III.

Geometric Design of Roads

-Design Considerations

-Horizontal Alignment

-Vertical Alignment
Design Considerations

Transportation professionals need to be aware of:

1. Design standards

2. Design speed

3. Sight distance

a. Stopping Sight Distance

b. Passing Sight Distance

4. Cross Section
1. Design Standards
1. Design Standards

Standards have been developed as guide in the design of highways and to ensure
that motorist’s CONVENIENCE, ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY AND AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS
are implemented in the MOST ECONOMICAL MANNER.
Shown below is the minimum design standards for Philippine Highways:
PCCP

Cross slope:

Ex. 2% = V V
H
H
0.02 = V
3.35m

= 0.067m = 67mm
Asphalt Road
Basic Considerations for Road Design:

a. Suitable for Traffic Volume

b. Consistent and must avoid surprise changes in alignment

c. Pleasing to the user and to those who live along it

d. Simple as possible from the standpoint of the builder

e. Can be maintained at the least cost

f. Safe for driving and ensure confidence for the motorists

2. Design Speed
2. Design Speed

The choice of an appropriate design for a road project is important to ensure a safe design.

When choosing a design speed, the following factors need to be considered:

a. Function of the Road – an arterial road such as National Highway would generally have a higher
design speed than a local road.

b. Anticipated Operating Speed – a National highway in an area with steep terrain would generally
have a lower design speed (i.e., smaller radius curves) than a National highway with flat terrain
where higher speeds would generally be anticipated and hence larger radius curves anticipated.
c. Anticipated Speed Limit – when considering the design speed along a route, it
may also be necessary to adopt a different design speed for different
sections of the road as circumstances change.

For example, within a town or on the road section between towns.

d. Economics– the implications relating to cost of construction.

Speed Implications

Research shows that lower speeds lead to fewer and less serious crashes.

There are 2 reasons for this:

1. At higher speeds, a rider or driver has less time to react to situation and therefore
a greater likelihood of accident

2. The momentum and kinetic energy of the vehicle increases rapidly with speed

Therefore, a carefully planned speed limit can make a significant contribution to road
safety.
Current Speed Limits

The current speed restrictions are set out in Chapter IV - Traffic Rules, in RA 4136,
“Land Transportation and Traffic Code”

a) 40 kph – for High Risk Pedestrian Areas

Areas where there is high pedestrian activities such as in the city

center areas.

b) 60 kph - for Low Risk Pedestrian Areas

On roads through built up areas where there are not so many

pedestrians. However, for roads with separate lane to travel in, 60 kph
is still appropriate.
c) 80 kph – would be appropriate on a high standard carriageway road where there is
occasional access from adjoining properties

d) 100 kph - would be appropriate on a very high standard expressways, which have a low crash
rate

Phil. Highways Design Standards

Transportation engineers select a design speed for a roadway facility, which in turn
is used to determine the various geometric design features along that facility.

As noted previously, the professional needs to select a design speed that balances
the safety, mobility, and efficiency of the traveling public.
3. Sight Distance
3. Sight Distance

Sight distance is the distance along a roadway where a driver of a vehicle can see an
object ahead of time.

The provision of safety sight distance depends on different characteristics such as:

a. driver
- alertness, recognition of hazard
b. vehicle
- type of vehicle(car or truck)
- friction between tire and road
- eye height of driver

c. road environment
-road geometry (grade and curvature)
-road surface (smooth or rough)
-road illumination at night
Sight distance elements:

• Driver Eye height - observed eye height of a driver

• Object height – possible object in the path of a vehicle

• Sight distance – dependent on design speed and vehicle type

Driver eye height/Object height

Drivers eye height standards vary from 1.05m to 1.08m in different countries.
Values in the Philippines is shown below:
Common Types of Sight Distance:

a. Stopping (Non-passing) Sight Distance – available distance on a roadway to enable a

vehicle travelling at the design speed to stop before reaching a
stationary object

b. Passing Sight Distance – is the shortest distance required for a vehicle to safely pull
out of a traffic lane, pass a vehicle travelling in the same
direction, and return to the correct lane without interfering
either with the overtaken vehicle or opposing traffic.
a. Stopping (Non-passing) Sight Distance
b. Passing Sight Distance

The slow moving The opposing

vehicle Vehicle, B

The passing/
overtaking vehicle, A
A) Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

2 Components of SSD:

1. Reaction Distance – the distance travelled while the driver perceives a hazard, decides to
take action by applying brakes
- depends on driver’s ability and alertness

Reaction distance = 0.278 t V

where: t = reaction time in sec.

V = Design Speed, in kph

2. Braking Distance – the distance required for the vehicle to slow down and stop

Braking distance = V²/254 f (for level roadway)

Braking distance = V² / 254[(f+G] (for roadway on grade)

where:
wher
G = percent of grade divided by 100, uphill (+), downhill (-)
f = coeff. of friction
Alternative Formula (when V is in m/s):

1. Reaction distance = V t

2. Braking distance = V²
2g(f + G)

Where:

V = velocity in meters/sec
t = perception-reaction time
f = coeff. of friction between tires and pavement
G = average Grade of roadway
Thus;

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) = Reaction Distance (d1) + Braking Distance (d2)

= (in Meters)

= (0.278 t V) + (V²/254f) (for Level Roadways)

or

= (0.278 t V) + [V² / 254[(f+G] (for Roadways on Grade)

Example 1

An alert driver (with a reaction time of 0.5 second) is driving uphill on a 4% grade at 55 kph on a
dry pavement (f=0.7) when suddenly a person steps from behind a parked car in the path of the
driver, at a distance of 30 m.

(a) can the driver stop in time?

(b) can the driver stop in time on a rainy day (f=0.4)?

Solution:

(a) Can the driver stop in time?

SSD = 0.278 Vt + V² /254(f+G)

= 0.278 (55)(.5) + 55² / (254*(0.7+.04))
= 23.74 m (< 30m) Yes

(b) Can the driver stop in time on a rainy day (f=0.4)?

SSD = 0.278 Vt + V² /254(f+G)

= 0.278 (55)(.5) + 55² / (254*(0.4+.04))
= 34.71 m (> 30m) No
Example 2

Determine the minimum stopping sight distance on a -3.5% grade for a design speed of 110 kph.
Coefficient of friction between tires and pavement is 0.28. Driver’s perception-reaction time is 2.5
sec.

Solution:

V = 110 kph / 3.6

= 30.56 m/s

SSD = Vt + V²
2g(f + G)

= 30.56 m/s (2.5 s) + (30.56 m/s)²

2(9.81 m/s²)(0.28-0.035)
= 76.40m + 194.29m

= 270.69 m
Sharp Curve, Obstructed

Open drainage-restricts shouldering

Good sight distance – due to
widened shoulder
Stopping Sight Distance for Various Design Speeds:
Prob 3:
Today’s References:

1. Transportation Engineering:
A Practical Approach to Highway Design, Traffic Analysis, and Systems Operations

2. Elements of Roads and Highways(Fajardo)

3. CEI Institute PH