PHRE 411 WIND ENERGY TECHNOLOGY II

A. Induction Generators

A generator is a device that transform a type of energy into electricity. Although it is not possible to
“create” energy, it is possible to transform it. There are several types of energy a generator could
transform such as thermal, kinetic (mechanical), chemical or potential energy.

Mechanical is the most common one. When a generator converts mechanical energy to electricity,
then it is also called dynamo.

In today’s industry, generators are useful and well known appliances. For example, they are used in
vehicles, to convert the energy coming from wind turbines at power plants or just to power a house
in case of a power loss. One of the most common type of generator in today’s market is gas or diesel
powered generators.

A generator is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction. This phenomenon was discovered by
Michael Faraday and it states that a current is produced in a conductor when it is moved through a
magnetic field. The voltage produced it is called electromotive force (emf). This process could be reverse
too, in other words if an electrical charge is moving, then it will generate a magnetic field.

Faraday-Maxwell’s Law of induction.

Faraday-Maxwell’s law of induction established the relationship that the emf value versus

the number of turns (of a coil) times the rate of change of magnetic flux.

−Ndф
Emf =
dt

Where ф is magnetic flux

N is number of conductor coils cutting the magnetic field

dф is change in magnetic field

d t is change in time

The reason for the minus sign is that the direction of the electromotive force direction opposes the
change in the flux that produces the voltage.

But ф=nBAcosθ

Where B is magnetic field

A is surface area bombarded by the flux

θ is the angle between the surface area and the magnetic field.
Electromagnetic induction has many applications. For example, in a credit cards (the

magnetic strips on the back of the card) or in order to generate voltage in motors. The last

one is very important because a generator is a “reverse” motor.

With the formula above (Faraday-Maxwell’s Law of Induction), it is possible to understand

how to optimize the amount of voltage produce by the generator. Some possible solutions

could be:

 Increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil. If there are more conductors

cutting through the magnetic field, then the amount of induced emf equals the

summation of all the loops.

 Increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet.

More voltage could be induced if there is a faster change of rate in the flux.

 Increasing the strength of the magnetic field. If there is a stronger magnetic field

there would be higher voltage because are more lines perpendicular to cut.

Operation of generator

Electromagnetic induction is a key factor in a generator’s operation. The main parts of a generators are:
carbon brushes, slip-rings, rotor and stator. The rotor is an electromagnet made by coiling wires around
two or more poles of metal core. The stator is a pair of plates attached to the axle. The brushes are
connected to the source of energy and work with the commutators in order to let the induced current
flow around the system. Once the shaft and coil start spinning around the shaft, there is some
current and electromotive force produced. It is important to mention that this induced current moves in
the opposite direction of the rotation. Not all the positions during the rotation induces emf.

For example, when the flux is align with the magnetic field, then the flux is not cutting the field. When
the flux moves directly across the flux lines then, it is cutting the field at a maximum rather therefore
the emf is at its highest point. The maximum emf could be calculated by the formula EMF=
B*L*v*sin (α) where L is the length if the segment, B corresponds to the magnetic field and v the speed.
When alpha is 90 degrees then, the voltage is at is maximum value.

If the generator induced current and it is revising direction every half turn then it is an

alternating current (AC). In other hand, if the induced current always turn in the same direction then
it is direct current (DC).
B. Asynchronous induction generator

If an induction generator is asynchronous, then at synchronous speed no power is delivered. The

reason why there is no power is because the difference between the synchronous speed and the

operating speed is zero. But if a motor is driven at a higher speed than the synchronous speed, the

torque will be negative and start acting as a generator rather than a motor. The generator could

deliver the desired power if the slip is controlled according to the load requirements. The graph
presented in figure 4 shows the relation generator torque (rotational force) vs speed. Torque it is a very
important concept to keep on mind at the process of operating a motor as a generator because it is
necessary an external torque to be applied in order to turn the rotor faster than the synchronous speed.

Connection/ Implementation Process and Benefits.

Motors can be also used as generators. Both devices shares the main parts (brushes, magnets, split ring)
the only difference is that in the generator the coil is being turned and generating emf.

Also, the ends of the coil are connected to a split ring that is in contact with the brushes. The last ones
are the ones in charge of rectify the induced voltage In other words, if a prime mover drives the rotor
above synchronous speed then the stator flux induces current in the rotor, then a motor could also work
as a generator. Now, it is important to mention that an induction generator is not a self-excited machine
so it will need from another source or device in order to start

rotating so it will required magnetizing current and reactive power. Example of other

sources are: a motor, water (turbines), wind (windmills) or combustion (like gasoline or

diesel in portable generators). An example of a generator rotating due a prime mover

could be observed in figure 5.

Some of the benefits of an induction generator technology are:

 Relative low cost. Most of the cost will relay in the price of the magnet used to

induce the electromotive force.

 Generator Power Quality. If the generator produces an unregulated voltage, it is

possible to make some changes in the speed or load in order to get a desired

voltage.

 In induction generators, the cage rotor helps to operate at a wider speed range by

changing the amplitude of the main winding.

 Simple and robust construction.

As every other devices, induction generators also have some disadvantages. The main

problem of this type of generator is that they usually take a large amount of reactive

Power.

Applications of Generators.

Generators are very important in today’s industry. They let to convert some type of energy intro

electricity. This is a great advantage because in some cases could let to use and operates

renewable energy and contribute to the environment. Some typical applications of Induction

Generators in today’s industry are:

1. “A Water Company finds that it can buy electrical power at low rates at night and sell

power at high rates during the daytime peak load period. It builds low and high storage

basins and installs several pumps. At night it pumps water from the low basin to the high

basin, buying power from the utility. At peak periods, the water flows back down through

the pumps, driving the motors as generators. The power is sold to the utilities. The

arrangement is so simple that it can be remotely operated.

2. The wind blows constantly between the desert and mountains of California. An

enterprising individual set up some towers with windmills driving Induction Generators

through gearboxes. Power is generated proportional to the wind velocity and sold to the

local utility. The operation of the "Wind Farm" is virtually automatic with the proper

equipment.”

Key concepts:

Electromagnetic induction: to induces current by moving a conductor across a magnetic

field.

Electromotive force (emf): Energy that is converter into electrical energy when unit

charge passes through it.

Torque: Rotational Force

Rotor: the rotating part of a motor.

B. Synchronous Generator Construction

A DC current is applied to the rotor winding, which then produces a rotor magnetic field. The rotor is

then turned by a prime mover (eg. Steam, water etc.) producing a rotating magnetic field. This rotating

magnetic field induces a 3-phase set of voltages within the stator windings of the generator.

“Field windings” applies to the windings that produce the main magnetic field in a machine, and

“armature windings” applies to the windings where the main voltage is induced. For synchronous

machines, the field windings are on the rotor, so the terms “rotor windings” and “field windings” are
used interchangeably.

Generally a synchronous generator must have at least 2 components:

a) Rotor Windings or Field Windings

i. Salient Pole
ii. Non Salient Pole

b) Stator Windings or Armature Windings

The rotor of a synchronous generator is a large electromagnet and the magnetic poles on the rotor can

either be salient or non salient construction. Non-salient pole rotors are normally used for rotors with 2

or 4 poles rotor, while salient pole rotors are used for 4 or more poles rotor.

A dc current must be supplied to the field circuit on the rotor. Since the rotor is rotating, a special

arrangement is required to get the dc power to its field windings. The common ways are:

a) supply the dc power from an external dc source to the rotor by means of slip rings and brushes.

b) Supply the dc power from a special dc power source mounted directly on the shaft of the

synchronous generator.

Slip rings are metal rings completely encircling the shaft of a machine but insulated from it. One end of
the dc rotor winding is tied to each of the 2 slip rings on the shaft of the synchronous machine, and a

stationary brush rides on each slip ring.

A “brush” is a block of graphite like carbon compound that conducts electricity freely but has very low

friction, hence it doesn’t wear down the slip ring. If the positive end of a dc voltage source is connected

to one brush and the negative end is connected to the other, then the same dc voltage will be applied to

the field winding at all times regardless of the angular position or speed of the rotor.

Some problems with slip rings and brushes:

- They increase the amount of maintenance required on the machine, since the brushes must be

checked for wear regularly.

- Brush voltage drop can be the cause of significant power losses on machines with larger field

currents.

Small synchronous machines – use slip rings and brushes.

Larger machines – brushless exciters are used to supply the dc field current.

A brushless exciter is a small ac generator with its field circuit mounted on the stator and its armature

circuit mounted on the rotor shaft. The 3-phase output of the exciter generator is rectified to direct

current by a 3-phase rectifier circuit also mounted on the shaft of the generator, and is then fed to the

main dc field circuit. By controlling the small dc field current of the exciter generator (located on the

stator), we can adjust the field current on the main machine without slip rings and brushes. Since no

mechanical contacts occur between the rotor and stator, a brushless exciter requires less maintenance.

To make the excitation of a generator completely independent of any external power sources, a small

pilot exciter can be used.

A pilot exciter is a small ac generator with permanent magnets mounted on the rotor shaft and a 3-
phase winding on the stator. It produces the power for the field circuit of the exciter, which in turn
controls the field circuit of the main machine. If a pilot exciter is included on the generator shaft, then
no external electric power is required.

A brushless exciter circuit : A small 3-phase current is rectified and used to supply the field circuit of the

exciter, which is located on the stator. The output of the armature circuit of the exciter (on the rotor) is
then rectified and used to supply the field current of the main machine.

A brushless excitation scheme that includes a pilot exciter. The permanent magnets of the pilot exciter

produce the field current of the exciter, which in turn produces the field current of the main machine.

Even though machines with brushless exciters do not need slip rings and brushes, they still include the

slip rings and brushes so that an auxiliary source of dc field current is available in emergencies.

The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator

Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning that the electrical frequency produced
is locked in or synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of the generator. A synchronous

generator’s rotor consists of an electromagnet to which direct current is supplied. The rotor’s magnetic

field points in the direction the rotor is turned. Hence, the rate of rotation of the magnetic field in the

machine is related to the stator electrical frequency by:

nm P
f e=
120

The Internal Generated Voltage of a Synchronous Generator

Voltage induced is dependent upon flux and speed of rotation, hence from what we have learnt so far,
the induced voltage can be found as follows:

E A =√ 2 π N C ф
❑

For simplicity, it may be simplified to as follows:

E A =K фῶ

NC P
K= (if ῶ is in electrical rads/s)
√2
NC P
K= (if ῶ is in mechanical rads/s)
2 √2

The voltage E A is the internal generated voltage produced in one phase of a synchronous generator. If
the machine is not connected to a load (no armature current flowing), the terminal voltage will be
equivalent to the voltage induced at the stator coils. This is due to the fact that there is no current flow
in the stator coils hence no losses. When there is a load connected to the generator, there will be
differences between E A and Vф . These differences are due to:

a) Distortion of the air gap magnetic field by the current flowing in the stator called armature

reaction.

b) Self-inductance of the armature coil

c) Resistance of the armature coils

d) The effect of salient pole rotor shapes.

Armature Reaction

When the rotor is spun, a voltage E A is induced in the stator windings. If a load is attached to the

terminals of the generator, a current flows. But a 3-phase stator current flow will produce a magnetic

field of its own. This stator magnetic field will distorts the original rotor magnetic field, changing the

resulting phase voltage. This effect is called armature reaction because the armature (stator) current

affects the magnetic field, which produced it in the first place.

ow down a fast machines and to speed up slow machines,