QUALITY EVALUATION AND ACCEPTABILITY OF COOKIES PRODUCED FROM

FERMENTED SWEET POTATO AND BAMBARA GROUNDNUT FLOUR BLENDS

BY

NYARADZO RUUNDUKE (C18133420I)

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

BSc. (HONS) DEGREE IN FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Department of Food Science and Technology

School of Agricultural Sciences and Technology

Chinhoyi University of Technology

December 2021

Supervisors: Miss T Murefu & Dr F Matiza Ruzengwe

 DECLARATION

I NYARADZO RUUNDUKE hereby declare that this thesis is entirely the result of my own work

other than where sources are explicitly acknowledged and referenced within the body of the text.

Furthermore, I also authorise the University to lend this thesis to other institutions or individuals

solely for the purposes of scholarly research.

Signature…………………………………………… Date……………………………….
 APPROVAL

This dissertation entitled ‘Quality evaluation and acceptability of cookies produced from fermented

sweet potato and Bambara groundnut flour blends’ meets the regulation governing the award of the

Bachelor of Science degree in Food Science and Technology at Chinhoyi University of Technology.

Supervisors

1….………………………………. Date………………………………….

2…………………………………... Date…………………………………
 DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to the Almighty, my God for the gift of life, good health, courage,

wisdom, inspiration, knowledge and understanding and my family and friends for their unconditional

love and support.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praise to Jehovah the almighty, without his blessing and endorsement this dissertation would not

have been accomplished. Sincere gratitude is also owed to all the lecturers in the Food Science and

Technology Department (CUT) who have imparted knowledge to me since the beginning of the

degree program and have laid the foundation principles upon which all dexterity will continue to be

built. Special mention and appreciation goes to Miss T. Murefu and Dr F. Matiza Ruzengwe my

supervisors. They played a sterling role by their tireless guidance and supervision efforts. Their

intolerance to misplaced thought made this dissertation a success. It is also my radiant sentiment to

place on record my best regards, deepest sense of gratitude to Mr A. Masheka the Food Science and

Technology laboratory technician and the rest of the staff in the Food Science and Technology

constant assistant and creating a friendly environment. Lastly to my family and friends, your

unwavering love and support is truly appreciated. May the good Lord our God continuously bless

you.
ABSTRACT
Table of contents
List of tables
List of figures
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Many developing countries are facing the problem of malnutrition due to nutrient deficiencies

precisely proteins. Malnutrition occurs when the diet has lack of appropriate nutrients or imbalance

of nutrients. Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) is predominant in children within the range of ages

6 months to 5 years. PEM results from lack of a balanced diet and may be due to infections. Hence it

causes the loss of appetite and in most cases results in marasmus, kwashiorkor, or marasmic-

kwashiokor with a lot of tiring symptoms (Rodrgiuez, Cervantes and Orti, 2011). In Zimbabwe

around 650 000 children under 5 years suffer from chronic malnutrition (stunting or low height-for-

age) according to the most recent Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) (ZIMSTAT and ICF

2016).

Sweet potato currently ranks as the most important food crop on a fresh weight basic in developing

countries after rice, wheat, maize and cassava. Among the root and tubers crops, it is the only one

that has a positive per capital annual rate of increase in production in Sub-Saharan Africa (Bashaasha

and Mwanga, 1996). Sweet potato flour can be used for baked goods such as bread, cookies, muffles,

pancakes, doughnuts and as a thickener for sauces and gravies. It is commonly used in gluten free

cooking and baking (Odebode, 2004). Sweet potatoes are underutilized tubers that have the potential

to bring a lot of prosperity to the producers. Sweet potato flours partially swap cereal flours, which

displays benefits for people diagnosed with celiac disease and gluten intolerance.

Bambara groundnut flour has several applications in households such as for preparing porridge,

soups and baked products. According to Han et al., (2010), legumes are gluten free and have low

glycemic index, a characteristic that benefits people with diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and celiac

disease. A gluten free diet is a diet that completely excludes the protein gluten which can help reduce
chronic inflammation in those with celiac disease. Celiac disease is a condition in which gluten

triggers the immune system activity that damages the lining of the small intestines and over time this

damage hinders the absorption of nutrients from the food (malabsorption). Several studies have

shown that a gluten-free diet can reduce markers of inflammation like antibody levels. It can also

help treat gut damage caused by gluten-related inflammation in those with celiac disease, improves

cholesterol levels, promotes digestive health, increase energy levels and improves health of people

with irritable bowel syndrome and arthritis

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The major dietary problem faced by the world today is protein malnutrition, particularly the

underdeveloped and developing countries. Bridging the gap between increased food consumption

and production is among the most challenging tasks round the globe especially in developing

countries. In Zimbabwe around 650 000 children under 5 years suffer from chronic malnutrition. The

existing problems of food security and malnutrition coupled with increasing population, uncertain

crop yield and high cost of animal based food supplies have urged to identify and incorporate

unconventional protein sources to enrich the traditional formulation. Gluten intolerance and celiac

disease are conditions that can lead to discomfort and chronic diarrheal illness and occurs as a result

of consumption of food containing gluten such as wheat. The prevalence of celiac disease among

patients with chronic diarrhoea in Middle East and North Africa has been reported to be 6.5-21%.

People with celiac disease must avoid gluten therefore the author wishes to produce gluten free

cookies which are rich in proteins to cater for the people suffering with malnutrition, gluten

intolerance and celiac disease.

1.3 JUSTIFICATION

On completion of this project the author wishes to be able to produce gluten free cookies from

Bambara groundnut flour and Tsumaya sweet potatoes which can help reduce chronic inflammation

and prevent gut damage caused by gluten related inflammation with those with celiac disease. Sweet

potato is a traditional staple root crop in Zimbabwe, which is currently underutilised. Therefore,

developing sweet potato-bambara nut protein enriched composite cookies will add value to sweet

potato and Bambara groundnut, improve their utilization and encourage farmers to increase their

production. This will result in income generation, food security in rural communities and also

Bambara is a cheaper source of proteins. Furthermore, protein rich sweet potato-bambara groundnut

composite cookies will improve the commercial value of the sweet potatoes and Bambara

groundnuts. It is expected that government will make use of sweet potato protein rich cookies that

will be produced from this research in school feeding schemes, especially in poor rural communities.

It is hoped that this will contribute to the alleviation of protein-energy malnutrition among school

children in Zimbabwe.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study addresses the problems of malnutrition, celiac disease, gluten intolerance and

underutilization of the potential yellow fleshed sweet potato and Bambara groundnut. The

information obtained will serve as basis for increasing utilization of yellow sweet potato and

Bambara groundnut as well as reducing malnutrition among the school children in the country. The

increased utilization in turn will lead to increased production of yellow fleshed sweet potato and

Bambara groundnut and income to farmers, traders and processors. This will lead to overall

reduction in malnutrition, poverty and food insecurity within the country.

1.5 OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this study was to investigate the nutritional and sensory properties of cookies

made from sweet potato flour fortified with Bambara groundnut flour.

Specific objectives of the study were to

 Determine the effect of compositing sweet potato flour with Bambara flour on the functional

properties of the resulting flour.

 Determine the effects of compositing sweet potato flour with Bambara flour on the nutritional

composition of the resulting flour and developed cookies.

 To investigate the sensory properties of the cookies developed from the composite flours

1.6 HYPOTHESIS

1. There is no difference in functional properties of the yellow sweet potato, Bambara

groundnut flour and their blends.

2. There is no difference in proximate composition of the yellow sweet potato, Bambara

groundnut flour and their blends and developed cookies.

3. There is no difference in sensory qualities and consumer acceptability between yellow sweet

potato and Bambara groundnut cookies.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Malnutrition

Malnutrition occurs when the diet has lack of appropriate nutrients or imbalance of nutrients

(proteins and calories). Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) is found abundantly in children within

the range of ages 6 months to 5 years. It is found to be results of lack of a balanced diet and secondly

may be due to infections with loss of appetite and results in marasmus, kwashiorkor, or marasmic-

kwashiokor with a lot of tiring symptoms (Rodrgiuez, Cervantes and Orti, 2011). Different countries

tried different kinds of strategies like fortification with protein isolate, blending with different

proteins from diverse sources without compromising quality of food etc. to cope up with the problem

of malnutrition (Butt and Batool, 2010).

Reducing under-nutrition and micronutrient deficiencies is high on the agenda of many developing

countries and international partners, as it affects more than one-third of the global population (Mahan

et al., 2016). More importantly, micronutrient deficiencies (a cause of hidden hunger) have

staggering consequences for human health and well-being, which hampers economic productivity as

reported by Gibney, 2001). For instance, a malnourished child cannot afford to learn properly,

appears stunted, and underdeveloped. To overcome this challenge, food technologists have resorted

to bio-fortification. However, this approach is very expensive and is not accessible to the rural areas

mostly in Africa. Therefore, there is need to formulate nutrient rich shelf-stable food products that

are convenient and accessible to all using under-utilized crops.

The intensive formulation and utilization of locally available food crops also as a source of energy,

protein, vitamin, and minerals will help to fight the problem of under-nutrition and high postharvest

losses. Sweet potato and Bambara groundnut are among the potentially rich underutilized food crops

of high nutritional value. Formulating and fortifying Sweet potato flour and Bambara groundnut
flour could provide a nutrient dense food product capable of solving malnourishment and hidden

hunger among people living in rural areas.

2.2 Gluten intolerance

Gluten is the main structural protein in wheat and other cereals like rye and barley. It plays an

important role in bakery products since it provides the dough with its adequate viscoelastic

properties. Gluten intolerance can cause similar symptoms to celiac disease, but it is a different long

term effects. The symptoms of gluten intolerance may also resemble those of wheat allergy or

intestinal conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome. Symptoms of gluten intolerance include

tiredness, bloating, abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and constipation, a general feeling of being

unwell, anxiety, headaches, brain fogs, confusion and numbness (Elli et al., 2015).

A gluten free diet is a diet that completely excludes the protein gluten which can help reduce chronic

inflammation in those with celiac disease. Several studies have shown that a gluten-free diet can

reduce markers of inflammation like antibody levels. It can also help treat gut damage caused by

gluten-related inflammation in those with celiac disease, improves cholesterol levels, promotes

digestive health, increase energy levels and improves health of people with irritable bowel syndrome

and arthritis.

2.3 Celiac disease

Celiac disease is an auto-immune disorder that is mainly caused by the assimilation of gluten in

inherently predisposed individuals (Green and Lee 2005; Spijkerman et al., 2016). The main causes

of celiac disease have been linked to the interface of gluten and the immune factors, environmental

and genetic factors. The effect of consuming gluten is that it initiates the modification of protein by

the enzyme transglutaminase resulting in an immune system reaction which results to an

inflammatory reaction (Kagnoff 2007; Aronsson et al., 2016). Gluten is broken down into amino

acids and peptides by the luminal and brush-border enzymes. Gliadin peptides induce changes in the

epithelium and in the lamina propia leading to the damaging of the epithelial cells. This leads to an

increase in the expression of interleukin-15, which in turn activates intraepithelial lymphocytes

(Gianfrani et al., 2005). These lymphocytes result to the destruction of the enterocytes that express a

stress protein (MIC-A) on their surface. This results in the destruction of the villi and the damage of

the intestinal mucosal hence interfering with the absorption of nutrients.

Villi are the pathway by which gluten is absorbed into the body. When gluten is consumed by a

celiac patient it flattens the villi and it is difficult for the individual to process gliadin protein. The

condition has several other names, including CD, coeliac condition, gluten-sensitive enteropathy,

gluten enteropathy or, and gluten intolerance (Ciacci et al., 2007; Losowsky, 2008). The indications

of celiac disease include chronic diarrhoea, abdominal distension, vomiting, fatigue and weight loss

(Fasano and Catassi 2012). However, these may be absent and indications in other organ systems

may arise; increased screening is therefore necessary for the asymptomatic (Van Heel and West

2006). The common types of causes, symptoms, and effects are however not necessary for diagnosis

given the wide range of possible symptoms (Di Sabatino and Corazza 2009).

In some individuals, osteoporosis, mouth ulcers, persisting digestive symptoms, fatigue,

musculoskeletal pain and fractures may occur due to celiac disease (Faulkner-Hogg et al., 1999).

Most celiac disease patients may also suffer from other food allergies, including milk protein, and

soy (Selby et al., 1999). The current treatment for celiac disease is a strict life-long gluten-free diet

where cereals such as wheat, oats, barley and rye must be avoided
2.4 Sweet potato

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is the main crop listed under roots and tubers that constitutes an

integral part in the human diet systems after cereals and legumes. Sweet potato currently ranks as the

most important food crop on a fresh weight basic in developing countries after rice, wheat, maize and

cassava. Among the root and tubers crops, it is the only one that has a positive per capital annual rate

of increase in production in Sub-Saharan Africa (Bashaasha and Mwanga, 1996).

2.4.1 Nutritional composition of Sweet potato

Imperative content of nutrients that are found in sweet potato flours plays a pivotal role in sustaining

main food products development and can make it to be used as an ingredient in the numerous food

formulations thus it can partially replace wheat flour in baked goods. Sweet potatoes are high in

vitamin A, vitamin B5, B6, thiamin, niacin, riboflavin and due to their yellow colour, are high in

carotenoids, relatively low in sodium and have fewer calories than white potatoes, although they

have more sugar (Tewe, 2000).

2.4.2 Uses of Sweet potato

Sweet potato flour can be used for baked goods such as bread, cookies, muffles, pancakes, doughnuts

and as a thickener for sauces and gravies. It is commonly used in gluten free cooking and baking

(Odebode, 2004). Sweet potatoes are underutilized tubers that have the potential to bring a lot of

prosperity to the producers. Sweet potato flours partially swap cereal flours, which displays benefits

for people diagnosed with celiac disease and gluten intolerance. Sweet potato flour plays a pivotal

role in the preparation of various food items, which can boost consumer nutritional and health status.

Many factors can influence the quality of sweet potato flours and the acceptability of developed

products such as variety, processing steps, processing methods such as parboiling, blanching, drying

techniques, peeling, pre-treatments and drying temperature. However, the use of sweet potato flours
is highly dependent on its physicochemical and functional properties that are highly influenced by

the processing methods used. Sweet potatoes decrease the risk of obesity, diabetics, heart disease and

overall mortality while promoting a health complexion increased energy and overall lower weight

(Schoffro, 1998). Fermentation increase functional properties of flour such as water absorption

capacity. Beuchat (1976) postulated that breaking peptide bonds of proteins as a result of protolytic

activity during fermentation may cause an increase in polar groups which would increase

hydrophylicity of the proteins.

2.5 Bambara groundnut

According to Mazahib et al., (2013), Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) is a legume which

belongs to the family of Fabaceae. It is regarded as the third most important crop in Africa but it is

recognised as a snack and not a lucrative cash crop due to its low status. In addition, Bambara

groundnut has been termed a woman’s crop hence it has been given less value and priority in land

allocation. Bambara groundnut grows well at an average temperature between 20 and 28 ℃ and it is

a drought resistant crop (Hillocks et al., 2012). Currently, Africa is faced with food security threats

and global warming therefore, Bambara groundnut might be a crop of hope to assist alleviates these

challenges because of its drought resistant features (Basu et al., 2007).

2.5.1 Nutritional composition of Bambara groundnut

Bambara seed contains sufficient quantities of protein ranging from 20.5-26.0%, carbohydrate

ranging from 50.5-69.3% and fat ranging from 4.3-7.9% and amino acids are higher than that found

in most legumes (Steve et al., 2009. It is also a good source of minerals such as iron, potassium, fibre

and calcium. Bambara can be a great alternative in areas where animal protein is highly expensive.

However, it remains underutilised despite the potential it has to play in food security and income

generation. Besides the nutritional importance of Bambara groundnuts, various problems such as
beany flavours, long cooking hours and anti-nutritional factors have been reported and they hinder

maximum utilisation of the crop (Honi, 2016). Bambara groundnuts contain low levels of anti-

nutrients such as trypsin inhibitor, phenolic compounds, oxalate, tannic acid, phytic acid and phytin

(Ijarotimi and Esho 2009). It has been stated by Unigwe et al., (2017) that the red and brown

Bambara groundnuts contain the highest levels of tannins with the cream coloured having the lowest.

2.5.2 Uses of Bambara groundnut

Bambara groundnuts are consumed in many ways such as eating it fresh or grilled while immature.

Murevanhema and Jideani (2013) states that Bambara fresh pods can be boiled with salt and eaten as

a snack, roasted and crushed to make soup. Recently studies have deduced that Bambara groundnut

potential in the development of various food products such as biscuit and cake production, vegetable

milk and yoghurt reported by Falade and Okafor (2015). The successful performance of Bambara

groundnut flour as a food ingredient depends on the functional characteristics and sensory qualities it

imparts to products. Baryeh (2001), states that functional properties are intrinsic physico-chemical

characteristics that affect behavior of foods during pre-treatment and storage, e.g. solubility,

foamability, gelation and emulsification. According to Han et al., (2010), legumes are gluten free and

have low glycemic index, a characteristic that benefits people with diabetes, cardiovascular disease

and celiac disease

2.5.3 Bambara in the baking industry

The uses of Bambara groundnut flour in the supplementation of other flours such as wheat flour have

been reported in various studies (Nwosu, 2013). In the studies, the blended flours were used to

develop biscuits and the results showed that the biscuits were high in protein. With Bambara

groundnut incorporation, the diameter of the biscuits was increased and there was an improvement in

the flavour and texture of biscuits. These changes were linked to the changes in the functional
properties of wheat flour when Bambara groundnut flour was added. In another study by Alozie et

al., (2009) Bambara groundnut was used to develop bread and the resultant bread exhibited improved

protein, ash and crude fibre content. Erukainure et al., (2016), states that the development and

improvement constancy time was observed with Bambara groundnut incorporation in wheat flour.

Also an increase in bread specific volume was observed in another study with Bambara groundnut

flour inclusion (Abdualrahman et al., 2012).

2.6 Composite flours

Composite flour defined as a mixture of flours obtained from tubers which are rich in starch such as

cassava, yam, potato, and protein-rich flour and cereals, with or without wheat flour that produced to

satisfy specific functional characteristics and nutrient composition (Noorfarahzilah et al., 2014).

Examples include, wheat with sweet potatoes (Awuni et al., 2018), wheat and cassava (Lagnika et

al., 2019), wheat and many legumes (Tufan et al., 2019), or without wheat flour (Awolu, 2018; Nour

et al., 2018) and other composites (Adeyeye, 2018; Sulieman et al., 2019). Composite flour has

better nutritional value concerning elements of minerals, vitamins, fibres and proteins than flour

milled from any specific cereal itself.

Shanti et al., (2005) reported that the composite flour mixture could provide a balanced nutrient.

Composite flour became the subject of many studies. Composite flour is considered of advantage in

developing countries as it reduces the importation of wheat flour and encourages the use of locally

grown crops. One of the potential locally raw materials used in composite for substitute the wheat is

sweet potato (SP).This crop can be processed into sweet potato flour and then it could be used as a

substitute for wheat flour (20-80 %) in baked goods, cakes and noodles. Composite flour as

innovative flour has attracted much attention in research as well as in food product development

(Hasmadi et al., 2014; Suresh et al., 2015; Jafari et al., 2018).

2.7 Structural changes during baking

The structural changes that occur during dough making are mostly understood in wheat bread

systems. During baking, there is a conversion of a viscous batter to a baked product and this has been

explained by the starch gelatinisation theory (Stauffer, 2007). Gluten forms a gel releasing bound

water to starch when dough is exposed to heat hence initiating the process of gelatinisation. The

extent of gelatinisation is determined by the quantity of water, availability of sugar, salt, emulsifiers

and fat. It has been hypothesized by Kumar (2002) that water is released during gelatinisation and

leads in improved crumb porosity and texture of the resulting baked product.

Wieser (2007), states that the transformation of dough is affected by the rheological properties of the

dough system, with the formation of SS/SH linkages enhancing the change of the viscous dough to

an elastic baked product. The production of gas from leavening agents such as yeast is the main

cause of expansion during baking and this can be disturbed by the strength of the material between

the gas cells to viscous flow and the extent to which gas cells coordinates is affected by the breaking

strength of the dough. Gas production together with the changes in the rheological properties

contributes to the overall quality of baked products (Cauvain, 2015).

2.8 Baking with Gluten-Free Flours

The use of gluten-free ingredients poses a great scientific challenge to food scientists, especially in

the baking industry. It is difficult to get the distinct rheological properties of wheat dough when

using gluten-free ingredients whilst ensuring that the final product is nutritionally valuable and

exhibits acceptable properties (Naqash et al., 2017). The absence of the matrix formed by the two

gluten factors, glutenin and gliadin is one of the major problems that have been identified with

baking using gluten-free flour. Glutenin is responsible for providing higher molecular weight and
contributing to elasticity whereas gliadin provides the lower weight component which provides

extensibility (Curic et al., 2007).

Exclusion of gluten during dough formation results in a batter rather than a dough and this leads to

product with poor colour and texture as well as quality defects. Gluten-free baked products are also

nutritionally inferior compared to their counterparts. Gluten containing food products are symbolised

by high micro-nutrient content, whilst the gluten-free products are low in vitamin D, magnesium,

fibre, calcium and B-vitamins due to their development using refined flours and starches (Moore et

al., 2006). Therefore, it is of supreme significance to enrich and supplement gluten-free ingredients.

It has been proposed that the use of legumes, tubers and seed flours can be an important move in

obtaining acceptable gluten-free baked products. These include millet, amaranth, buckwheat, sweet

potatoes, cassava, Bambara groundnut, soy bean, flax and sorghum (Kupper, 2005). Some of these

ingredients have been used successfully to recuperate the quality of gluten-free products.

The incorporation of functional ingredients has been reported to enhance volume, mouth-feel,

structure, adequacy and durability of gluten-free products. Previous studies have suggested that the

addition of protein-rich ingredients in gluten-free systems can help in the formation of a cohesive

network which can improve the structural quality of gluten-free bread (Gallagher et al., 2004;

Schober et al., 2007). Owing to the functional properties of proteins (emulsion and foaming), the

structure of gluten-free products can be improved. Proteins have also been used to improve bread

sensory properties through Maillard browning and flavour development.

2.9 Gluten alternatives in gluten-free systems

2.9.1 Eggs
To enhance the nutritional value, colour and flavour of the food product eggs are usually added to

gluten-free food systems. According to Moore et al., (2004), eggs have good emulsifying, foaming,

gelation and coagulation properties which can be of great worthy in dough systems. Egg-white

provide additional structure to gluten-free dough/batter. In a study by Crockett et al., (2011) the use

of eggs in gluten-free bread baking resulted in the formation of a viscous solution where protein

scaffolding was observed, resulting in increased volume of baked product.

2.9.2 Dairy products

Nunes et al., (2009) states that dairy products have been used to make protein network formation

easier, increase water holding capacity and also to enhance the dough/batter handling attributes of

gluten-free systems. Dairy products also improve the nutritional properties by increasing the calcium

content and protein efficiency ratio. The use of dairy ingredients has also resulted in the formation of

a network-like structure, which is similar to that of gluten.

2.10 Cookies and cookies production

The demand of bakery products is increasing such as cookies in the market due to its ready-to-eat

nature, good nutritional quality, low cost and longer shelf life with enriched dietary fibre (Adeleke

and Odedeji, 2010). Due to changing life style, people have started demanding ready to cook or

ready to serve convenience food. More and more women are seeking employment to supplement the

family income and they find less time for cooking and therefore demand ready to serve foods. Baked

products are considered as excellent vehicle for fortification, value addition and feeding at mass

scale. Cookies are baked, small, flat dessert treats, which are produced from flour and commonly

formed into a circular shape. They constitute an important component of the diet of many people

both young and old (Adeyeye and Akingbala, 2014).

Cookies are convenient snacks prepared through baking into very low moisture content which serve

as a source of energy to many people (Adeyeye and Akingbala, 2016. With the increased advocacy

on the consumption of functional foods by the world nutrition bodies due to different health

problems related to food consumption such as Celiac diseases, diabetes and coronary heart diseases.

The food industries faced the challenge of producing food products and containing functional

ingredients in order to meet the nutritional requirements of individuals with health challenges.

Cookies can therefore serve as a vehicle for delivering important nutrients if made readily available

to the population (Chinma and Gernah, 2007.

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Experimental Design

Yellow sweet potatoes Bambara groundnuts

Grading and sorting

Slicing and pre-treating in 7% ascorbic
acid for 10 min
Soaking in deionized water
for 24h at 25℃
Fermentation in anaerobic vessels in
5% salt and 1% sucrose at 28-30℃ for
1-3 days Deskinning (dehulling)

Roasting in over for 48 hours at

Drying at 60℃ in an oven
50℃
Flour blending
Milling in flour using a grinder  Functional properties
Milling into flour using a
grinder

Screening of blends based on functional properties (4 Blends were

selected)

Proximate analyses of selected blends

Baking

Cookies

 Proximate
composition
 Sensory evaluation

Fig 3.1 shows the experimental design of the study

3.2 Materials and Methods

Tsumaya sweet potatoes variety with light brown skin and yellow flesh were obtained from a farm in

Harare and Bambara groundnuts were obtained from a local market in Chinhoyi.

3.3 Preparation of Sweet Potato Flour

Tsumaya sweet potatoes were sorted and washed and then sliced into small pieces, pre-treated in 7%

ascorbic acid for 10 min then allowed to go through a fermentation process in anaerobic vessels in

5% salt and 1% sucrose concentration at room temperature (28-30 ℃ ) and 1% sucrose at 28-30°C

for 1-3 days then dried at 60°C for 12 h. Dried sliced potatoes were milled into flour using a grinder

and then sieved through 250 um sieve and stored in a large airtight zip lock bags until used and

analysed.

3.4 Preparation of Bambara Groundnut Flour

Bambara groundnuts were obtained, sorted and graded and then soaked in deionized water for 24 h at

25℃ followed by deskinning by hand. After deskinning the Bambara groundnuts were roasted in the

oven for 48 h at 50℃ and then grinded into flour using a grinder. After grinding the flour were

sieved through a 250 um sieve and stored in a large airtight zip lock bags until used and analysed.

3.5 Preparation of Sweet potato-bambara groundnut flour blends

The Bambara groundnut flour was blended with the fermented sweet potato flour using the Optimal

(custom) design

3.5.1 Experimental design- optimal custom design

The 2 factors investigated in the present study were: fermented sweet potato flour and Bambara

groundnut flour using the Optimal (custom) design.

Table 3.1 Formulations for flour blends

Component 1 Component 2

Run A: Sweet potato flour (%) B: Bambara groundnut flour (%)

1 85 15

2 85 15

3 70 30

4 90 10

5 80 20

6 92.5 7.5

7 100 0

8 100 0

9 85 15

10 77.5 22.5

11 70 30

12 100 0

13 70 30

3.6 Functional properties of composite flours

The functional properties of the gluten free flour samples were determined. The functional properties

investigated were water absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity and emulsifying capacity and

stability, foaming capacity and stability.

3.6.1. Water Absorption Capacity (WAC)

The water absorption capacity (WAC) of flours was quantified using the centrifugation method

described by Arise et al., (2015) with some modifications. Flour sample of 1 g was dispersed in 10ml

of water in pre-weighed centrifuge tubes. The dispersions was mixed for 2 min and later held for 30

min followed by centrifugation for 30 min at 3000 rpm. The supernatant was decanted and the excess

water in the upper phase was left to drain for 15 min and the residue inside the tube was weighed

again to determine the amount of water that were retained per gram of the sample. The WAC was

expressed as grams of water bound per gram of the sample on a dry basis and means of triplicate

determinations will be reported. Water absorption capacity was calculated as follows:

volume of water absorbed

WAC ¿ ×100
weight of sample

3.6.2 Oil Absorption Capacity (OAC)

A sample of 1 g was mixed with 10 ml of soy bean oil in pre-weighed centrifuge tubes and allowed

to stand at ambient temperature for 30 min. The sample was centrifuged for 30 min at 3000 rpm. .

The supernatant was decanted and the excess oil in the upper phase was left to drain for 15 min and

the residue inside the tube was weighed again to determine the amount of oil that were retained per

gram of the sample. The oil absorption capacity was expressed as percentage of oil bound per gram

flour on dry basis and means of triplicate determinations was reported. Oil absorption capacity was

calculated as follows:

Volume of oil absorbed

OAC ¿ ×100
weight of sample

3.6.3 Emulsion capacity and stability

A sample of 0.5 g each were mixed with 5 ml distilled water and 5 ml soy bean oil and then

centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 5 min. Triplicate measurements were made and the average results were
taken. Emulsion capacity will be calculated as the ratio of the height of emulsified layer to total

height of the mixture.

height of emulsified layer∈the tube

EC = ×100
height of thetotal contents ∈the tube

For emulsion stability (ES), the emulsion were heated at 80 ℃ for 30 min in a water bath then

cooling for 15 min under running water and then centrifuged again at 3000 rpm for 15 min.

Triplicate measurements were made and the average results were taken. The emulsion stability was

calculated as follows:

height of emulsified layer after heating

ES ¿ ×100
height of emulsified layer before heating

3.6.4 Foaming capacity and stability

Flour sample of 0.75 g were dissolved in 25 ml distilled water and sonicated for 3 min using an

ultrasonicator. The sonicated flour samples were transferred into a graduated cylinder and the

volume of the sonicated samples before and after whipping were recorded. The foaming capacity

(FC) was expressed as the volume increased due to whipping. Foaming capacity was calculated as

follows:

vol . after whipping−vol .before whipping

Foaming capacity ¿ ×100
vol . before whipping

For the determination of foaming stability (FS), the volume changes in the graduated cylinder were

recorded at intervals of 20, 40, 60 and 120 min of storage (Aluko et al., 2009). Triplicate

determinations were carried out. Foaming stability was calculated as follows:

foam volume after time

Foaming stability = ×100
initial foam volume

3.7 Cookies preparation

 For cookies preparation, the basic ingredients for each sample included were; 1 cup flour, ¼

teaspoon baking powder, a pinch of salt, 40 g unsalted butter, ½ cup sugar, ½ large egg ¼ teaspoon

vanilla essence for each flour sample blend. Flour, baking powder and salt were whisked together in

a small bowl. Butter and sugar were mixed together in a large bowl with an electric mixer at medium

high speed until pale and fluffy for 3 min and then vanilla essence and ½ an egg were added. Speed

was reduced to medium and then flour mixture was added and kneaded for 3 min until firm dough is

obtained. The dough was then later manually rolled out on a steel tray to a height of 10 mm and cut

into circular shapes using a 4.5 cm diameter cookie cutter. The cut dough pieces were transferred

onto a baking tray lined with aluminium foil and placed in a preheated electric oven set at 180 ± 2℃

for 25 ± 5min to obtain cookies. After baking, the cookies were cooled down for 30 min at ambient

temperature and then later packed in airtight zip bags and stored at 4℃ until they were analysed.

3.8 Proximate composition analysis

Associations of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC), procedure were used to determine the

proximate composition of samples of gluten free flours and developed cookies. The proximate

composition investigated were moisture content, ash content, crude protein content, fat content, fibre

content, carbohydrate content and energy value.

3.8.1 Moisture Content Determination

Flour samples of 2 g were weighed into dried weighed crucibles. The sample was placed into a

moisture extraction oven at 105℃ and heated for 3 h. The dried sample will be placed in desiccators,

allowed to cool for 10 min and reweighed. This process was repeated until a constant weight was

obtained. The difference between the weights was calculated as a percentage of the original sample.

W 2−W 3 ×1 OO
Percentage moisture =
W 2−W 1

Where
W1 = initial weight of empty dish

W2 = weight of dish + undried sample

W3 = weight of dish + dried sample

3.8.2 Ash Content Determination

Flour samples of 2 g were weighed into crucible, heated in a muffle furnace at 600 ℃ for 3 h until it

turned white and free of carbon. The sample was then removed from the furnace, cooled in

desiccators to a room temperature and reweighed immediately. The weight of the residue was then

calculated as ash content expressed in percentage.

weight of ash ×100

Percentage ash =
weight of sample

3.8.3 Crude protein determination’

The micro Kjeldahl method described by AOAC was used. For each of the flour samples 2 g was

mixed with 10 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid in a heating tube. One tablet of selenium catalyst

was added to the tube and mixture heated inside a fume cupboard. The digested samples was

transferred into a 100 ml volumetric flask and made up with distilled water. 10 ml portion of the

digested samples was mixed with equal volume of 45% NaOH solution and poured into a Kjeldahl

distillation apparatus. The mixture was then distilled and the distillate collected into 4% boric acid

solution containing 3 drops of an indicator. A total of 50 ml distillate was collected and titrated as

well. The samples were triplicated and the average value was taken. The nitrogen content was

calculated and multiplied with 6.25 to obtain the crude protein content.

( 100× N ×14 ×Vf ) T

This is given as Percentage Nitrogen =
100 ×Va

Where;

W = Weight of the sample

N = Normality of the titrate (0.1N)

Vf = Titre value

Va = Aliquot volume distilled.

3.8.4 Fat Content Determination

Flour sample of 2 g was loosely wrapped with a filter paper and placed into the thimble which was

fitted to a clean round bottom flask, which has been cleaned, dried and weighed. 120 ml of hexane

was poured into the flask. The sample was heated with a heating mantle and allowed to reflux for 5 h

and the cooled and the thimbles with samples was kept and then later weighed. The difference in

weight was received as mass of the fat and was expressed percentage of the sample. The percentage

oil content was then calculated;

W 2−W 1 ×100
Percentage fat =
W3

Where

W1 = Weight of the empty extraction flask

W2 = Weight of the flask and oil extracted

W3 = Weight of the sample

3.8.5 Crude Fibre content

Flour sample of 2 g was digested in 1.25% sulphuric acid, filtered and then washed with hot water

and re-digested in 1.25% sodium hydroxide. This was filtered, oven dried and ashed in a muffle

furnace at 600℃ to a constant weight then cooled in a desiccator and weighed. Crude fibre was

expressed as a percentage of weight loss on ignition at ashing temperature was recorded as crucible

fibre and expressed in percentage crude fibre (AOAC, 2003).

= W1 – W2 X 100/1

W3
Where:

W1 = weight of sample before incineration

W2 = weight of sample after incineration

W3 = weight of original sample

3.8.6 Carbohydrate content

The carbohydrate was calculated using estimation by difference AOAC (2000). The fibre, crude

protein and fat content were subtracted from organic matter, and the remainder was accounted for as

carbohydrates:

% Carbohydrates = 100% - (%crude protein +%crude fat + %ash content + %crude fibre)

3.8.7 Energy value

Energy value of the cookies was calculated using Atwater calorie conversion factors, based on

assumptions that each gram of carbohydrate, fat and protein will yield 17 kJ (4.0 kcal), 37 kJ, (9.0

kcal) and 17 kJ (4.0 kcal), respectively. The values were expressed in kJ (Osborne & Voogt, 1978).

3.9 Sensory evaluation

For sensory evaluation, the product oriented sensory tests were carried out to analyse the quality and

acceptability of the baked sweet potato-bambara groundnut cookies. Preference tests were carried out

whereby the samples were rated by 30 semi-trained panelists for sensory attributes using a 9-point

hedonic scale; 1 (dislike extremely), 2 (dislike very much), 3 (dislike moderately), 4 (dislike

slightly), 5 (neither like nor dislike), 6 (like slightly), 7(like moderately), 8 (like very much) and 9

(like extremely) for taste, colour, texture, aroma, crunchiness, flavour, appearance and overall

acceptability.
3.10 Statistical analysis

The results of the gluten free flours and cookies analysis were presented as mean values of three

replicates together with the standard deviation. Data were analysed by one-way analysis of variance

(ANOVA) to calculate significant differences in the treatment means and LSD (p ˂ 0.05) was used

for mean separation using IBM SPSS version 26 after checking that the data met all the assumptions

which are homogeneity of variance, data is normally distributed, samples are drawn independently

and sampled randomly and factor effects are additive.

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Functional properties of composite flours

4.1.1 Water Absorption Capacity (WAC)

Water Absorption Capacity

20
f,g f,g g
18 d,e e,f
c,d c,d c,d
16 b,c
b
Water Absorption Capacity (%)

14
12 a a a
10
8
6
4
2
0
5) :1
5 0) 0) 0) 5) 0) 0) 5) 5) 0) 0) 0)
5 :1 5 0 :3 0 :1 0 :2 :7. 0 0: 0 0: 5 :1 2 2. 0 :3 0 0: 0 :3
8 .5 :
1(
8 2( 3(
7
4(
9
5(
8
92 7
(1 8(
1
9
(8
7 .5 1
(7
2
(1
3
(7
6 ( (7 1 1 1
10
Flour Blends (Sweet potato:Bambara Flour)

Fig 4.1 shows results on the water absorption capacity of different flour blends

According to Aluko et al. (2009), water Absorption Capacity (WAC) refers to the maximum amount

of water that a food material can absorb and retain under formulation condition and it is an essential

property in bulking and consistency of products as well as in baking applications. The WAC of flour

blends ranges from 11.03-18.4%. Awolu and Oseyemi (2016) states that increase in the WAC is

useful in products which require hydration to enhance handling characteristics as in baking. WAC is

a critical function of protein in various food products and is a reflection of protein-water interaction

in food systems and is therefore influenced greatly by protein content due to presence of water

binding sites available on polar side chains of proteins (Okpala et al., 2012). However, high water
absorption capacity has also been attributed to loosely associated amylose and amylopectin whereby

the association of hydroxyl groups to form hydrogen and covalent bonds between starch chains

lowers water absorption capacity as stated by (Akubor and Onimawo, 2003). The high WAC

obtained for the 70:30 (11.4%) flour blend may be due to the possession of large numbers of water

binding sites compared to 80:20, 85:15 and 100:0 flour blends.

4.1.2 Oil Absorption Capacity (OAC)

Oil Absorption Capacity

35

30

25
Oil absorption capacity (%)

20

15 OAC

10

0
) ) ) ) ) 5) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
15 15 30 10 20 7. 0 :0 :0 :15 .5 30 :0 30
5: 5: 0: 0: 0: .5
: 0 10
0 5 2 2 0 : 0 0 0 :
1(
8
2(
8
3(
7
4(
9
5(
8 (1 8( (8 5: (7 (1 (7
(92 7 9 7 7. 1 1 1 2 1 3
6 (
10
Flour blends (Sweet potato flour:Bambara groundnut flour

Fig 4.2 shows results on oil absorption capacity from different flour blends.

Oil absorption capacity (OAC) is important from an industrial perspective as it can reflect the

emulsifying capacity of an ingredient (Akubor and Ukwuru, 2003). The OAC of flour blends ranged

between 18.1% and 31.43%. withThe blend (100:0) (sweet potato flour to Bambara groundnut flour

ratio) hadving the least OAC whilst and blend (70:30) (sweet potato flour to Bambara groundnut
flour ratio) hadving the highest OAC. Liquid retention is an index of the ability of proteins to absorb

and retain oil/water which in turn influences the texture, flavour retention and mouthfeel

characteristics in bakery products (Obadina et al., 2016). OAC is an important functional property

which improves the mouthfeel while still retaining the flavour of food products. According to Kaur

et al., (2013), Bambara groundnut flour had suggestively higher oil absorption capacity with the least

being sweet potato flour. The small differences may possibly be attributed to the variations in the

presence of nonpolar amino acids which show superior binding of lipids (Adebowale and Lawal

2004). However, the incorporation of Bambara groundnut flour to sweet potato flour resulted in a

significant increase in the oil absorption capacity of sweet potato flour.

4.1.3 Emulsion Capacity and Stability

60

50

40
Emulsion capacity (%)

30

20

10

0
5) 5) 0) 0) 0) .5
) 0) 0) 5) 5) 0) 0) 0)
5 :1 5 :1 0 :3 0 :1 0 :2 :7 0 0: 0 0: 5 :1 2 2. 0 :3 0 0: 0 :3
8 8 7 9 8 .5 (1 1 (8 : (7 (1 (7
1( 2( 3( 4( 5( 92 8( .5
6(
7 9
(77 11 12 13
10
Flour blends (Sweet potato flour:Bambara groundnut flour

Fig 4.3 shows results on the emulsion capacity of different flour blends
Emulsion capacity (EC) of the flour blends were observedinvestigated, Blend composite flour 100:0

(sweet potato flour to Bambara groundnut flour ratio) had the least emulsion capacity of 19.33% and

the blend 70:30 (sweet potato flour to Bambara groundnut flour) ratio hadving the highest value of

55.3% whilst there was a significant increase in EC when Bambara groundnut flour was added to

sweet potato flour (Fig 4.3). The EC of the flour blends ranged between 19.33% and 55.3%.

Emulsion capacity is greatly influenced by the emulsification properties of soluble and insoluble

protein as well as polysaccharides (Kaushal et al., 2012). The variation between the flour blends can

possibly be due to the difference in protein content. The increase in protein concentration of flour has

a possible negative influence on the emulsion capacity. Adebowale and Lawal (2004) reported

similar findings in which an increase in Bambara groundnut flour concentration by 6% resulted in a

decrease in emulsion stability. It has been suggested that a decrease in protein concentration can

potentially control the rate of adsorption diffusion and high protein concentration acts as an

obstruction to adsorption (Zhao et al., 2015).

Emulsion Stability
90

80

70

60
Emulsion stability (%)

50

40

30

20

10

0
) ) ) ) ) 5) ) ) ) 5) 0) 0) 0)
15 15 30 10 20 7. 0 :0 :0 :15 2. :3 0: :3
8 5: 8 5: 7 0: 9 0: 8 0: .5 : 0 0 0 5 :2 0 0 0
1( 2( 3( 4( 5( 92 (1 8(
1 (8 .5 (7 (1 (7
6(
7 9
(77 11 12 13
10
Flour blends (Sweet potato flour:Bambara groundnut flour)
Fig 4.4 show results on the emulsion stability of sweet potato-bambara groundnut flour blends

The Emulsion of flour blends ranged from 60.53% and 82.37% with blend 100:0 having the least

emulsion stability and blend 70:30 having the highest emulsion capacity. There was a significant

increase (p<0.05) on the emulsion stability with increase in concentration of Bambara groundnut

flour to the sweet potato flour. According to Obasi et al., (2009), the mechanism behind emulsion

capacity and stability is that proteins have the ability to increase the surface tension of oil droplets

while offering electrostatic repulsion on the surface of the oil droplets.

4.1.4 Foaming Capacity and Stability

Fig
Foaming Capacity 4.5
16

14

12
Foaming capacity (%)

10

0
) ) ) ) ) 5) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
15 15 30 10 20 7. 0 :0 :0 15 .5 30 :0 30
5: 5: 0: 0: 0: 5 : 0 0 0 5: 2 2 0 : 0 0 0 :
1(
8
2(
8
3(
7
4(
9
5(
8 2. (1 8(
1 (8 5: (7 (1 (7
9 7 9 7. 1 2 3
6( (7 1 1 1
10

Flour blends (Sweet potato flour:Bambara groundnut flour

shows results on the foaming capacities of different flour blends

Foam capacities of resulting flour blends varied significantly (p<0.05) with blend (100:0) having the

least foam capacity and blend (70:30) having the highest foaming capacity (fig 4.5). The foam

capacity of flour blends ranged between 5.67% and 14%. This variation could be ascribed to the

variances in protein contents of flours (Kumar et al., (2015). It has been suggested that Awolu and

Oseyemi (2016) protein molecules have the tendency to unfold and interact with each other forming

multilayer protein films with an improved strength at the air liquid interface. Ptaszek et al. (2016)

proposed that food products may constitute viscoelastic systems, exhibiting the characteristics of

multiphase liquids or solids. The molecular structures of these systems are capable of both storing, as

well as dissipating of mechanical energy. However, the addition of Bambara groundnut flour to

sweet potato flour significantly improved the foaming capacity of the flour and this shows that sweet

potato-bambara groundnut composite flours can serve as better whipping agents. Awolu and

Oseyemi (2016) also noted an increase in foam capacity of cassava flour with the addition of protein.

This may possibly be due to an increase in protein concentration which facilitates protein–protein

interaction at the air–water interface and this enhanced formation of a highly viscoelastic multiplayer

film that offers resistance to coalescence of bubbles (Adebowale and Lawal 2004).
 Time (minutes)

BLENDS 20 40 60 120

1(85:15) 100±1 96.40±0.82 88.75±0.4 80.93±0.91

2(85:15) 100±1 96.25±1.12 88.98±1.14 81.27±1.1

3(70:30) 100±1 98.42±0.63 96.87±0.76 92.23±0.5

4(90:10) 100±1 85.62±1.12 74.38±1.18 69.17±0.97

5(80:20) 100±1 94. 87±1.1 89.32±1.15 81.77±1.17

6(92.5:7.5) 100±1 88.68±1.14 74.20±0.25 68.78.20±0.92

7(100:0) 100±1 86.50±1.12 73.67±0.67 66.67±1.17

8(100:0) 100±1 85.85±0.4 73.42±1.18 66.53±1.5

9(85:15) 100±1 95.98±1.1 87.52±1.14 81.23±1.16

10(77.5:22.5) 100±1 97.23±0.75 92.86±1.18 89.60±1.17

11(70:30) 100±1 98.23±1.1 96.77±0.34 91.97±1.19

12(100:0) 100±1 86.45±1.17 73.54±0.82 66.27±1.14

13(70:30) 100±1 98.39±1.14 96.92±0.37 92.08±0.65

Table 4.1: Foaming capacity of resulting flour blends (%)

As a function of time, foam volumes tend to change as observed in Figure table (4.1). The foam

stability of the flour blends decreased from 40 min to 120 min and blend (70:30) has the highest

foaming stability of 92.23% and blend (100:0) with 66.27% at 120 min. Foam stability is essential

since the practicality of whipping agents depends on their proficiency to retain the whip over time
(Tomoskozi et al., 2001). Sweet potato-bambara composite flour blends showed a great ability to

maintain the whip over the monitored time. This implies that sweet potato-bambara groundnut

composite flours may be useful as aerating agents in food, which requires the production of stable

foam volume when whipping (Adebowale and Lawal, 2004)

4.2.1 Proximate Composition of sweet potato-bambara groundnut composite flours

Table 4.2 shows results of proximate composition of flour blends.

Parameter (%)

Ash Moisture Crude Crude Fat Crude Carbohydrate

BLENDS content content Protein content Fibre content

content content

B(85:15) 1.97±0.01 7.43±0.1 11.75±0.23 4.94±0.03 5.42±0.02 78.94±0.2

B(70:30) 2.48±0.02 6.41±0.2 12.92±0.21 6.78±0.01 6.96±0.03 75.60±0.6

B(80:20) 2.07±0.02 6.92±0.3 11.96±0.26 5.48±0.01 5.78±0.02 78.23±0.5

B(77.5:22.5) 2.16±0.03 6.68±0.2 12.34±0.23 6.26±0.02 6.65±0.01 76.79±0.6

 B (100:0) 0.07±0.02 7.96±0.2 3.36±0.21 3.85±0.02 4.85±0.03 88.03±0.3

CONTROL

Ash content

The ash content of flours is defined as inorganic residue that remains after the water and the organic

matter are removed in the presence of an oxidising agent by heating process (Omoba &

Omogbemile, 2013). According to Ojinnaka and Nnorom (2015) the ash content of flour is an

indicator of the quantity of minerals present in the food and it aids in metabolising other organic

compounds nutritionally, for example, carbohydrates and fats. Sweet potato flour had the lowest ash

content of 0.07% and the flour blends ranged between 3.18% and 2.48% (table 4.2) suggesting that

the addition of Bambara groundnut flour enhanced the ash content of sweet potato flour. These

values indicate the minerals that are present in the flours and the discrepancy could be due to the

various growth locations of the crops as well as varying environmental factors.

Moisture content

Moisture contents ranged between 6.41% and 6.96% (tTable 4.2) and the moisture content decreased

significantly with the increase in Bambara groundnut flour in the flour blends from 15-30%.

Moisture content plays an important role in flour storage and shelf stability of food products (Omoba

and Omogbemile, 2013). Low moisture content of flours assures longer shelf life by reducing the

susceptibility of flours to microbial growth which in turn can lead to food spoilage as stated by

Mishra and Chandra (2012). According to Kaur et al.,(2013) , flour and flour products with less than

14% are highly stable from moisture-dependent deterioration during storage and will be more

resistant to microbial proliferation. This implies that the moisture contents of the flour blends in this

study are within the acceptable limit for effective storage for further processing with no risk of

microbial invasion.
Protein content

There was a significant increase in the crude protein content of the blends (p<0.05) due to the

replacement of sweet potato flour with Bambara groundnut flour in the formulations as Bambara

groundnut is a good source of protein (Okonkwo and Opara, 2010; Okpuzor et al., 2010) The protein

content of flour blends ranged between 3.36% and 12.92% (Ttable 4.2). The trend observed in this

study is that the higher the level of substitution of Bambara groundnut flour the higher the protein

content. This was expected as Bambara groundnut contains more protein than sweet potato. Bambara

groundnut is rich in protein, having four times as protein content as sweet potato flour. Leguminous

protein-rich grain like Bambara groundnut has been used in compositing low protein foods to

improve their protein quality (Awasthi et al., 2012).

Fat content

The fat content of flour which is the sum of all fatty acids obtained from total lipid extract expressed

as triglycerides (Eller and King, 1996) can influence the shelf life of flour and flour products. The

amounts of fat were generally low and ranged between 3.85% and 6.75%. This could be as a result of

the fact that tubers and legumes store their energy as starch instead of as lipids. The fat contents

increased significantly (p≤0.05) as the rate of substitution of Bambara groundnut flour increases

from 15%, 20%, 22.5% and 30%. With reference to Omoba and Omogbemile (2013), the low fat

contents is of storage advantage for longer shelf life of flour and flour products and makes them

suitable raw materials in various food formulations because of the expected rancidity occurring in

fats and fatty foods.

Fibre content
The fibre content ranged between 4.85% and 6.96%. the fibre content increased significantly

(p<0.05) with the increase in Bambara groundnut incorporation into sweet potato flour blends from

15%, 20%, 22.5% and 30%. The 70:30 blend has the highest fat content of 6.96% while 100:0 blend

has the lowest fat content of 4.85%. According to Perezgonzalez, (2011), crude fibre retards the

release of glucose into the blood stream and reduces the intercolonic pressure thereby decreasing the

risk of colon cancer. The crude fibre contents rises steadily as rates of substitution of Bambara

groundnut flour increases. This is because Bambara groundnut is a good source of fibre (Bamshaiye

et al., 2011).

Carbohydrate content

All the results recorded were found to be significantly different from each other at (p<0.05) levels.

The carbohydrate content of the flour blends ranges between 75.60% and 88.03%. The high

carbohydrate contents gives an indication that food product manufactured from these flour blends

will be very good sources of calories. The carbohydrate contents of the flour blends was inversely

proportional to the amount of bambara groundnut flour substituted as expected since carbohydrates

content is higher in sweet potato flour than in bambara groundnut flour (Obomeghei, 2018). There

was also a significant (p<0.05) reduction in the carbohydrate content of sweet potato-bambara

groundnut composite flours when the percentage of Bambara groundnut was increased to 15%, 20%,

22.5% and 30%. Results obtained in this study agree with previous studies which have reported that

sweet potato is a good source of carbohydrates (Naidoo et al., 2015). Bambara groundnut flour had

carbohydrates as the major nutrient of approximately 56% and similar results have also been

previously reported (Arise et al., 2015).

4.2.2 Proximate composition of sweet potato-bambara groundnut cookies

Table 4.3 shows results of proximate composition of developed cookies.

 Parameter

BLENDS Ash Moisture Crude Crude Fat Crude Carbohydrat Energy

content content Protein content (%) Fibre e content (%) (Kcal/100g)

(%) (%) content (%) content

(%)

B(85:15) 2.24±0.01 5.35±0.3 14.85±0.02 21.85±0.02 4.76±0.03 56.31±0.52 481.25±0.61

B(70:30) 2.85±0.02 4.24±0.2 17.86±0.02 23.60±0.02 5.86±0.03 49.84±0.38 483.17±0.25

B(80:20) 2.63±0.09 4.76±0.21 15.27±0.02 22.35±0.02 4.97±0.02 54.78±0.33 481.37±0.32

B(77.5:22.5) 2.46±0.02 4.63±0.32 17.18±0.21 22.78±0.02 5.55±0.02 52.02±0.42 481.85±0.11

B(100:0) 0.36±0.02 5.76±0.3 8.44±0.23 17.84±0.03 3.77±0.02 69.58±0.36 472.71±0.22

CONTROL

Ash content

There was a significant increase (p<0.05) in the ash content of sweet potato-bambara groundnut

composite cookies occurred when the percentage of Bambara groundnut flour was increased from

15% to 30% (Table 4.3). The ash content, which is inorganic residue such as mineral that remains

after water and organic matter have been removed from cookies (Omoba and Omogbemile, 2013;

Perring and Tschopp, 2019), was higher in Bambara groundnut than in sweet potato flour. Also the

eggs added as ingredients increase the ash content. The 70:30 sweet potato-bambara groundnut

composite biscuit with the highest ash is therefore recommended in order to produce cookies with

optimum inorganic residue.

Moisture content
The moisture content of cookies is described as an indicator of dry matter in the food (Adebowale et

al., 2012). There was a significant decrease (p<0.05) in the moisture content occurred when the

percentage of Bambara groundnut in the composite cookies was increased from 15%, 20%, 22.5%

and 30% (Table 4.3). There was a decrease in moisture content when Bambara groundnut was added.

Bunde et al. (2010) reported that usage of Bambara groundnut in baked products resulted in moisture

absorption which led to an increase in freshness and a reduction of recrystallization of amylopectin

during storage. The moisture content of all cookies falls within the recommended value which is

below 12% (Kaur et al., 2013). The moisture content of cookies were in the range of 4.24% and

5.76% with blend 70:30 having the least moisture content of 4.24% therefore the 70:30 sweet potato-

bambara groundnut cookies was recommended for long term storage because it had the lowest

moisture content.

Protein content

Crude protein is an important macronutrient for growth and maintenance of the body (Kayitesi et al.,

2012). Protein content influences food processing by trapping the starch in flour mixtures and results

to the formation of the internal structure of cookies. There was a significant increase (p<0.05) in the

protein content when Bambara groundnut flour concentration in the composite cookie was increased

from 15% to 30% (table 4.3) This was because Bambara groundnut is rich in protein having four

times as protein as sweet potato flour (Okpuzor et al., 2010). There was also an increase in the

protein content as a result of adding eggs as ingredients during the baking process as eggs are high in

protein. According to Crockett et al., (2011), the use of eggs in gluten-free bread baking resulted in

the formation of a viscous solution where protein scaffolding was observed, resulting in increased

volume of baked product.

Fat content

The fat content of food is the sum of all fatty acids obtained from total lipid extract expressed as

triglycerides (Eller and King, 1996) can influence the shelf-life of sweet potato-bambara groundnut

composite cookies. According to Okpala and Ekwe (2013), High fat content in biscuits can promote

rancidity and the development of off odour (Okpala & Ekwe, 2013). The fat content of sweet potato-

bambara groundnut composite biscuits increased significantly (p<0.05) with the increase in the

percentage of Bambara groundnut flour in the composite from 15% to 30% (Table 4.3). Cookies with

high fat content have been found to possess lower density and are more liked by consumers (Biguzzi

et al., 2015). The progressive increase in the fat content is due to addition of butter as an ingredient.

Butter is made from cream and has a fat content of at least 80 percent (Charley, 1986). Despite its

ability to promote rancidity, fat contributes to the texture, structural integrity, lubrication and

increased air incorporation in dough in the making of cookies (Sozer et al., 2014).

Fibre content

Fibre is important in the diet for enhancing bowel movement, preventing overweight and

constipation and reducing the risk of colon cancer (Ayinde et al., 2012; Anderson et al., 2011). The

crude fibre content increased significantly (p<0.05) with the increase in Bambara groundnut

incorporation into the formulation from 15-30% (table 4.3) and the results range between 3.77% and

5.86% with blend 100:0 having the least fibre content of 3.77% and blend 70:30 having the highest

fibre content of 5.86%. The crude fibre content increased as the amount of Bambara groundnut

increased in the formulation. This is because Bambara groundnut is a good source of fibre

(Bamshaiye et al., 2011).

Carbohydrate content
Sweet potatoes are a good source of carbohydrate and they supply a quick source of metabolisable

energy, as well as aid in fat metabolism (Ogulankin et al., 2012). Sweet potatoes are noted to be good

for diabetics and for people with gastrointestinal disorders because they contain high levels of gums

which help in reducing high blood pressure (Himeda et al., 2012). The significant reduction of

carbohydrates is expected because of the addition of Bambara groundnut flour in the cookie

formulation. A study conducted by Serrem et al. (2011) revealed a reduction of carbohydrate content

on Bambara groundnut composited cookies. Carbohydrate content of developed cookies ranged

between 49.84% and 69.58% with blend 100:0 having the highest carbohydrate content of 69.58%

(Ttable 4.3) because sweet potato flour is higher in starch content than sweet potatoes and blend

70:30 having the least carbohydrate content of 49.84%. The carbohydrate content of flour influences

food processing by acting as a good source of metabolisable energy and by assisting in the

metabolism of fats (Kaushal et al., 2012).

Energy value

Sweet potato flour has very high energy content because of its starch content and it possesses small

starch grains which are about a tenth of that of a potato of about 1-6.5 micrometres (Dakwa and

Dakwa, 2013). The energy values of developed cookies increases significantly (p<0.05) with the

increase in Bambara groundnut flour ranging between 472.71Kcal and 483.17Kcal. The 70% sweet

potato and 30% Bambara groundnut composite cookie produced the highest energy value. This was

because of higher protein content and also butter fat added as an ingredient results in high fat content

thus giving a high energy value.

4.3 Sensory evaluation (preference test)

 B(70:30) B(77.5:22.5) B(80:20) B(85;15) B(100:0)

Colour
10

Overall Acceptability Aroma

Flavour 0 Taste

Appearance Texture

Crunchiness

Fig 4.6 shows results on sensory evaluation of developed cookies from different flour blends

Sensory evaluation was conducted to measure, analyse and interpret consumer’s potential response

to the different sweet potato-bambara composite cookies through the senses of sight, smell, touch

and taste (Stone and Sidel, 1993). The colour, aroma, taste, flavour and texture, appearance,

crunchiness and overall acceptability of composite cookies changed significantly (p<0.05) with the

increase in the percentage of Bambara groundnut flour. Browning of cookies is often observed

during baking due to Maillard reaction resulting from a reaction of reducing sugars and amino acid

during the heating (baking) process (Ndife et al., 2014; Chinma and Gernah, 2007).
Colour plays an important role in product acceptability and is the parameter used in judging baked

cookies. Colour provides information not only to reflect on raw materials, but to also consider the

quality and formulation of the product (Ojinnaka and Nnorom 2015). The colour intensity of cookies

increased significantly (p<0.05) with the increase in Bambara incorporation into sweet potato flour

by 15%, 20%, 22.5% and 30%.

Aroma is an attribute that is reported to have an influence on the acceptability of baked products

even before they are tasted (Ubbor and Akobundu, 2009). Lawless and Heyman (2010) reported that

the aroma is better perceived through a double role of olfaction system by smelling through the

external sensory system and in the mouth through the internal sensory system, where the aroma rises

and passes up into the nasal cavity from the rear direction. The flavour of food arises from a subtle

interaction of taste and aroma. It imparts a pleasing and displeasing sensory experience to consumers

and, ultimately, determines cookie acceptance or rejection (Ojinnaka and Nnorom, 2015).

The taste of cookies is an important attribute that determines the acceptability of the composite

cookies and this could have a high impact on the success of developed products in the market

(Farzana and Mohajan, 2015). The similarity in the taste acceptance of the composite biscuits can be

attributed to the inclusion of butter which has a high fat content. Fat can modify the structure of a

cookie and play a role in the rate of hydration, as well as the pattern and rate of aroma release during

eating (Burseg et al., 2009). Similarities in taste acceptance of the composite cookies can be

attributed to the fat content in butter. Fat acts as a flavour enhancer and, in baked products, it

improves the sensory quality content. Butter is known to be a flavour retainer and it enhances the

flavour in cookies (Apotiola and Fashakin, 2013).

The texture of composite cookies showed a variation when the percentage of Bambara groundnut

was increased. Texture is regarded as a complex perception; the visual is the first input, the second is

the touch and the third is the feeling in the mouth, which is detected by the teeth and tactile nerve

cells on the tongue and palate (Shiny and John, 2014). The structure of solid food is related to

attributes like hardness, crumbliness and crispiness which might affect perceived flavour through

cross modal interactions. The 70% sweet potato and 30% Bambara groundnut cookies were mostly

accepted by the panellists. Results showed that the cookies that were more acceptable were softer

than 100% sweet potato cookies. Burseg et al., (2009) indicates that fat is a key factor as it can affect

a range of factors such as aroma partition, food structure and sensory attributes like mouth-feel. The

hardness of cookies decreased when Bambara and butter were added in the composite biscuit

whereas the texture of the composite cookie showed an increase in how the cookie is perceived. The

hardness sweet potato could be due to an increase in carbohydrate starch granules which are

responsible for gel and structure formation in baked goods (Okpala and Egwu 2015). Sensory quality

attributes must be acceptable to consumers as they determine the eventual preference, selection and

consumption of sweet potato-bambara groundnut composite cookies by consumers (Mosha et al.,

2010).
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

Generally, the outcomes of this research give an insight into the potential of supplementation of

sweet potato flour enriched with Bambara groundnut flour in the baking industry. Due to the low

protein content of sweet potato, it is very difficult to use sweet potato in various food development

systems hence, it was of great importance to look for a suitable protein supplement so as to improve

its functionality and proximate composition. Therefore, the incorporation of Bambara groundnut

flour resulted in an improvement in some of the major functional properties relevant to the baking

industry. Protein supplementation resulted in an improved water absorption capacity, oil absorption

capacity, emulsion capacity and stability as well as the foaming capacity and stability which are

important parameters in food industries such as the baking industry where it directly affects dough

formation, where flavour needs to be enhanced and the overall quality of cookies.

For the functional properties of composite flours, the 70% sweet potato flour and 30% Bambara

groundnut flour blend had high significant values of water absorption capacity, oil absorption,

emulsion capacity and stability as well as the foaming capacity and stability.

For proximate composition of composite flour and cookies, the 70% sweet potato and 30% Bambara

groundnut blend had high significant values of ash content, protein content, fat content, fibre content,

and energy value. The values of composite flours and cookies for moisture were significantly lower

than of 100% sweet potato while for carbohydrates, they were significantly lower than those of 100%

sweet potato flour and cookies.

For sensory evaluation of composite cookies, the 70% sweet potato and 30% Bambara groundnut

blend have high significant values of aroma, colour, taste, flavour, appearance, texture, crunchiness

and overall acceptability.

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the above conclusion the following recommendations are forwarded:

1. For product development, the composite flours of sweet potato and Bambara groundnut

would be useful in product formulations as bakery products where hydration is important to

improve handling characteristics are required.

2. Despite the positive results obtained, it is necessary to optimise the conditions and parameters

so as to recommend the most suitable method for production of the cookies.

3. It is important for future studies to determine the shelf-life of cookies

REFERENCES