ADVANCED PHARMACOGNOSY &

PHYTOCHEMISTRY

ASSIGNMENT ON
CULTIVATION & POST HARVESTING
TREATMENT OF
 GINGER
 TURMERIC
 OPIUM
 ISAPGOL

SUBMITTED BY:-
YOGESH KAMARIYA
DEPT. OF PHARMACOGNOSY
M. PHARM. PART-1
ROLL NO. 060605001
MCOPS, MANIPAL

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(1) GINGER

Synonyms:-
 Zingiber; zingiberis
Biological source:-
 Ginger consists of rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, belonging to Family
Zingiberaceae.
Geographical source:-
 It is grown in many parts of worlds including Jamaica, china, India, Africa,
Caribbean islands. More than 35% of the world’s production is from India.
History:-
 Ginger has been cultivated in India from the earliest times; the plant is unknown
in wild state. The spice was used by Greeks & roman & was a common article of
European commerce in the middle ages. It was well known in England in the
eleventh century. Ginger was introduced into Jamaica & other West Indian islands
by the Spaniards and a considerable quantity of a drug was sent from the West
Indies to Spain as early as 1547.

Cultivation & collection:-

 Ginger is a slender perennial herb usually grown as annual, 30-100 cm tall within
branched and laterally compressed rhizomes, which are 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter,
pale yellow in colour.ginger grows well in warm and humid tropics from sea level
upto 1500m above.it is usually grown as rainfed crop, and moderate to heavy
rainfall is ideal. For successful cultivation of crop a moderate rainfall condition
from planting to germination, heavy and well-distributed rains during the growing
period and dry weather for about a month prior to harvesting are essential with a
temperature range of 20 to 300C.temperature in excess of 320C can cause sunburn.
Low temperature can induce dormancy and frost can destroy foliage and exposed
rhizomes.

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 It thrives best in well-drained sandy, clay loam, red loam or lateritic loam soil rich
in humus. It is very sensitive to water logging. Ginger is cultivated over 53,000
hectares in India and the major producing states are Kerala, Himachal Pradesh,
Orissa,West Bengal and North eastern states.

 The land is ploughed 3-5 times or dug to bring the soil to fine pith. Beds of
convenient length and 1m wide and 15 cm high are prepared with an inters pace
of 40 cm to avoid stagnation of water. Seed rhizomes having a minimum of one or
two buds weighing about 20-25 gm are planted in rows. Selected seed rhizomes
have been collected from the disease free plot. The planting rows should be 25-30
cm apart with a plant distance of 20 cm and planted planted rhizomes should be
covered with a soil. A seed rate of 12-15 qs per hectare is recommended. The
yield of ginger is greatly affected by date of sowing. It is cultivated by sowing the
rhizomes in month of may-June.

 Ginger being an exhaustive crop requires good quantity of manures and

fertilizers.superphosphate, ammonium sulphate and potash are common fertilizers
used for ginger. It is also cultivated as an intercrop in coconut garden. Manual
weeding is done before each mulching and as and when required.earthing up is
done during the first mulch and water stagnation is avoided.

 Ginger is ready for harvesting in about six months, when its leaves become
yellow. Harvesting of ginger is done by digging the rhizomes. They are washed
properly and then dried to improve the colour and to prevent its further growth.
The rhizomes are scrapped, dried and coated with inert material like calcium
sulphate. Hence, this particular variety is known, as limed ginger. The yield of
1500 kg per hectare of green ginger is possible by cultivation.

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Chemical constituents:-
 Ginger contains about 1-2% of volatile oil and 5-8% of resinous matter, starch
and mucilage. Oil of ginger, which owes to its aroma have mixtures of
monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons & sesquiterpene alcohol zingiberol.
 Pungency of ginger may be due to gingerol, an oily liquid consisting of
homologous Phenols. In addition to this, it also contains shogaol & gingerone &
this pungency is destroyed by boiling with 2% KOH.

Uses:-
 Carminative & stimulant.
 Used as a flavour for carbonated beverages in the spices & condiment.
 Powdered ginger may have antiemetic effect.
 Antiulcer, antibacterial, antifungal effect may be observed in number of rhizome
constituents.

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 (2) TURMERIC
Synonyms:-
 Indian saffron, Curcuma

Biological source:-
 It is obtained from dried rhizomes of Curcuma longa, also known as Curcuma
domestica belonging to Family Zingiberaceae.

Geographical source:-
 It is cultivated in India, West Pakistan, china & Malaya. Out of them India
accounts, 90% of total amount of the world also cultivated in Sri Lanka,
Indonesia, Jamaica & Peru.

Cultivation & collection:-

 Turmeric is an erect perennial herb but grown as an annual. In India it is
cultivated in over 1,07,000 hectares in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil nadu,
Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, west Bengal and North eastern states.
 It requires hot and humid climate and can be cultivated in most of tropics and sub
tropics provided the rainfall is adequate or irrigation facilities are available. An
annual rainfall of 30-350C during germination, 25-300C during tillering, and 20-
250C during bulking stage are ideal. Though turmeric is grown in various types of
soils, a well-drained loamy or alluvial soil with good organic matter status with a
PH range of 5.00 to 7.00 is optimum for the crop.
 The land is prepared with the receipt of early rains, by giving 2-6 deep
ploughing.beds of about 1m width and convenient length are prepared with a
spacing of about 35-40 cm between beds. Turmeric is propagated through
rhizomes. Increased yield has been obtained by using mother rhizomes as seed
material. The yield is found to be influenced by the planting time. The optimum
planting time depends upon the varieties, the planting materials and the
agroclimatic conditions.

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  Two systems of planting are adopted: (a) flat bed and (b) ridges and furrow
method. Turmeric responds to heavy manuring, and depends upon local
situations. Mulching immediately after planting is recommended. Three weedings
are given at 60,120 and 150 days after planting depending upon the growth of
weeds.earthing up the crop after 60 days is done.maize, onion are grown as
intercrops in turmeric, while it is also cultivated as an intercrop in coconut garden.
 Time of harvesting depends upon variety and usually extends from January-
march. Short, medium and long duration varieties are harvested after 7-8, 8-9 and
9-10 months after planting respectively. Harvesting is done by ploughing or
digging clumps carefully with a spade. Fingers are separated from the mother
rhizomes and usually kept as seed materials.
 For preparing the dry turmeric, fresh rhizomes are boiled in copper or galvanized
iron containers and with sufficient water to cover the rhizomes. in this method
alkaline solution are directly poured into the vessel so as to immerse the turmeric
fingers, then whole mass is boiled till fingers become soft giving out a typical
odour with the appearance of a white froth. The boiled rhizomes are taken out for
drying. These are spread uniformly and dried in the sun for 10 to 15 days until
they become brittle and hard. Finally stored in airtight containers.
Chemical constituents:-
 Turmeric contains about 5% of diaryl heptanoid colouring materials known as
curcuminoides. The chief of which is curcumin (diferuloyl methane) the volatile
oil also contains sesquiterpene (zingiberene,25%), sesquiterpene alcohol &
ketones & monoterpenes. recently new acid glycans like ukonan A,B,C & D
shows remarkable reticuloendothelial system (RES) potentiating properties.
Uses:-
 It is used as a spice or a condiment & coloring agent.
 It has anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial; wound healing, anti
cancer & antiviral activity
 It is also used for detection of boric acid.

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 (3) OPIUM

Synonyms:-
 Raw opium
Biological source:-
 Opium is the latex obtained by incision from the unripe capsules of Papaver
somniferum, belonging to Family Papaveraceae.
Geographical source:-
 It is cultivated in India, china, turkey, former USSR, Yugoslavia & Australia.

History:-
 Opium was well known to the ancients.Dioskuroides about 77 A.D. distinguishes
between the latex of the capsules and an extracts of whole plant mekonion. It was
first cultivated in Mediterranean regions & probably brought by Alexander in 327
B.C. to India. Asia Minor has from very early times been an important source of
opium production. Opium was cultivated in India during the Middle Ages & the
monopoly of mogul government was taken over first by east India company &
then to British government. Narcotine was the first alkaloid reported from opium
& isolated in 1803 by derosne.

Cultivation & collection:-

 Opium, being a potent narcotic drug, the cultivation and other aspects of opium
are governed by respective governments in different countries, including India. In
India, all activities about opium and its derivatives are controlled under Narcotic
drugs and Psychotropic substances act, 1985.
 Poppy is an erect plant attaining 60-120 cm height. It is rarely branched. The
leaves are linear, oblong or ovate and have a dentate or serrate margin. It bears
bluish white, purple or violet colored large flowers.P.somniferum var. album is
cultivated in India.

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 In India, about 54,000 hectares of land is under opium poppy cultivation. It is
under government control, and the cultivation is restricted to Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
 Best climatic conditions for opium poppy are cool weather without freezing
temperature and cloudiness, and sufficient sunshine.
 Opium poppy is grown from November to march. Propagation is done by sowing
the seeds, for which 3-4 kg.of seeds per hectare are necessary. The seeds admixed
with about 3-4 parts of sand are sown. Opium poppy requires highly fertile well-
drained loamy soil with fine sand. The oil should contain organic matter, nitrogen
and should have a PH around 7.the distance between two plants maintained is
usually 25 cm and the plant reaches maximum height of one metre.periodically
the thinning of plant is done to get uniform growth and better development. The
plants are kept totally free from weeds with the use of suitable weed killers. The
plant should be protected from various insect pests like cut worms, leaf minor and
poppy borer. The use of manures and fertilizers markedly improve the quality and
yield of opium poppy. Especially, nitrogen and phosphorus have remarkable
effects on growth of plant.
 After sowing, within 3-4 months, the plant bears flowers, which are converted to
capsules within few days and attain maturity after 15-20 days. During the
maturity period, the capsule exudes maximum latex, which shows a colour change
from dark green to light green. Such capsules are incised vertically in the
afternoon with the help of specific needle like apparatus called ‘nushtur’. It
penetrates maximum upto 2 mm into the capsule. Because of incisions, latex
exudes out and thickens due to cold weather in night, which is eventually
scrapped and collected next morning by an iron scoop called Charpala. The
incising process is repeated for about 4 times on the same capsules with 2 days
interval. The incision must remain superficial, to maintain the external exudation
of latex. The latex is collected in plastic containers .then, capsules are collected
and dried in open areas and further the seeds are separated by beating.

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  The average yield of opium is about 25-26 kg per hectare and for seeds; it is from
4-5 quintals per hectare. Opium is exported traditionally from India. The opium
collected by this way is exported or some of the part is further processed at
government opium factory at Ghazipur.

Chemical constituents:-
 Opium contains mainly two types of alkaloids
 Benzylisoquinoline type alkaloids
 Phenanthrene type alkaloids
 Narcotine, narceine and papaverine belong to the former, while morphine,
codeine and thebaine represent the latter category. Opium alkaloids are presents
as salts of meconic acid. Protopine and hydrocotarnine are minor alkaloids of
opium. It also contains sugar, wax .mucilage, and salts of calcium, potassium and
magnesium. Opium does not contain tannins, starch and calcium oxalate.

Uses:-
 Opium belongs to sedative, hypnotic and analgesic category, which is mainly due
to morphine; it is a potent analgesic and produces respiratory depression &
constipation. Nausea and vomiting are side effects due to stimulation of CTZ.
 Narcotine and codeine have a specific depressant action on cough reflex and used
in preparation of cough linctus.
 Apomorphine is emetic and used subcutaneously to treat poisoning cases.

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 (4) ISAPGOL

Synonyms:-
 Ispaghula, isabgul, Indian psyllium, isabgol, flea seed.

Biological source:-
 Isapgol consists of dried seeds of the plant known as Plantago ovata belonging to
Family Plantaginaceae. In the pharmaceutical field, seeds as well as, dried seed
coats, known as Isapgol husk, are used.

Geographical source:-
 The plant is cultivated largely in Gujarat, Punjab and south Rajasthan. The factory
for preparation of husk is located at sidhpur in north Gujarat.

History:-
 The origin of word Isapgol lies in the Persian words ISAP (the horse) and GHOL
(the ear). Thus, the literal meaning of word isapgol is the ear of horse. The seeds,
as well as, husk of seeds, are used in medicine since 18 th century. About 10
species of the drugs are available in India.

Cultivation & collection:-

 About 50,000 hectares of area is said to be under cultivation for the drug in India.
Seeds are very small, and hard, transparent and smooth with grey or reddish
brown oval spot in the centre of the convex surface.
 Isapgol is a Rabi crop and needs well-drained loamy soil with a P H 7.5 to 8.5 and
cool and dry weather. Heavy rains and cloudy weather as its maturity affect the
yield adversely.

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 The drug is cultivated by broadcasting method, in the month of November. About
6 to 12 kg seeds are needed per hectare.RI-87, RI-89, GI-1, GI-2, HI-1, HI-2, HI-
5, and MIB-121 are some of the species preferred for cultivation in Gujarat state.
Irrigation is done at 7-8 times at an interval of 8 to 10 days. ammonium sulphate,
urea are found to be satisfactory fertilizers for the plant.25 kg of nitrogenous
fertilizers and 25 kg per hectare are most suitable spray of 5.0 % aldrin on the
soil controls root-eaters.

 Aerofungin is used to control mid-dew. The crop is harvested in month of

march/April and the average yield of the seeds per hectare is 7.4 quintals. It is
collected by cutting the plant just above the ground, converting it to sheaves and
drying. Thrashing is done and the thrashed material is winnowed and sieved to
maintain quality. India is producing 48000 tonnes of seeds annually at present.

 The entire marketing of isabgol seed is through commission agents representing a

few exporters or owners of processing mills.isabgol factories are located at
sidhpur, patan, unjha, & palanpur whose capacity varies from 35 to
149Q/day.during processing, the seed is passed through a series of six grinding
mills to separate the husk from seed. Each grinding mill is provided with an
exhaust fan to separate the husk and an elevator to lift the rest of the seed material
to the successive mill. The dehusking is a simple mechanical milling process
where by husk material separates out at each grinding till the last mill. The husk
from last two grindings is considered superior in quality.

 As yet, no attempt has been made to improve this traditional process of milling of
the seeds nor we know of any method by which husk value of small laboratory
samples could be assed. The husk itself contains a number of polysaccharides
whose role and value in determining the quality of the husk for medicine remain
unknown.

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Chemical constituents:-
 Isabgol husk and seeds contain mucilage, which is present in the epidermis of the
seeds.
 Chemically, it consists of pentosan and aldobionic acid. The products of
hydrolysis are xylose, arabinose, galactouronic acid and rhamnose. Fixed oil and
proteins are other important constituents of the drug.
Uses:-
 The seeds, as well as, husk are used as demulcent, laxative, emollient and in
treatment of chronic constipation, amoebic and bacillary dysentery.
 Isapgol husk are more preferred to the seeds as the husk contains more mucilage
and seeds are said to be irritant as compared to the husk.
 Mucilage of the isapgol is used in preparation of tablets and as a stabilizer in the
ice-cream industry.

REFERENCES

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HANDA S.S. & KAUL M.K.; “SUPPLEMENT TO CULTIVATION & UTILIZATION
OF AROMATIC PLANTS”, published by REGIONAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
JAMMU-TAWI 1997 page 367-372.

ATAL C.K. & KAPUR B.M.; “CULTIVATION AND UTILIZATION OF MEDICINAL

PLANTS”, published by REGIONAL RESEARCH LABORATORY JAMMU-TAWI
1982 page 409-416.

DR.KOKATE C.K., PUROHIT A.P., GOKHALE S.B.; “PHARMACOGNOSY”,

NIRALI PRAKASHAN, 22nd edition, page 395-402,473-478,149-151.

Evans W.C.; “Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy”, Saunders, 15th edition, page 227-280,
418, 357-362.

Tyler; “Pharmacognosy”, Lea & Febiger, 9th edition, page 215-219, 150-151.

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