Chapter 3

BRIDGE LOADING AND

DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

Dr. Utino Worabo

A.Y 2021/22
Dead loads
Loads that remain for extended period of time
 Dead load of materials and earth loads

 Dead load of structural components and nonstructural

attachments (DC)
 Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)
 Dead load of earth fill (vertical pressure) (EV)
 Horizontal Earth pressure load (EH)
 Earth surcharge load (ES)
 Locked-in erection stresses (EL)
 Downdrag (DD)
Self-Weight
MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect (kN/m3)
Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5
Cast Iron 7200 72
Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6
Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3
Concr Normal 2400 24
ete
Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18
Soft Clay 1700 17
Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
Steel 7850 79
Stone Masonry 2725 27.3
Wood Hard 960 9.6
Soft 800 8
Water Fresh 1000 10
Vehicular live load
 Trucks cause severe load effect compared to other small
vehicles like cars
 Truck traffic – highly variable, dynamic
 The traffic lane - number of lanes of traffic that the
traffic engineer plans to route across the bridge – 3.6m
 The design lane - lane designation used by the bridge
engineer for live-load placement. The design lane width
and location may or may not be the same as the traffic
lane.
 ERA design manual uses a 3000-mm design lane, and
the vehicle is to be positioned within that lane for
extreme effect.
No. of Design Lanes
Number of design lanes = Integer part of
the ratio w/3000,
where w is the clear roadway width in mm
between curbs and/or barriers.
Iftraffic lanes < 3.0 m wide, the number of
design lanes = the number of traffic lanes,
and the width of the design lane = the
width of the traffic lane.
Design Vehicles
The live load models as given by ERA
design manual consists of three
distinctly different loads. They are,
 Design truck load
 Design tandem load
 Design lane load
Design Truck

Fig. Design Truck Load

Design Tandem Load

Fig. Design Tandem Load

 Variable spacing between middle and rear axles
used should cause critical load effect mostly for
continuous spans
 Dynamic load allowance shall be considered

Design Tandem
 Consists of a pair of 110 kN axles spaced 1.2 m
apart.The transverse spacing of wheels =1.8 m.
 Dynamic load allowance shall be considered

1.2 m
1.2 m
110 kN 110 kN 1.8 m
Design Lane Load
 The design lane load consist of a load of 9.3 kN/m,
uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction.
 Transversely, assumed to be uniformly distributed
over a 3.0-m width.
 The force effects - not be subject to a dynamic
load allowance.
 The load effects of the design truck and the design
tandem must each be superimposed with the load
effects of the design lane load.
Multiple Presence of Live Load
 Trucks present in adjacent lanes on roadways with
multiple design lanes, but it is unlikely that three adjacent
lanes loaded at the same time with heavy loads.

 Hence adjustments in design loads are necessary.

 The ERA design manual specifies factor as multiple

presence factor (m-factor).

No. of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple Presence Factors
1.2 1.0 0.85 0.65
(m-factors)
‘m’ factors should not be applied in situations
where they have been implicitly included, such as in
the load distribution factors outlined in ERA design
manual.

Ifstatic distribution factors are used or if the

analysis is based on refined methods, then the
multiple presence factors apply.

‘m’ factors apply in the design of bearings and

abutments for the braking forces

‘m’ factors should not be used in the case of the

fatigue limit state.
 Forcomponent supporting a sidewalk and one lane,
investigate for:
 Vehicular live load alone with m = 1.20, and
 Pedestrian loads + vehicular live load with m =
1.0.

 Forcomponent supporting a sidewalk and two lanes

of vehicular live load, investigate for:
 One lane of vehicular live load with m = 1.20;
 The greater of the more significant lane of
vehicular live load and the pedestrian loads or
two lanes of vehicular live load with m = 1.0
applied to the governing case; and
 Two lanes of vehicular live load and the
pedestrian loads, m = 0.85.
 Dynamic Effect
 The roadway surface - not perfectly smooth

 Vehicle suspension must react to roadway

roughness by compressing and elongating

 This oscillation creates axle forces in excess of

the static weight of the vehicle

 Although commonly called impact, this

phenomenon is more precisely referred to as
dynamic loading.
According to ERA design manual, dynamic effects due to
moving vehicles shall be attributed to two sources:
 Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel
assembly to riding surface discontinuities, such as deck
joints, cracks, potholes, and delaminations, and

 Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing

vehicles, which shall be due to long undulations in the
roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement of
fill, or to resonant excitation as a result of similar
frequencies of vibration between bridge and vehicle. The
frequency of vibration of any bridge should not exceed 3
Hz.
DYNAMIC LOAD ALLOWANCE (IM = VEHICULAR DYNAMIC LOAD
ALLOWANCE)
 Numerous experimental and analytical studies done
on dynamic load effect.
 One such study is the increase in the deflection due
to dynamic effect when compared to that due to
static load only.
 Ddyn = maximum deflection due to dynamic effect
alone and
 Dstat = maximum deflection due to static effect alone,
 Then the incremental effect of loading due to
dynamic effect = Dynamic load allowance (IM) =
(Ddyn/ Dstat)*100 %
 The factor to be applied to the static load
shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100).
Component IM
Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%
All Other Components
 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
 All Other Limit States 33%
The dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:
• Pedestrian loads or to the design lane load
• Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions
from the superstructure
• Foundation components that are entirely below
ground level
APPLICATION OF DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS
The effects of an axle sequence and the lane load
are superimposed in order to obtain extreme
values.

Unless otherwise specified, the extreme force effect

shall be taken as the larger of the following:
 The effect of the design tandem combined
with the effect of the design lane load, or
 The effect of one design truck with the
variable axle spacing combined with the effect
of the design lane load, and
For both negative and positive moment between points
of contra-flexure under a uniform load on all spans, and
reaction at interior piers only,
 90% of the effect of two design trucks spaced a
minimum of 15.0 m between the lead axle of one
truck and the rear axle of the other truck,
combined with 90% of the effect of the design
lane load.
 The distance between the 145 kN axles of each
truck shall be taken as 4.3 m.
 The design truck or tandem shall be positioned
transversely such that the center of any wheel load is
not closer than:
 For the design of the deck overhang - 300 mm from the
face of the curb or railing, and
 For the design of all other components - 600 mm
from the edge of the design lane.
 PEDESTRIAN LOADS
4.0 kPa (kN/m2) applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m
and considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live
load.
 2.39kPa For Clear Bridge Width of : 7 ft < w < 10 ft
 7.20kPa For Clear Bridge Width of : w > 10 ft

CENTRIFUGAL FORCES (CE= VEHICULAR CENTRIFUGAL FORCE)

As a truck moves along a curvilinear path, the change in
direction of the velocity causes a centrifugal acceleration in
the radial direction. Because its mass is large compared to
the power available, a truck cannot increase its speed at a
rate great enough to impose a significant force on the
bridge.
 Centrifugal acceleration acts in the radial direction
 Centrifugal Acceleration ar = V2/r
 Where V = highway speed of vehicle
 r = radius of curvature
 Centrifugal Force = mar
= m. V2/r; (But m = W/g)
= W.V2/(rg)
Where W = weight of the
Vehicle
 According to ERA design manual, centrifugal
forces shall be taken as the product of the axle
weights of the design truck or tandem and the
factor C, taken as:
C = 4 v2
3 g*R
 Because the combination of the design truck
with the design lane load gives a load
approximately 4/3 of the effect of the design
truck considered independently, a 4/3 factor is
used to model the effect of a train of trucks.
 Centrifugal forces shall be applied horizontally
at a distance 1.8 m above the roadway surface.
BRAKING FORCE (BR= VEHICULAR BRAKING FORCE)
 Acceleration is the time derivative of the velocity
vector and as such results from either a change of
magnitude or direction of velocity.
 A truck can increase speed, decrease speed,
and/or change directions as it moves along a
curvilinear path.
 All of these effects require an acceleration of the
vehicle that causes a force between the deck and
the truck.
 A decrease in speed due to braking can create a
significant deceleration that causes large forces on
the bridge in the direction of the truck
movement.
It is quite probable that all truck operators on a bridge will
observe an event that causes the operators to apply the
brakes.
Thus, loading of multiple lanes should be considered in the
design.
The change in kinetic energy associated with the truck is
completely dissipated by the braking force. The kinetic
energy is equated to the work performed by the braking
force.
where
Fb is the braking force, s = braking distance

Where,

Calculations using a braking length of 122 m and a

speed of 90 km/h (25 m/s) yield b = 0.26 for a
horizontal force that will act for a period of about
10 seconds.
Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of the axle
weights of the design truck or tandem
Vehicle Collision
Unless protections are provided a
horizontal force of 1800kN applied at 1.2m
above the ground should be considered.
AASHTO Article 3.6.5
Water Loads
 Water Loads (WA= Water Load and Stream Pressure)
 Static Pressure: Static pressure of water shall be
assumed to act perpendicular to the surface that is
retaining the water.
AASHTO Article 3.7.1
P=γ g h

 Buoyancy :Buoyancy shall be considered to be an

uplift force, taken as the sum of the vertical
components of static pressures, as specified in Article
3.7.1, acting on all components below design water
level.
Stream Pressure
 Longitudinal: The longitudinal drag force shall be
taken as the product of longitudinal stream
pressure and the projected surface exposed
thereto.
Stream Pressure….cont’d

Lateral: The lateral, uniformly distributed pressure on substructure due

to water flowing at an angle, θ, to the longitudinal axis of the pier.
Wind Loads
 Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS): For small and medium sized
concrete bridges below 50m length the wind load on structures shall
be neglected.
 In the absence of more precise data, design wind pressure, PD in kPa,
shall be determined as:
AASHTO section 3.8.1.2.1
Wind Pressure on Vehicle:WL
(AASHTO section 3.8.1.3)
When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure shall
be applied to both structure and vehicles. Wind pressure
on vehicles shall be represented by an interruptible, moving
force of 1.46 N/mm acting normal to, and 1800 mm above,
the roadway and shall be transmitted to the structure.
Aeroelastic Instability: WL
(AASHTO section 3.8.3)

 Aeroelastic force effects shall be taken into

account in the design of bridges and structural
components are to be wind-sensitive.
 For the purpose of this Article, all bridges, and
structural components thereof with a span
length to width or depth ratio exceeding 30.0
shall be deemed to be wind-sensitive.
 The vibration of cables due to the interaction
of wind and rain shall also be considered.
Earthquake Effects (EQ: Earthquake)
 Earthquake loads are given by the product of the
elastic seismic response coefficient Csm and the
equivalent weight of the superstructure.
Earthquake Effects (EQ: Earthquake)
The elastic seismic response coefficient, Csm

where: Tm = period of vibration of the mth mode (s)

A = acceleration coefficient specified in Table 3-15
S = site coefficient specified in Table 3-16
Earthquake Effects (EQ: Earthquake)
Figure 3-9
Earthquake Zones
(Note: In zone 1-3
A≤0.07 and in
zone 4 A≤0.10)
Earthquake Effects (EQ: Earthquake)
Except as specified below, bridges satisfying the requirements of Table
4.7.4.3.1-2 may be taken as “regular” bridges.
Bridges not satisfying the requirements of Table 4.7.4.3.1-2 shall be
taken as “irregular” bridges.
 Curved bridges comprised of multiple simple-spans shall be
considered to be “irregular” if the subtended angle in plan is
greater than 20 degrees. Such bridges shall be analyzed by either
the multimode elastic method or the time-history method.
Earth Pressure
 Earth Pressure (EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure; ES =
Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge; DD =
Downdrag)
 Earth pressure shall be considered as a function of the:
 Type and density of earth,
 Water content,
 Soil creep characteristics,
 Degree of compaction
 Location of groundwater table,
 Earth-structure interaction,
 Amount of surcharge, and
 Earthquake effects.
EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure
Active and Passive Earth Pressures
 Coulomb theory is recommended by AASHTO for masonry and RC
abutment since this theory holds better for the actual situation.
kh=coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as ka
ES = Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge
ES = Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge
The “Wall Height” shall be taken as the distance between
the surface of the backfill and the bottom of the footing.

Down Drag (DD):

When soil surrounding piles settle, it applies a downward
force. In this case, the force should be considered.
Design Philosophy
 Design Philosophy
Design Objective
The objectives in a bridge design are:
safety, serviceability,
economy, constructability and
aesthetics.
 Safety – the primary responsibility of the Engineer is
to ensure public safety in the design by ensuring
adequate structural safety.
Serviceability – consists of satisfying requirements of
deformation, durability, maintainability and ride-ability.

Minimum requirements are provided for clearances,

environmental protection, geological studies, ride-ability,
durability and maintainability.
 Design Philosophy……Cont’d
 In Engineering design the general principle is that the resistance
of a cross-section has to exceed the effects come from the
applied loads.

 When a particular loading condition reaches and just exceeds

the resistance capacity of the provided section failure is the
result. Such a condition is referred to as a Limit State.

 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)- A reliability

based design methodology in which force effects caused by
factored loads are not permitted to exceed the factored
resistance of the components.

Resistance ≥ Effect of Loads

 Design Philosophy……Cont’d

The resistance factor Φ for a particular limit state

must account for the uncertainties in:
Material properties
Equations that predict strength
Workmanship
Quality control
Consequence of a failure
 Design Philosophy……Cont’d

Limit States
Structural components shall be proportioned to
satisfy the requirements at all appropriate service,
fatigue, strength, and extreme event limit states.

Service Limit State:

Deals with restrictions on stress, deformation,
and crack width under regular service
conditions.
Intended to ensure that the bridge performs
acceptably during its design life.
 Design Philosophy……Cont’d
Strength Limit State:
Intended to ensure that strength and stability
are provided to resist statistically significant
load combinations that a bridge will
experience during its design life.

Extensive distress and structural damage may

occur at strength limit state conditions, but
overall structural integrity is expected to be
maintained.
Design Philosophy……Cont’d
Design Philosophy……Cont’d
 Design Philosophy……Cont’d

Limit States
Fatigue Limit State:
Deals with restrictions on stress range under regular
service conditions reflecting the number of expected
cycles.
Fatigue limit states are used to limit stress in steel
reinforcements to control concrete crack growth under
repetitive truck loading in order to prevent early fracture
failure before the design service life of a bridge.

Extreme Event Limit State:

Intended to ensure structural survival of a bridge during an
earthquake, vehicle collision, ice flow, or foundation scour.
 Introduction of
Load and Resistance Factor Rating
(LRFR) or Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD)
 What Is Bridge Load Rating?
 The safe live load carrying capacity of a
highway bridge is called as bridge load rating,
i.e., Rating factor is used to determine the
suitability of the given bridge for the loads
under consideration.

 It is usually expressed as a (rating) factor (RF)

of a defined vehicle or as a gross tonnage for a
defined vehicle axle configuration.
Three Different Load Rating Methods

Allowable Stress Rating (ASR)

Load Factor Rating (LFR)
Load & Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR)
 Basic Equation of Rating Factor for
the LFR Method

A load rating can be expressed in terms of a “rating

factor” for a particular vehicle.
 How to calculate the rating factor (RF)

𝐶 − 𝐴1 𝐷
𝑅𝐹 = 𝐴1 = Factor for dead loads
𝐴2 𝐿 1 + 𝐼
𝐴2 = Factor for live load

Rating Level 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐶 = Capacity of the bridge

Inventory 1.3 1.3 𝐷 = Dead load effect

Operating 1.3 2.17 𝐼 = Impact factor
𝐿 = Live load effect
 Basic Equation of Rating Factor for
the LRFR Method
𝐶 − 𝛾𝐷𝐶 𝐷𝐶 − 𝛾𝐷𝑊 𝐷𝑊 ± 𝛾𝑃 𝑃
𝑅𝐹 =
𝛾𝐿 𝐿𝐿 1 + 𝐼𝑀

 𝐶 is the structural capacity ( = 𝜙𝑐 𝜙𝑠 𝜙𝑅; c: condition, s: system)

 DC is the dead-load effect of structural components and attachments
 DW is the dead-load effect of wearing surfaces and utilities
 P is the permanent loading other than dead loads
 LL is the live-load effect
 IM is the dynamic load allowance
 𝛾𝐷𝐶 is the load factor for structural components and attachments
 𝛾𝐷𝑊 is the LRFD load factor for wearing surfaces and utilities
 𝛾𝑃 is the load factor for permanent loads other than dead loads
 𝛾𝐿 is the evaluation live-load factor
 Load Factors and Load Combinations

In LRFD method, load factors are applied to the loads

and resistance factors to the internal resistances or
capacities of sections.

Load Factor- A statistically-based multiplier applied to

force effects accounting primarily for the variability of
loads, the lack of accuracy in analysis, and the
probability of simultaneous occurrence of different
loads, but also related to the statistics of the
resistance through the calibration process.

Load Modifier- A factor accounting for ductility,

redundancy, and the operational classification of the
bridge.
 Load Factors and Load Combinations

Moreover, the load combinations and load factors are

considered accordingly.

load modifier specified in AASHTO Article 1.3.2

load factors specified in AASHTO Tables 3.4.1-1 and

3.4.1-2
Table 3-3 Load Factors for Permanent Loads, γp
Load Combinations
Load Combinations
 Strength Limit State
Strength I:This strength limit state is the basic load combination
relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge without
wind.
Strength II: This strength limit state is the load combination relating to
the use of the bridge by owner-specified special design
vehicles, evaluation permit vehicles, or both without wind.
Strength III: This strength limit state is the load combination relating to
the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding 55 mph (90
km/h).
Strength IV: This strength limit state is the load combination relating to
very high dead/live load force effect ratios.
Strength V: This strength limit state is the load combination relating to
normal vehicular use of the bridge with wind of 55-mph
(90-km/h) velocity.
 Service Limit State
The service limit state refers to restrictions on stresses, deflections,
and crack widths of bridge components that occur under regular
service conditions.
Service I: refers to the load combination relating to the normal
operational use of the bridge with 55-mph (90-km/h) wind,
and with all loads taken at their nominal values.
Service II: refers to the load combination relating only to steel
structures and is intended to control yielding and slip of slip-
critical connections due to vehicular live load.
Service III: refers to the load combination for longitudinal analysis
relating to tension in prestressed concrete superstructures
with the objective of crack control and to principal tension in
the webs of segmental concrete girders.
Service IV: This service limit state refers to the load combination
relating only to tension in prestressed concrete
substructures with the objective of crack control.
 Extreme Event Limit State
The extreme event limit state refers to the structural
survival of a bridge during a major earthquake or flood or
when collided by a vessel/container, vehicle, or ice

Extreme Event I: This extreme event limit state is the

load combination relating to earthquake.
Extreme Event II: This extreme event limit state is the load
combination relating to ice load,
collision by vessels and vehicles, and to
certain hydraulic events with reduced
live load.
 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State
The fatigue and fracture limit state refers to a set of restrictions on
stress range caused by a design truck.

The restrictions depend on the number of stress-range excursions

expected

For example, at Strength I Limit State where the permanent load

reaction is positive and live load can cause a negative reaction, the
load combination would be:
0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM)
If both reactions were negative, the load combination would be:
1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM).
Load Comb…SA
Load Modifiers
 Ductility Factor: ηD
Ductility is important to the safety of the bridge.
If ductility is present, overloaded portion of the structure can
redistribute the load to other portions that have reserve strength.
 This redistribution is dependent on the ability of the
overloaded component and its connections to develop
inelastic deformations without failure.
 Brittle behavior is to be avoided, because it implies a sudden
loss of load carrying capacity when the elastic limit is
exceeded.
 Redundancy Factor: ηR
 A statically indeterminate structure is redundant, that is, it has
more restraints than necessary to satisfy conditions of
equilibrium.
 Redundancy in a bridge system will increase its margin of safety
 Operational Importance Factor: ηi
 Bridges can be considered of operational importance if they are
on the shortest path between residential areas and a hospital or
a school or provide access for police, fire, and rescue vehicles to
homes, businesses, industrial plants, etc.
 a non important bridge could be on a secondary road leading to
a remote recreation area, that is not open year around.
 In the event of an earthquake, it is important that all lifelines,
such as bridges remain open.
 Ultimate Limit Design

 The ultimate design load acting on a member will be

the summation of the relevant characteristic load
combinations multiplied by their respective partial
safety factors.
Analysis of Bridge
for
Seismic Excitation
 Analysis
Static Analysis
Slab Bridges
Equivalent Strip Method is used for the analysis
Girder Bridges
Variation of loads along the transversal and longitudinal
directions are used
Dynamic Analysis
Seismic Design per ES EN 8, 2015, in conjunction with
AASHTO, ERA seismic design criteria.
Dynamic Analysis Methods for Seismic
Bridge Design

Earthquake Damage
Earthquake damage to a bridge can have severe
consequences.

Clearly, the collapse of a bridge places people on or

below the bridge at risk, and it must be replaced after
the earthquake unless alternative transportation paths
are identified.
 Earthquake Damage

Rio Bananito Bridge collapse in the 1991 Costa

Higashi-Nada Viaduct collapse in the 1995
Rica earthquake
 Dynamic Analysis

Depending on the seismic zone, geometry, and

importance of the bridge, the following analysis
methods may be used for seismic bridge
design:
 The single-mode method
 Multimode spectral analysis
 The time-history method
 The single-mode method
 Single-mode spectral and uniform-load
analysis assumes that seismic load can be
considered as an equivalent static horizontal
force applied to an individual frame in either
the longitudinal or transverse direction.

 The equivalent static force is based on the

natural period of a single degree of freedom
(SDOF) and code-specified response spectra.
 Multimode spectral analysis
 Multimode spectral analysis assumes that member
forces, moments, and displacements due to seismic
load can be estimated by combining the responses of
individual modes using methods such as the complete
quadratic combination (CQC) method and the square
root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) method.

 The CQC method is adequate for most bridge

systems, and the SRSS method is best suited for
combining responses of well-separated modes.
The Multiple Support Response Spectrum

It provides response spectra and the peak

displacements at individual support degrees of
freedom by accurately accounting for the spatial
variability of ground motions, including the
effects of incoherence, wave passage, and spatially
varying site response.

This method can be used for multiply supported

long structures.
 The time-history method
 This method is a numerical step-by-step
integration of equations of motion.

 It is usually required for critical/important or

geometrically complex bridges.

 Inelastic analysis provides a more realistic

measure of structural behavior when
compared with an elastic analysis.
 The time-history method

In the SDOF system shown in the Figure, the mass of the
bridge superstructure is the mass of the dynamic system.

The stiffness of the dynamic system is the stiffness of the

column against side sway, and the viscous damper of the
system is the internal energy absorption of the bridge
structure.
 Equation of Motion
The response of a structure
depends on its mass, stiffness,
damping, and applied load or
displacement. The structure could
be excited by applying an external
force p(t) on its mass or by a ground
motion u(t) at its supports.
The displacement of the ground
motion ug, the total displacement
of the single mass ut, and the
relative displacement between
the mass and ground u are
related by:

ut = u + ug and

Where: fI the inertia force, fD is the damping

force on the mass and related to the velocity
and is the elastic force exerted on the mass fS
and related to the relative displacement
 Equation of Motion…cont’d
The equation of motion for an SDOF system
subjected to a ground motion is given by:

where k is the spring constant; c is the damping ratio;

and m is the mass of the dynamic system.
 Characteristics of Free Vibration
Free vibration is typically initiated by disturbing
the structure from its equilibrium state by an
external force

Once the system is disturbed, the system vibrates

without any external input. Thus, the equation of
motion for free vibrational force or displacement.
Free Vibration…cont’d
 Free Vibration…cont’d
The natural cyclic frequency
of vibration, fn is given by:
The damped period of
vibration ( Td) of the
system is given by
 For structures such as
buildings, bridges, dams, and
offshore structures, the
damping ratio is less than 0.15
and thus can be categorized as
underdamped structures.
 The basic dynamic properties
estimated using damped or
undamped assumptions are
approximately the same.
 Damping
Damping dissipates the energy out of a
structure in opening and closing of microcracks
in concrete, stressing of nonstructural elements,
and friction at the connection of steel
members.

Thus, the damping coefficient accounts for all

energy dissipating mechanisms of the structure
and can be estimated only by experimental
methods.
It is noted that although three spectra (displacement,
velocity, and acceleration) for a specific ground motion
contain the same information, each provides a physically
meaningful quantity.
 The displacement spectrum presents the peak
displacement.
 The velocity spectrum is related directly to the peak
strain energy stored in the system.
 The acceleration spectrum is related directly to the
peak value of the equivalent static force and base shear.
 Example of an SDOF System
An SDOF bridge structure is
shown in the following Figure.
To simplify the problem, the
bridge is assumed to move only
in the longitudinal direction. The
total resistance against the
longitudinal motion comes in
the form of friction at bearings,
and this could be considered a
damper. Assume the following
properties for the structure:
damping ratio ξ = 0.05, area of
superstructure A = 3.57 m2, moment
of column Ic = 0.1036 m4, Ec of
column = 20,700 MPa, material density
γ = 2400 kg/m3, length of column Lc =
9.14 m, and length of the
superstructure Ls = 36.6 m. The
acceleration response curve of the
structure is given. Determine (1)
natural period of the structure, (2)
damped period of the structure, (3)
maximum displacement of the
superstructure, and (4) maximum
moment in the column.
Example ….cont’d

Solution
Example ….cont’d
 Multi-Degree-of-Freedom System
 The SDOF approach may not be applicable for complex
structures such as multilevel frame structures and bridges
with several supports.

 To predict the response of a complex structure, the

structure is discretized with several members of lumped
masses.

 As the number of lumped masses increases, the number

of displacements required to define the displaced
positions of all masses increases.

 The response of a multi-degree- of-freedom (MDOF)

system (Reading Assignment)
Multi-Degree-of-Freedom System

Higher modes in pier bearing supported