central plateau of South Africa, the interior of KwaZulu Natal and the
mountainous areas of the Eastern Cape.
Climate: hot summers with high rainfall (thunder storms) and cold winters with heavy
frost.
Type of Soil: sandy. Leaching of nutrients commonly occurs during the rainy seasons,
making the soil acidic.
Vegetation: mainly grasses, with very few trees. Sweet grasses, which have a high
nutritional value and serve as an important food source for animals, grow in the less
acidic more fertile soil. Sour grasses grow in the less fertile, acidic soil and have little
nutritional value. Usually veld fires occur every year and consequently there are few
woody trees. The grasses are adapted to survive the fires.
Animal life: large herds of black wildebeest, blesbok and eland occurred in grasslands
in the past, but now these animals only survive in nature reserves and on game farms.
An abundant bird life occurs in the area, mainly seed eaters (e.g. the black
bustard/korhaan, blue crane and the helmeted guinea fowl.
Nama karoo
This biome extends over the wide central plateau of the western part of South Africa.
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Climate: very hot summers and cold winters, with regular frost. The area is a semi-
desert that receives very little rain.
Type of soil: the soil is rich in lime and forms a thin layer over rocks.
Vegetation: the plants are mostly grasses and small shrubs, e.g. Christmas berry (wild
gentian), sweet thorn and blue Karoo daisies.
Animal life: This area is known for sheep and goat farming because the vegetation
offers good grazing. Other animals occurring in the Nama Karoo include bat-eared
foxes, ostriches, spring hares, tortoises and the riverine rabbit. The riverine rabbit is
endemic to this area.
Succulent karoo
This biome extends over the arid western part of South Africa, including Namaqualand
and the Richtersveld.
Climate: Very hot, dry summers and cold winters. Winter rainfall is very low.
Type of soil: the soil is rich in lime and forms a thin layer over rocks.
Vegetation: The plants in this biome are adapted to extremely dry summer conditions.
The plants are mostly small succulents, with thick, fleshy leaves that store water. The
largest number of succulents in the world occurs in this biome.
Examples include small vygies, stone plants (toontjies) and quiver trees. In springtime,
this biome is covered with flowers, which annually attract large numbers of tourists to
the area.
Animal life: Many of the animals that occur here are nocturnal and hide in holes during
the day to escape the hot, dry conditions. Animals include the bat-eared fox, suricate
(meerkat), and barking gecko.
Fynbos
Fynbos occurs exclusively in the southwestern and southern parts of the Western
Cape.
Climate: Cool, wet winters (winter rainfall area) and hot, dry summers.
Type of soil: Soil is sandy, acidic and not very fertile due to the leaching of nutrients.
Vegetation: It consists of evergreen shrubs with hard leaves, e.g. proteas, ericas and
restios. Few trees and grasses occur.
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This biome includes approximately 8 600 flowering plant species and is one of the
richest floral regions in the world. Approximately 68% of the plant species are endemic.
Fire is an important factor in the germination of seeds.
Animal life: A wide variety of animals occur including the grysbok, steenbok, bontebok,
geometric tortoise, porcupine, leopard and Cape baboon. There is a wide variety of
bird species, especially nectar- and seed-eating birds.
Forests
This biome is the smallest and covers only 0,1% of South Africa’s surface. The largest
and best-known forests in South Africa are the Knysna and Tsitsikamma forests in
Southern Cape. Other forests are smaller and more isolated, including the dune
forests in KwaZulu-Natal and the mountain forests in the Drakensberg.
Climate: Forests are found in areas with a high rainfall and no frost.
Type of soil: The soil is fertile with a thin layer of humus.
Vegetation: forests consist of trees that form a closed canopy of leaves, with several
strata (layers) of vegetation under the roof of foliage. Forests vegetation includes
yellowwood, stinkwood, ironwood, creepers/vines, epiphytes, mosses and ferns.
Animal life: Bushpigs, bushbuck, monkeys, Knysna loeries, pigeons and eagles.
Thicket
This biome stretches from the west coast of South Africa to KwaZulu-Natal with the
largest part situated in Eastern Cape.
Climate: It varies because it extends over a large area.
Type of soil: the soil is often shallow and varies from sandy loam to sandy clay soil
that is rich in lime.
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Vegetation: The vegetation varies from shrubland to low forests with many evergreen
and succulent trees and shrubs. Many of the plants have thorns.
Examples of plants that occur here include the spekboom (elephant bush), Euphorbia,
Cape honeysuckle and Plumbago.
Animal life: The African elephant, kudu, vervet monkey and bushbuck.
ECOSYSTEMS
A particular area in which living (biotic) components interact with each other and with
non-living (abiotic) components. An ecosystem can be as large as a giant rainforest,
or as small as a drop of water from a fish pond.
Environment is the sum total of the biological, physical and chemical conditions
surrounding an organism.
The study of ecosystems is known as ecology. Ecology is the study of relationships
and interactions between living organisms, and between the organisms and the natural
environment in which they occur.
An ecosystem consists of TWO main components:
- Abiotic (non-living) component
- Biotic (living) component
ABIOTIC (NON-LIVING) COMPONENT

The abiotic component includes the following:
- Physiographic factors
- Edaphic (soil) factors
- Light
- Temperature
- Water
- Atmospheric gases
- Wind
Physiographic factors
Aspect (slope direction)
Aspect refers to the position of an area in relation to the sun. The vegetation on a
north-facing slope differs greatly from that on a south-facing slope.
In South Africa (which is in the southern hemisphere) north facing slopes get more
direct sunlight than south-facing slopes.
Therefore, north-facing slopes are warmer, drier and the plants thrive in the sunlight
while south-facing slopes are cooler and wetter, where shade plants, e.g. ferns, thrive.
Slope
A mountain’s slope determines the rate of water run-off.
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A steep slope’s water run-off is faster than a gradual slope and soil erosion will occur
more frequently. Soil on a steep slope is usually shallow and infertile. Few plants and
animals are present.
Height above sea level

Areas high above sea level (e.g. mountain tops) experience extreme weather
conditions, such as strong winds and even snow.
Plants and animals that occur high above sea level differ from those closer to sea
level.
Edaphic (soil) factors

Type of soil/soil texture
There are mainly three types of soil, i.e. clay, loam and sand. Clay consists of tiny soil
particles and loam of slightly bigger particles, while sandy soil is coarser and consists
of large particles.
Soil air
In sandy soil there are bigger spaces between the soil particles and it is well aerated,
while clay soil has very small spaces and is therefore poorly aerated.
Water-holding capacity
Sandy soil has large spaces between the soil particles and it has a low water-holding
capacity. Water rapidly filters through sandy soil, taking along valuable nutrients
(leaching).
Clay soil has many tiny spaces between the soil particles and it has a high water-
holding capacity. Therefore, the drainage of clay is poor and plant roots may rot easily.
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Loam has a medium water-holding capacity, is well aerated and contains sufficient
nutrients. It is the most suitable type of soil for plant growth.
Humus content
Humus is decayed plant and animal matter. It increases both the soil fertility and the
water-holding capacity of soil. Soil with a high humus content is usually dark in colour.
pH
Some plants (e.g. azaleas and proteas) grow better in acidic soil (low pH). Succulent
plants grow better in alkaline soil (high pH). However, most plants grow well in neutral
soil (pH 7).
Light
Plants need light for photosynthesis. However, excessive light may damage tissues.
The effect of day length on the growth of plant is called photoperiodism.
- Short day plants only flower if the day length is shorter than 12 hours.
- Long day plants need a day length of more than 12 hours to flower.
- Neutral plants are not affected by day length.
Light intensity also affects the growth movements and turgor of a plant. Some flowers
e.g. vygies close when light intensity decreases and others, such as the evening
primrose, open when light intensity decreases.
Some plants are adapted to the light intensity to which they are exposed. In shade
plants, photosynthesis takes place at a much lower light intensity.
Some animals, such as moths and bats, are nocturnal. Moles and earthworms that
lives underground also prefer darkness.
Temperature
The temperature that plants and animals are exposed to varies significantly between
day and night and between summer and winter.
Ectothermic animals – their body temperature depends on the environmental
temperature. They become inactive in cold winter temperatures and hibernate to
survive.
Endothermic animals – they keep their body temperature constant regardless of
environmental temperature. They also hibernate or even migrate to warmer habitats
during winter.
Annuals complete their life cycle in one season and survive the winter in form of
seeds.
Deciduous trees lose their leaves in winter, thereby reducing their metabolism in order
to survive.
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Some plants lose their epigeal (aboveground) parts and hibernate in the form of bulbs,
tubers or rhizomes.
Water
Water is vital for the survival of all living organisms. Plants are adapted with regard to
their water needs and are consequently divided into:
- Hydrophytes: plants that are adapted to grow in water, e.g. water lilies and
water hyacinths.
- Mesophytes: plants that grow in areas with moderate water supply, e.g. fruit
trees, poplars, wheat and maize.
- Xerophytes: plants that are adapted to grow in extremely dry conditions. They
are also known as succulents, e.g. Aloe vera and Hoodia gordoni. Xerophytes
usually have thick, fleshy leaves to store water.
Animals are also adapted in different ways with regard to water:

- The kangaroo rat never drinks water but obtains water from its food. Some
animals, such as the camel, springbok and gemsbok, live without water for long
periods.
- Desert animals such as the camel excrete urine in the form of crystals, to retain
as much water as possible in the body.
- Animals like earthworms need damp soil to survive.
- Insects have a hard exoskeleton that prevents dehydration of the body.
- The body of a reptile is covered in a hard, dry scales to prevent water loss.
- Animals that are adapted to live in water are called aquatic animals, e.g. fish
have gills for gaseous exchange and fins for swimming and balance; whales,
seals and dolphins have lungs and come up to the water surface to take in
oxygen.
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Water cycle
Water moves from the atmosphere to the earth in the form of rain, snow, fog, hail, dew
and frost. This is called precipitation.
A part of the water that reaches the earth is absorbed by the upper layers of soil form
hygroscopic and capillary water.
Hygroscopic water – the layer of water that adheres tightly around the soil particles
and cannot easily be absorbed by plant roots.
Capillary water- water that is found between soil particles and can easily be absorbed
by plant roots.
Some of the water filters through the upper layers of soil to the water table and is called
gravitational water. The process during which water is absorbed by the soil is known
as infiltration.
Some of the water runs off above ground and forms streams and rivers that flow into
lakes and oceans.
Some of the underground water can reach the soil surface again via springs.
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Water reaches the atmosphere by evaporation from large water masses (e.g. rivers,
lakes or dams) and from the soil. Plants transpire and lose water to the atmosphere
in the form of water vapour. Large amounts of water vapour condense and form
clouds.
The cycle is now complete, and water returns to the earth by means of precipitation.
*Water table – the upper surface of the saturated layer of groundwater, in the deeper
layers of the soil.
Importance of wetlands
Wetlands include a wide range of inland and coastal habitats, e.g. lagoons, marshes
and estuaries, which are linked by rivers and streams.
- Wetlands provide a regular water supply. The water is filtered naturally by

vegetation, and the effects of floods and droughts are reduced.
Most wetlands have a high-water table and soil with a high water-holding capacity.
Hydrophytes (water plants) are abundant.
- Wetlands play an important role in maintaining biodiversity, because they

support an extraordinary variety of plant and animal life. Plants such as the
bulrush (Typha capensis), the arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica) and the red-
hot poker (Kniphofia caulescens) are commonly found in wetlands.
Wetlands are presently under enormous pressure. More than 50% of SA’s wetlands
has already been lost.
Atmospheric gases
The air around us consists of a mixture of gases – 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.04%
carbon dioxide, 0.96% other gases in varying amounts, e.g. water vapour.
- All living organisms, except anaerobic bacteria need oxygen for respiration.
- Green plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
- Terrestrial organisms take oxygen directly from the atmosphere; aquatic
organisms absorb it from the water; and soil organisms obtain it from the air
between the soil particles.
- Plants absorb nitrogen in the form of nitrates from the soil, while animals obtain
it from the food they eat.
Plants and animals are adapted for gaseous exchange in the following ways:
- Animals have respiratory organs with specialised gaseous exchange surfaces,
e.g. birds and mammals (lungs), fish (gills), earthworm (moist skins)
- Plants have stomata on their leaves and stem through which gaseous
exchange takes place. Woody plants have lenticels for gaseous exchange.
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- Some aquatic insects, such as water beetle, trap air bubbles between their body
hairs for gaseous exchange.
Wind
Moving air (wind) accelerates the processes of evaporation and transpiration, resulting
in living organisms losing water more rapidly.
BIOTIC (LIVING) COMPONENT

Autotrophic component – consists of all green plants that can photosynthesise and
produce their own organic food (carbohydrates). The component is also known as the
producers.
Heterotrophic component – consists of organisms that cannot produce their own
food. They are directly or indirectly dependent on the producers for food. This
component is also known as the consumers and is subdivided into the primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers, as well as the decomposers.
- Primary consumers – they feed directly on the producers and they include
herbivores (eats plant matter) and omnivores (live partially on plant matter).
- Secondary consumer – they feed on the primary consumers and include

carnivores (meat eaters), scavengers (eats the remains of dead animals) and
omnivores.
- Tertiary consumers – they feed on secondary consumers and are all carnivores.
- Decomposers – they are mainly saprophytic bacteria and fungi that feed on
dead organic matter. They break down organic compounds into simple
inorganic compounds that are released back into the environment.
ENERGY FLOW
- Radiant energy from the sun is converted into chemical potential energy during
photosynthesis and carbohydrates are stored in green plants (producers).
- Primary consumers obtain their energy from the plants (producers) that they
eat.
- Secondary consumers obtain their energy by eating the primary consumers.
- Tertiary consumers obtain their energy by eating the secondary consumers.
- Finally, the producers and the consumers die and are decomposed by bacteria
and fungi (decomposers). Energy is released into the environment.
This transfer of energy from the sun, through green plants and the various consumers,
is known as a food chain.
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A food chain always starts with the producers, followed by the consumers and ends
with the decomposers. A food chain never occurs in isolation (alone or separately) but
is usually linked to other food chains to form a food web.
Representation of a food chain
TROPHIC LEVELS
Living organisms occur at different feeding levels, known as trophic levels, of the
ecosystem.
- Producers (green plants) form the first trophic level and have the greatest
amount of energy. Why? They produce their own food.
- Primary consumers (herbivores) form the second trophic level.
- Secondary consumers (carnivores) form the third trophic level.
- Tertiary consumers form the fourth trophic level.
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- Omnivores may be part of the second, third or fourth trophic level depending
on their food.
- Decomposers (bacteria and fungi) may be part of any of the trophic levels, as
it depends on which organisms are being decomposed.
Energy is used by the organisms at each trophic level for growth, respiration, excretion
and egestion. Therefore, the same amount of energy is not available for the next
trophic level. The longer the food chain, the less energy is transferred from one trophic
level to another.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID
The different trophic levels are often represented as ecological pyramids. Producers
always make up the base of an ecological pyramid, and the consumers follow.
Three types of ecological pyramids can be distinguished:
- Pyramid of numbers
- Pyramid of biomass
- Pyramid of energy
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Pyramid of numbers
Pyramid of numbers show the actual number of individuals on each trophic level,
followed by the decreasing levels. Sometimes, the pyramid of numbers is upside
down, with the smallest trophic level at the bottom.
Pyramid of biomass
Pyramids of biomass show the total mass of the organisms at each trophic level. The
greater the productivity of an ecosystem, the larger the amount of living material it can
support.
Pyramid of energy
Pyramids of energy show the amount of energy that occurs on each trophic level.
95
NUTRIENT CYCLE
Oxygen cycle
Just like other elements, oxygen circulates through the ecosystem and biosphere. The
earth has a fixed amount of oxygen, which occurs in the atmosphere, oceans, rocks
and all living organisms.
Oxygen atoms never occur as single atoms in the atmosphere. An oxygen molecule
(O2) always consists of two oxygen atoms, or it is in combination with other elements,
e.g. in water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Living organisms use oxygen in various forms:
- Photosynthetic organisms (e.g. green plants) are the main source of oxygen on
earth. Through the process of photosynthesis, green plants use carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere to form carbohydrates and oxygen.
- Both animals and plants absorb oxygen from the atmosphere to break down
carbohydrates (glucose) into CO2 and water during the process of respiration.
- Decomposers need oxygen to break down organic matter and release carbon
dioxide.
- Aquatic organisms use oxygen for respiration and decomposition and release
carbon dioxide in the water.
- Organisms like lichens break down rocks over thousands of years (weathering)
and release nutrients and oxygen for living organisms.
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Nitrogen
Living organisms need nitrogen to form amino acids, which are the building blocks of
proteins. Nitrogen gas (N2) occurs in large amounts in the atmosphere, but plants and
animals cannot use it in this form.
Plants can only use nitrogen in the form of nitrates. Free nitrogen is converted into
nitrates in two ways:
- Electrical fixation by lightning and rain,
- Nitrogen – fixing bacteria
Nitrates in the soil are absorbed by plants. The nitrogen in nitrates is used to form
plant proteins. Animals eat the plants and obtain nitrogen, which is used to produce
animal proteins.
When plants and animals die, the protein in their bodies are broken down into
ammonia by decomposition bacteria.
Excretions of animals contain the compound urea, which is also converted to
ammonia. Ammonia is broken down to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria in two steps:
- Ammonia to nitrites (NO2-)
- Nitrites to nitrates (NO3-)
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Carbon cycle
Carbon is an important component of organic compounds, e.g. carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and vitamins. Carbon occur in the form of carbon dioxide
(CO2) in the atmosphere and is dissolved in water.
Green plants use carbon dioxide to produce organic compounds. The carbon in the
organic compounds in plants, is transferred to animals when they eat plant material.
Sometimes, dead plant and animal remains do not decompose, but are compressed
(fossilised) to form fossil fuels such as coal and crude oil.
CO2 returns to the atmosphere in three ways to complete the cycle:

- Cellular respiration – organic compound (carbohydrates) in plants and animals
are broken down in the presence of O2 and energy, water and CO2 are
released.
- Decomposition – decomposers break down organic matter and release carbon

in the form of carbon dioxide.
- Combustion – burning of woods and fossil fuels release carbon dioxide.
98
ECOTOURISM IN SOUTH AFRICA
ECOTOURISM – responsible travel to natural areas where the environment is
conserved and where the well-being of the local people is improved. It includes the
diverse community activities and culture of our country’s people, as well as its scarce
and sensitive natural resources.
Ecotourism;
- Generates greater economic benefits for local people and enhances their well-
being.
- Reduces poverty due to employment opportunities for local people
- Involves local people in decision-making that directly affects their lives.
- Helps protect biodiversity.
- Provides more enjoyable experiences for tourists by enabling them to have
more meaningful interactions and experiences with local people; the local
people’s culture, social and environmental issues are better understood.
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TOPIC 11:
BIODIVERSITY AND CLASSIFICATION (PAPER 2 – 21 MARKS)
BIODIVERSITY OF LIFE ON EARTH

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms that occur on earth. This includes:
- Species diversity (variety of species)
- Genetic diversity (genetic variety within a species)
- Ecosystem diversity (the variety of ecosystems that occur in a specific area)
South Africa has the third highest level of biodiversity in the world.
Indigenous species: species that occur naturally in a particular country or region.
Exotic (alien) species: species that do not occur naturally in a particular country or
region but have been brought there from another country or region by mistake or
deliberately.
Endemic species: species that only occur in one country or region and nowhere else
in the world.
South Africa has a large number of endemic species. Many of these species are
‘endangered’ or ‘critically endangered’ and close to extinction e.g. the Cape sugarbird,
riverine rabbit and disa plant.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
Living organisms are divided into groups and subgroups according to similarities and
shared characteristics.
The groups into which organisms are classified are also known as taxa. The formal
scientific classification of organisms is known as taxonomy.
100
Two-kingdom system: Carl Linnaeus (1758), a Swedish botanist classified living
organisms into two kingdoms (plants and animals).
Living organisms
Plantae Animalia
Linnaeus developed a hierarchical system of classification, where seven categories
are used:
Kingdom Phylum/Division Class Order Family Genus Species
- The classification starts at the Kingdom, with each consecutive level of

classification becoming more and more specific.
- Organisms within the same family have more in common than organisms within
the same order etc.
- A Kingdom is subdivided into phyla for animals, but in plants the term division
is used.
Basic Taxonomical Classification System for Plants and Animals
Five-kingdom system: Robert Whitaker (1969) proposed the five-kingdom system.

Living organisms
Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
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The following criteria are used to classify organisms into the five kingdoms:
▪ Body structure – unicellular/multicellular/colonies
▪ Cell structure – presence/absence of nucleus; organelles (chloroplasts)
▪ Composition of cell wall – cellulose/chitin/no cell wall
▪ Motility – mobile/immobile
▪ Mode of nutrition – autotrophic/heterotrophic
▪ Method of reproduction – binary fission/asexual/sexual
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

All living organisms can be divided into two groups according to their cell structure:
Prokaryotes: organisms with cells that do not have true nuclei.

- Their DNA is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane and therefore occurs free in
the cytoplasm.
- No true organelles occur in the cytoplasm.
- Monera (bacteria) are prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes: organisms with cells that have true nuclei.

- Their DNA is enclosed by a nuclear membrane and therefore occurs inside the
nucleus.
- True organelles occur in the cytoplasm.
- All Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia are all eukaryotes.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIVE KINGDOMS

KINGDOM MONERA – All bacteria are classified under the kingdom Monera.
General characteristics
- Bacteria are unicellular and simple.
- They have no true nuclei and therefore are prokaryotic.
- The bacterium cell is surrounded by a cell wall.
- Reproduction occurs asexually by binary fission, where a single cell divides into
two cells that are genetically identical.
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- Some bacteria are autotrophic and produce their own organic substances by
photosynthesis. The majority of bacteria are heterotrophic and cannot produce
their own organic substances.
Heterotrophic bacteria are either:

Parasitic: where organisms live together, and one benefits and the other is harmed.
Saprophytic: dependent on dead organic matter for food.
Mutualism: living together with other organisms, so that both benefit from the
relationship.
KINGDOM PROTISTA – Three groups can be distinguished:

▪ Protozoa – animal-like, unicellular, heterotrophic organisms.
▪ Algae – plant-like, autotrophic organisms (have chlorophyll and can
photosynthesise)
▪ Slime moulds and water moulds – fungus-like organisms.
- Some protists are unicellular and microscopically small, while others such as
the algae, are simple multicellular organisms and are visible to the naked eye.
- All protists have true nuclei and are therefore eukaryotic.
- Protists move by means of flagella, cilia and cyclosis.
- Algae are autotrophic while the rest are heterotrophic.
- Reproduction is mostly asexual (binary fission). However, some algae do
reproduce sexually.
- Protists live in almost any moist environment as most protists are aquatic.
KINGDOM FUNGI – Three groups can be distinguished:

- Yeast
- Mushrooms
- Moulds
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- Yeast are unicellular, while mushrooms and moulds are multicellular.
- All fungi are eukaryotic.
- They all have cell walls consisting of cellulose and chitin.
- Fungal body consists of a mass of branched filaments or hyphae.
- Fungi have no chlorophyll and are therefore heterotrophic. Most fungi are
saprophytes and live off dead organic plant and animal matter e.g. bread
mould and mushrooms. Some are parasites and feed on living material e.g.
the fungus that causes athlete’s foot. Some live mutualistically with other
organisms.
- Reproduction occurs:
a) Unicellular fungi - asexually (binary fission)
b) Multicellular fungi - asexually (spores) during favourable conditions
- sexually during unfavourable conditions.
KINGDOM PLANTAE – The plant kingdom is divided into four divisions.

- Bryophytes: mosses, liverworts and hornworts.
- Pteridophytes: ferns
- Gymnosperms: conifers, cycads, gnetales and ginkgo
- Angiosperms: flowering plants
- Plants are multicellular and complex.
- Plants have true nuclei and are therefore eukaryotic.
- Plants have cell walls of cellulose.
- Most plants are autotrophic and produce their own organic nutrients by
photosynthesis.
- Reproduction is:
a) Asexual by means of spores
b) Sexual by means of male and female gametes.
104
KINGDOM ANIMALIA – The kingdom is subdivided into approximately 35 phyla. The
nine most important are shown below:
- Porifera: sponges
- Cnidaria: jelly fish, blue bottles, corals, sea anemone
- Platyhelminthes: flatworms e.g. planaria, bilharzia worm, tapeworm
- Nematoda: round worms
- Annelida: earthworm, sea worms, leeches
- Mollusca: snails, oysters, mussels, octopi
- Echinodermata: starfish, sea urchins
- Arthropoda: insects, spiders, crustaceans, myriapoda
- Chordata: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals
- Animals are multicellular and complex.
- Animal cells have true nuclei and are therefore eukaryotic.
- Animal cells do not have cell walls
- Animals are heterotrophic and dependent on other organisms for food.
- Reproduction is:
a) Sometimes asexual
b) Mostly sexual by means of male and female gametes
105
NAMING OF SPECIES
A binomial (double-name) system was designed by Carl Linnaeus for the naming of
living organisms. Linnaeus’s binomial system stated that each species gets a dual
name that is unique to that species.
The scientific name consists of a genus name (group) and also a species name
(type).
e.g. Riverine rabbit (Bunolagus monticularis)
genus: Bunolagus (written with a capital letter)
species: monticularis (written with a small letter)
When only the genus is known, but not the species, it is shown as follows:
Bunolagus-sp (singular) OR Bunolagus-spp (plural)
106
TOPIC 12:
HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH (PAPER 2 – 43 MARKS)
HISTORY OF LIFE
Scientists estimate that the earth came into existence approximately 4,6 billion years
ago. According to scientists, life on earth started 3,8 billion years ago with a unicellular,
prokaryotic cell similar to a bacterial cell. Multicellular organisms only developed a few
billion years later.
Scientists try to make sense of the history of life on earth by relating it to other
important events, such as:
Increase in oxygen levels:

4,6 billion years ago Formation of earth; low oxygen level
3,8 billion years ago Prokaryotes (anaerobic bacteria)
3,5 – 2,5 billion years ago Photosynthetic bacteria; large quantity of

CO2 was used; more oxygen was released.
Level of oxygen increases.
Present Oxygen-dependent (aerobic) organisms

developed: increase in variety of living
organisms on earth.
Climate change e.g. ice ages: Ice ages are long geological periods of drastic
decrease in the temperature of the earth’s surface and atmosphere.
During the ice ages, many species that could not adapt to the low temperatures died
out. Some species were forced to migrate towards the equator where temperatures
were higher. Due to ice formation, the sea level dropped. This resulted in decreased
habitats and the extinction of many aquatic species.
Geological events e.g. continental drift: About 200 million years ago, all the
continents were fused to form one giant continent, Pangaea.
Pangaea broke up into two super continents: Laurasia (in the north) and
Gondwanaland (in the south). Approximately 120 million years ago, these two super
continents broke up even further into the continents we know at present.
As a result of continental drift, the climate changed. Habitats also changed or were
destroyed. A large number of life forms became extinct or had to adapt to the changing
environment.
107
By means of biogeography, evidence has been found that the continents were once
joined. Closely related species occurring on different continents probably shared a
108
common ancestor. Examples are ostrich in Africa, the emu in Australia, the nandu
(common rhea) in South America and the extinct moa of New Zealand. These birds
although on different landmasses show great similarities but belong to separate
species.
Biogeography – study of the distribution of existing and extinct plant and animal
species in specific geographical regions on earth.
Fossil evidence: Fossils are complete organisms or remains, imprints or traces/tracks

of organisms, usually preserved in a rock. The study of fossils is known as
palaeontology. Scientist who studies fossils is a palaeontologist.
Fossils provide evidence of earlier life (extinct organisms) on earth and give
information regarding the history of life on earth. Fossils also give indications of the
climate and the environment of millions of years ago.
THE GEOLOGICAL TIMESCALE

Geologists divide the history of the earth into geological time units. The purpose of a
geological timescale is to represent a timeline of life on earth, from the origin of the
earth.
Time units are divided according to the age of the fossils that have been discovered.
The largest defined unit is the aeon. An aeon is divided into three eras (the
Palaeozoic, the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic). Each of these is further divided into
periods, i.e. the Quaternary, Tertiary etc.
The period that precedes the Palaeozoic is known as the Precambrian.
109
All the fossils of different ages that have been discovered by palaeontologists are listed
and this is known as the fossil record. However, fossil records are incomplete and
not an indication of all the organisms that lived in a particular period.
110
Archaeopteryx, for example, is the earliest and most primitive bird known, is such a
transitional form and is regarded as the ‘missing link’ between reptiles (dinosaurs) and
birds. Archaeopteryx which means ‘ancient wing’ has characteristics of reptiles as well
as birds.
CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION
The Cambrian period is an important point in the history of life on earth. The early
forms of most animal groups appeared in this time. This occurrence is sometimes
known as the “Cambrian Explosion”, due to the relatively short time in which the large
diversity of life forms appeared.
111
Life forms of the past and present
112
113
114
MASS EXTINCTIONS
It occurs when many species disappear over the same period of time.
Five important mass extinctions have occurred since the creation of life on earth. They
all had physical causes, e.g. climate changes, volcanic eruptions, continental drifts
etc. Scientists believe that we are nearing the sixth extinction at a faster rate due to
some of the effects of our activities on earth.
115
FOSSILS
Fossils are complete organisms or remains, imprints or traces/tracks of organisms,
usually preserved in a rock.
Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks. These rocks are formed when clay and
sand particles are carried from one place to another by water or wind. These
sediments harden over hundreds of years.
Fossils are also found in other places like ice, volcanic lava, tar pits, anaerobic swamps
etc.
Fossilisation – set of inorganic process by which dead organisms or their parts are
transformed into fossils.
Different types of fossils

Body fossils – the preserved remains of organisms, namely:
- Complete organisms: the organism is preserved in resin, ice, tar, anaerobic
swamps. Even the soft tissue such as skin or muscle remains.
- Parts of organisms
116
- Moulds: the hard parts of an organism are trapped in sediment. The organic
material (hard parts) decomposes and leaves an imprint or mould.
Cast fossils – when the mould is filled with minerals, it is known as a cast (fossil)
Trace fossils – sign or marks of organisms that were once living. Examples are
footprints and burrows. The imprint hardens and is filled with sand or clay.
Fossil dating
The age of fossils can be determined using two methods;
Radiometric dating – this method is based on radioactivity. The rate of decay of a
radioactive element, e.g. uranium, potassium and calcium (half-life) is calculated. The
more the radioactive element in a fossil has decayed, the older the fossil.
Relative dating – palaeontologists and archaeologists study the sedimentary layers

above and below a fossil. Older fossils occur in the sedimentary layers below the fossil
and more recent species in the layer above the fossil.
Relative dating is not a very accurate form of dating but the sequence of life on earth
can be determined using this method.
FOSSIL EVIDENCE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

- Fossilised photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria), discovered in the
mountainous landscape of Barberton, Mpumalanga – A.
- Fossil of soft-bodied invertebrates discovered in Namibia – B and Northern
Cape – C.
- Fossil of early land/terrestrial plants discovered in the Eastern Cape – D.
- Fossils of the primitive plant, Glossopteris found near Mooiriver and Estcourt
(KZN) – E.
- The coelacanth (transitional form between fish and amphibians) was caught
near East London – F and also near Sodwana, off the north coast of KZN – G.
- Fossils of mammal-like reptiles e.g. Lystrosaurus and Thrinaxodon were found
in the Karoo – H.
- Fossils of early dinosaur, Euskelosaurus were found near Ladybrand in the
Free State – I and fossils of dinosaur bones were found in the Drakensberg and
Maluti Mountains – J.
- Fossils of early mammals were found in the Eastern Cape and Lesotho – K.
- Fossils of early human fossils were found in The Cradle of Humankind
(including Sterkfontein Caves) in Gauteng – L.
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118
REFERENCE
1. Answer series in Life Sciences.
2. Other sources from the internet.
119

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A straight to the point note

compiled in compliance with CAPS

A. FORMAT OF PROGRAMME OF ASSESSMENT (MPUMALANGA PROVINCE)

Term Task Marks DATE

B. FORMAT OF LIFE SCIENCE EXAMINATION PAPER

C. END OF THE YEAR EXAMINATION (NOVEMBER)

Strands in Life Sciences

Dependent variable: mass of tomatoes

Fixed/ Controlled variables: all tomato plants will:

The hypothesis should:

The best way to ensure reliability is to:

MOLECULES FOR LIFE

Monosaccharides – are single-ring structures. There are THREE types of

Polysaccharide – long chains of monosaccharides that bind to one another by a

Lipids (fats and oils)

Examples of lipids are fats, phospholipids and steroids.

Dipeptide – two amino acids linked by a peptide bond.

Meat tenderisers, washing powders and bleaching agents contain enzymes.

WATER-SOLUBLE (vitamins B and C) – these vitamins are absorbed by the body

FAT-SOLUBLE (vitamins A, D, E and K) – these can only be absorbed when dissolved

Insufficient vitamins cause deficiency diseases.

Test for starch

Lipids (fats and oils)

*filtrate – liquid that filtered through

Parts of a light microscope

Main Components of Plant & Animal Cells

Cell wall (in plant cells) Protoplasm

Cell membrane Organelles

Cell (plasma) membrane

DIFFUSION – it is the spontaneous movement of molecules of a liquid or gas from an

OSMOSIS – it is a special type of diffusion. It is the movement of water molecules

ACTIVE TRANSPORT – molecules move from a low concentration to a high

Mitochondria (Singular: mitochondrion)

During cellular respiration, energy is released from carbohydrates (GLUCOSE), in the

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

FOUR clear phases can be distinguished during the process of mitosis.

Beliefs and attitudes toward cancer

MERISTEMATIC TISSUE – is actively dividing tissue in which new cells are

PERMANENT TISSUE – is tissue that is already differentiated to perform a specific

Internal structure of a leaf

EPIDERMIS – it protects the underlying tissues. A waxy, transparent cuticle covers

External Structure: The root is made up of FIVE regions:

Internal Structure: Three regions can be distinguished:

Internal Structure: three regions can be distinguished

UPTAKE OF WATER AND MINERAL SALTS BY THE PLANT

Movement of water to the xylem of the root

Translocation is the movement of substances manufactured in the leaves during

Structural adaptations of leaves to limit transpiration

External factors influencing transpiration

- Wind – during transpiration there is an increase in water molecules just outside

There are THREE types of neurons:

Functions of nerve tissue

BIOTECHNOLOGY – the use of living organisms or biological systems in industrial

Acquired immunity – this type of immunity is developed when:

Immunisation and vaccines

Blood groups and blood transfusion

Stem cell research

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SKELETONS