UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI

May 20, 2006

Date:___________________

Vincent J. Phelan
I, _________________________________________________________,
hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of:
Doctor of Musical Arts
in:
Violin
It is entitled:
An Analysis of the First Movement of the Concerto for Violin and
Orchestra, op. 77 by Johannes Brahms:
Applications in Performance

This work and its defense approved by:

Won Bin Yim

Chair: _______________________________
Robert Zierolf
_______________________________
Mary Sue Morrow
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
 An Analysis of the First Movement of the
Concerto for Violin and Orchestra, op. 77 by Johannes Brahms:
Applications in Performance

A thesis submitted to the

Division of Graduate Studies and Research

at the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

in the Performance Studies Division

of the College-Conservatory of Music

May, 2006

by

Vincent Phelan
2166 Trailwood Drive
Cincinnati, Ohio 45230

B.M., The Cleveland Institute of Music, 1985

M.M., University of Cincinnati, 1994

 ABSTRACT

This thesis argues that the thoughtful consideration of musical elements in a piece

of music enhances the experience for the primary listener, the performer. Using the score

of Brahms’s concerto as the primary reference source, I have studied the large scale form

as well as connections between themes, and between the elements of harmony, rhythm,

melody, and dynamics.

I have used my analysis to make performance points for selected passages in the

first movement of the concerto. Included is a selected discography for Brahms’s concerto.

ii
iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to especially thank Dr. J. Randall Wheaton, who gave generously of his
time and expertise in advising me on this thesis. His insights, guidance, and friendship are
invaluable to me. Thanks also, to Dr. Won-Bin Yim for what he taught me and for his
encouragement of my teaching.
Many thanks to my wife, Elizabeth, for her help in preparing the manuscript for
submission and for her steadfast love and support throughout the entire degree program.
And, thanks to my children, Peter and Veronica, who keep me laughing.

iv
v
 CONTENTS

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………….…… ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………….. iv

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION The need for analysis in preparing for performance………. 1

2. OVERVIEW OF THEMES ……………………………………….………….… 5

3. ANALYSIS OF AND PERFORMANCE POINTS FOR THE ORCHESTRAL

THEMATIC EXPOSITION …………………………………………………… 16

4. ANALYSIS OF AND PERFORMANCE POINTS FOR THE SOLO

PORTION OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT OF THE CONCERTO …………….. 33

5. ANALYSIS OF AND PERFORMANCE POINTS FOR JOSEPH JOACHIM’S

FIRST MOVEMENT CADENZA………………………………………………. 62

6. CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………….…….. 69

APPENDIX A: FORMAL DIAGRAM OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT OF THE

CONCERTO …………………………………………………………….……... 71

APPENDIX B: SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY ………………………….……. 72

LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED …………………………………….………. 74

 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

I developed the idea for a thesis on the subject of analysis and performance of the Violin

Concerto by Johannes Brahms after giving a lecture-recital on the motivic unity of Brahms’s

Piano Quartet in G Minor, Op. 25. In preparing for that lecture-recital I became aware of how

thoughtful analysis can aid the effective interpretation and performance of any piece of music.

In the G Minor Piano Quartet, the interconnectedness of themes from one section of a

movement to another and between movements was of great value in making performance

decisions. Questions of tempo, phrasing, balance between voices, and note grouping were

easier to answer with the awareness of the many ways Brahms used motivic connections to

achieve unity in large-scale structures.

In studying the first movement of Brahms’s Violin Concerto, I discovered how melody,

harmony, rhythm, and dynamics are interrelated in his compositional practice. Some

performers are satisfied if they manage to play the written notes at the right time. Other

performers can easily manage the technical difficulties of the concerto but lose the sense of

large-scale structure and take extreme liberties with tempi.

1
 2

The purpose of this document is to give performers and teachers ideas on how to approach the

first movement of Brahms’s Violin Concerto from both the performer’s and the analyst’s

perspective. I intend that these ideas encourage readers to develop their own interpretations.

In my analysis and recommendations for performance, I have tried to avoid subjective

opinions on interpretation. Instead, I have based my recommendations on the content of the

score. I hope that readers will arrive at their own interpretations for performance based on the

analysis that I have provided.

The Role of Analysis in Preparing for Performance

When a performer plays a piece of music, he or she collaborates with the composer in

conveying the music’s essence to the audience; this collaboration requires some type of

analysis on the part of the performer. The analysis may be done intuitively, through prior

experience with music; for a select few performers this approach can be very effective.

However, for most performers, reliance on intuition alone risks overlooking many factors that

might lead to more and better choices in performance decisions.

Composers want performers to approach their music thoughtfully. While they want their

intentions as expressed in musical notation to be honored, composers often welcome insights

that a performer may bring. Roger Sessions (1896-1985) wrote this about the role of the

performer:

Is [the performer] merely a medium for transmitting [the composer’s]

intentions more or less well, according to his technical capacities and his skill
in deciphering the text? I think that it should be clear that the performer is far
more than this. First of all, musical notation, despite all efforts on the
composer’s part to translate his wishes and intentions, can never be exact.
 3

In projecting the work, the performer has to exercise individual judgment at

many points…1

Sessions was being pragmatic when he wrote that performers need to make their own

judgments in conveying the composer’s intentions, since few performers have the

opportunity to work directly with the composer. Beyond the limitations of musical notation,

there are many issues that performers encounter.

In the process of analysis, a performer may find that there are several ways to interpret a

phrase, for example. Performers should have all options for interpretation available to them in

making performance decisions about issues such as tempo, phrasing and articulation. An aural

example is a valuable resource, but no single interpretation can be the only way to play a piece.

The performer on a listener’s favorite recording may play a phrase in one way on the occasion

of the recorded performance and in an entirely different way at the next performance. The fact

that so many recordings of Brahms’s concerto exist, sometimes by the same violinist at

different stages of his or her career, is evidence that great music defies absolutes with respect to

interpretation.

Roger Sessions has a very broad view of the creative process of music-making from

which performers may benefit: “The idea of the ‘ideal’ or even in any strict sense the

‘authoritative’ performance is an illusory one. The music is not totally present, the idea of the

composer is not fully expressed, in any single performance, actual or even conceivable, but

rather in the sum of all possible performances.”2

1
Roger Sessions, The Musical Experience of Composer, Performer, and Listener (New
Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1950), 82.
2
Ibid. , 85-86.
 4

To explain the connection between analysis and performance, Wallace Berry describes

how analysis finds its place in the performer’s interpretive mind: “The analytical

comprehension of structure is usually assimilated to a submerged level of consciousness, with

the details of performance - elements to project, underscore, or subdue - ideally falling into

place in a motivated stream of action and reaction shaped by exhaustive prior thought and

conditioning experiment.”3 This point is important for performers to realize, that the analytical

work should be in the service of the performance and not the other way around.

3
Wallace Berry, Musical Structure and Performance (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1989), xi.
 5

CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF THEMES

In this chapter I will describe the principal themes of the movement and show

how they interrelate. The first theme group (labeled as I) contains three themes, two are

lyrical and the third is dramatic in character; I have labeled these themes IA, IB, and IC

in the formal diagram on page 16. In this introductory section of the concerto IA consists

of one eight-measure phrase and is essentially lyrical, despite certain latent dramatic

elements. In example 2.1 I show the first eight-measure phrase of theme IA.

Example 2.1

I have divided the phrase into two subphrases. Subphrase a is the origin for a large

portion of the lyrical material for the first movement. I have labeled the descending

perfect fourth between D and A as motive x; subphrase a also contains the first
 6

appearance of motive y, a descending whole step across the barline. Subphrase b expands

on the material of subphrase a, containing a wider range of pitches and some larger

intervals between the pitches. Motive x is compressed in this subphrase, appearing as an

ascending fourth in m. 4 and in its original descending form in m. 6. Motive y is easy to

identify because the large melodic leap to the quarter note and its accent creates a

separation in the phrase in mm. 6-8.

In theme IB (mm. 9-17, shown in example 2.2) Brahms uses variants of motive y

extensively. Measures 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 each contain either a quarter note or four

sixteenth notes on beat three, acting as an anacrusis to a longer note value in the

following measure.

A lower neighbor-note motion, which I have labeled motive n, first appears in

theme IB. This motive will be a prominent feature in subsequent themes. The emergence

of motive n is typical of the way Brahms derives new material from previous material;

motive n sounds familiar to the listener as a variant of motive y.

Example 2.2
 7

The two themes also have an antecedent/consequent relationship. In contrast to

the open-ended theme IA, theme IB ends definitively at m. 17 with an authentic cadence.

Whereas the first theme is marked by an arpeggio idea, the melody of the second theme

features stepwise motion and a crescendo in mm. 14-16 leading to theme IC.

Theme IC, in mm. 17-27, contains motives I have identified in the previous two

themes combined with new melodic and rhythmic features. In example 2.3 I have labeled

motives x and y and their variants. Much of the dramatic character of the movement

comes from theme IC; it contains enormous melodic and rhythmic vitality: octave leaps,

anacrustic accents derived from motive y (mm. 6-7), and hemiola (subphrase f, mm. 21-

26).

Example 2.3
 8

Note that the shapes of the melodies in the three themes are similar. Each theme’s

phrase has an arch form with a central high point and two subphrases that contain slightly

different features.

The phrases are also similar because of selective use of motives x and y in

various guises. The first theme group in this introductory section establishes the way

material is presented throughout the movement; each new theme or motive is an

outgrowth of previous material. Brahms sometimes introduces a feature that is barely

noticeable, then brought that feature out more prominently in subsequent phrases or in

later themes. Arnold Schoenberg called this process in Brahms’s music “developing

variation”, where material is continually developed throughout a piece1.

In mm. 27-40 melodic material from theme IA serves as the transition to the

second theme group. In this transition the full orchestra enters in a polyphonic texture

with the melody in the lower strings, bassoon, and first violin parts.

In example 2.4 I show the elided cadence that connects the end of theme IC and

the beginning of the transition. This transition is a culmination of the thematic, motivic,

and rhythmic development that takes place during the first 26 measures of the movement.

1
Walter Frisch, Brahms and the Principle of Developing Variation (California:
University of California Press, 1984)
 9

Example 2.4

mm. 25-35

___________________
Theme IC _____________________________
transition to second theme group

In this transition Brahms recasts the original melody of theme IA, making it

dramatic in character by adding rhythmic vitality. He incorporates the hemiola and

staccato quarter notes from theme IC to create conflicting rhythmical accent patterns

among the tympani, brass, upper and lower string, and woodwind parts. Brahms creates

this conflict by shifting the pattern of accent in the bassoon, horn, trumpet, first violin,

and lower string parts against the metrically aligned upper woodwind, tympani, second
 10

violin, and viola parts. Brahms previously incorporated this nonalignment of meter and

rhythm beginning in theme IA through the use of motive y (the stepwise melodic close of

theme IA) with its accent on beat three of m. 6 and in theme IC with more extensive use

of motive y and with hemiola.

There is also a shift in emphasis melodically. Because of the elided cadence in m.

27, the second note of the original melody, F-sharp, sounds like the first note of the

phrase instead of D-natural. This shift is most obvious in the first violin part at m. 29

where D-natural is an upbeat to the downbeat F-sharp in m. 30.

The beginning of the second theme group (II) is at m. 41. Despite the fact that

there is no key change here, I have labeled this as the start of the second theme group

because there is a key change when this theme occurs in the solo exposition and

recapitulation.

Brahms follows the familiar pattern of a sonata form movement: the beginning of

the second theme group is lyrical, which provides contrast to the dramatic themes of the

first theme group. I have labeled the first theme in the group as IIA and divided the

theme into two subphrases, g and h.

Example 2.5
 11

Motive x appears twice in subphrase g and is prominent throughout the rest of

theme IIA. Another instance of the organic nature of Brahms’s music is the overlap of the

subphrases g and h, where h is an outgrowth of the fourth measure of g.

Brahms uses material from previous themes to create this new theme. Theme IIA’s

subphrase g is a variant of subphrase a (mm. 1-3) and includes the quarter notes from

subphrase c, inverted (mm. 10, 12). Brahms unifies his ideas further by inverting

subphrase d (mm. 13-16) and using it as material for subphrase h. Compare subphrases a,

c, and g, as well as subphrases d and h in example 2.6, below.

 12

Brahms reserves the second theme of this theme group, IIB, for the violin soloist

to introduce during the solo exposition. In the transition to the closing theme, he links

together what will become the introductory and ending material of theme IIB (shown in

example 2.7). In the ending material Brahms uses a variant of subphrase g.

 13

Example 2.7

Brahms reintroduces motive n (the lower neighbor-note motion in mm. 9-10) as a

part of two-voice counterpoint between the first violins and the flute. Motive n relates the

second theme group to the closing theme where it becomes part of the closing theme’s

basic idea. Brahms also includes material based on motive x as part of the basic idea

(motive x is the perfect fourth first heard in subphrase a, see ex. 2.1). I have bracketed

motives x and n in example 2.8, below.

Example 2.8
 14

The dramatic nature of the music for the solo violin’s first entrance at m. 90 (see

ex. 2.9, below) is a result of both the lengthy orchestral thematic introduction and the

tension generated by its closing theme. The solo violin’s theme (labeled IA1) is a variant

of theme IA. The changes to theme IA are a result of the development of themes up to

this point in the concerto.

Example 2.9

mm. 90-4

Theme IA1

The orchestra introduces nearly all of the major themes during the orchestral thematic

exposition; only theme IIB is reserved for the solo violin to present in the solo exposition.

In m. 206, theme IIB emerges out of a two-measure introduction and is derived both from its

introductory material and the lower neighbor-note motive, n. In example 2.10 (below) I have

divided the first phrase of theme IIB into subphrases j and k. Subphrase k is a development of the

theme’s basic idea, contained in subphrase j.

 15

Example 2.10

One of Brahms’s greatest achievements was to create unity in large-scale forms.

Throughout this chapter I have intended to reveal the interconnectedness of Brahms’s

material in the concerto. Performers can arrive at an effective interpretation when they

are aware of a work’s unifying elements. In the next chapter I will analyze the first

movement of the concerto, considering elements of melody, harmony, and rhythm of

each passage and give my ideas for interpretation of the passages.

 16

CHAPTER 3

ANALYSIS OF AND PERFORMANCE POINTS FOR

THE ORCHESTRAL THEMATIC EXPOSITION

In this chapter and the next, I will discuss themes and passages in greater detail than in the

formal, thematic and motivic overview in chapter two. The analysis will address the harmonic,

melodic, rhythmic, textural and dynamic elements of selected passages. I will then discuss how

the analysis relates to performance of those passages.

Analysis of theme IA

Example 3.1, below, shows all of the essential parts that make up the harmonic
progression in the opening eight measures of the concerto.

Example 3.1
 17

The theme is essentially an unharmonized arpeggiation of the tonic triad until the motion
to V in m. 7. The dominant sounds for two full measures, giving it a durational accent. Because of
this accent, the extended tonic chord beginning at m. one may be heard as an upbeat to the
dominant, in which case the harmony may initially be heard as: A major (IV - I). This supposed
plagal harmonic motion, often used in church music, creates a feeling of repose and is an
indication to the listener that music of great significance is to follow.
With respect to pitch content, this arpeggiation of the tonic chord contains a pentatonic
subset: D, F#, A, as well as B, functioning as an upper neighbor note to A. A theme based on a
pentatonic subset of pitches such as this one generates a placid quality and offers the theme many
open-ended possibilities for development.
Melodically, the theme is balanced. Beginning on the tonic, the melody moves on a
harmonic axis between scale-step 5 above and below the tonic. The tonic is at the midpoint in the
range of notes, scale step 5 is the goal of motion in bars 3, 5, and 7.
The surface rhythm of the opening melody is synchronous with the meter in the sense
that the agogic accents all occur on metrically accented beats. However, as I discussed in chapter
two, motive y in mm. 6-7 (the descending whole-step weak beat to strong beat) contains a
dynamic accent that creates a dissynchrony between the rhythm and the meter in Theme IA that
Brahms developed throughout the movement.

Performance Points
Theme IA is straightforward in design, and its performance should reflect this; however,
there is some room for interpretation. A conductor could choose to shape the phrase by dividing it
into the subphrases that I discussed in chapter 2. This choice would highlight the relationships
between distinctive melodic shape of subphrase a and subsequent themes. As an alternative, in
example 3.2 I have added phrasing slurs to suggest another possible interpretation that stresses the
anacrustic nature of theme IA. The amount of separation between the groups should be minimal
although the groupings can be expressed by renewed energy at the beginning of each.
The mp dynamic marking, the unaccented first note and the arrival on the dominant gives
the impression that the music was already in progress before it could be heard. This romantic-era
 18

concept of art spilling over its frame is discussed by Edward Cone in his book Musical Form and
Musical Performance.1

Example 3.2

The slurs in this example suggest a choice of phrasing that minimizes the effect of the agogically
accented half notes and the strong-weak-weak pattern of the meter. Also, because of the constant
arpeggiation of the tonic in mm. 1-6, the goal of harmonic motion (the dominant) is delayed until bars 7
and 8. This choice of phrasing prevents the theme from bogging down in regularly recurring, metrically
accented downbeats.

Analysis of Theme IB
At first glance, the harmony of theme IB seems to make a surprising shift to C major. There is a C
pedal in the bass and the melody is harmonized briefly in C major. Nonetheless, despite these

1
Edward T. Cone, Musical Form and Musical Performance (New York: Norton, 1968), 5.
 19

features, the harmony can better be analyzed in the key of D, that is, no modulation takes place.
See the harmonic analysis below:

Example 3.3

A subsidiary progression of IV-V-I within the subdominant (G) accounts for the shift to C
major. The harmony then moves through the tonic to a secondary-dominant preparation chord
(vii07 of V) and ultimately the dominant. The harmonic motion I-V of the first 8 bars is, in fact,
nested within this larger I-to-V motion spanning mm. 1-17.

Performance Points
The local tonality of C major creates a bright, open sound for the cantilena-like melody
played by the oboes. As I pointed out in the thematic overview, this phrase is symmetrical and its
 20

rhythm is closely aligned with the meter, however there is more than one possibility for
interpretation. In example 3.4, below, I show a choice for phrasing that takes only the elements of
melody and texture into consideration.
Example 3.4

If a performer considers only melodic and textural elements to decide phasing for this
theme, a two-measure accentual pattern is created. This phrasing would highlight motive n, the
neighbor-note motive, but would almost completely obscure the presence of motive y, the
stepwise motion across the barline.
The entrance of the second oboe on the downbeat of the m. 11 creates a textural accent, and the
highpoint of the phrase in m.13 with its change of direction could also signal an accent. The
descending half step in m. 15 (F-sharp to F-natural), with the written out ornamentation on the
third beat, calls for special emphasis.
In example 3.5 I consider the melody, texture, and harmonic rhythm together in choosing
a phrasing for theme IB. I give these elements varying degrees of prominence to create an
effective interpretation for the phrase.
 21

Example 3.5

Since the C-major chord lasts for three measures, it doesn’t seem logical to begin a new
phrase at m. 11 when the second oboe comes in, but rather to begin the phrase at m. 12 when the
subsidiary progression within the subdominant arrives on its dominant. The highpoint of the
phrase is now included within the phrasing slur that begins in m. 12 and is joined with sequential
material in m. 14. Measure 14 does have a change of harmony (a return to the tonic), but it is a
passing motion to the more significant dominant-preparation chord in mm. 15-16 that is
emphasized.
 22

In addition to considering melody, texture, and harmony, dynamic markings also

contribute to making interpretative decisions in this phrase. Although the highest note of the
phrase is at the midpoint, and afterward the melody begins to descend, there is an intensification
called for by the printed crescendo one measure after the midpoint (mm. 14-16) that reinforces
the harmonic motion of the vii07 chord leading to V at m 17. A conductor would need to pace the
loudness of this phrase carefully by not allowing the second oboe to enter too strongly and
avoiding beginning the crescendo too soon. The piano marking at the second oboe entrance is an
effort to delay the increase in loudness as the texture becomes thicker.
This seeming contradiction of factors in the phrase, the high point of the phrase remaining
at piano while the descending melody line is marked with a crescendo, is what Donald Barra
refers to as divergent energy patterns. Barra cites four key elements: loudness, pace, timbre, and
pitch. These elements work together or in opposition. According to Barra, “The performer must
balance the weight of the musical action against its sense of forward thrust so as to produce that
blend of tension and energy that will most effectively reinforce [the phrase’s] inherent musical
potential.”2
In the second subphrase of theme IB, the dynamic is increasing (high energy), the pace is
increasing (high energy), the timbre is rich (high energy), the pitch level is descending (low
energy). According to Barra, in each musical progression “it is the particular pattern of energy
that creates the basic expressive effect” and “the performer can alter the character of the music by
adjusting the ratio of these primary tonal attributes”3. In phrases such as this, where there are
divergent energy patterns, a performer can adjust these elements to arrive at an effective and
unique interpretation.

2
Donald Barra, The Dynamic Performance: A Performer’s Guide to Musical Expression
and Interpretation (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1983), 16.
3
Ibid., 7-8.
 23

Analysis of Theme IC
Theme IC begins on the dominant in m. 17 and ends on the tonic at m. 27. The harmonic activity
in subphrase e is unisons and octaves that ascend from A through B-flat to C, the lowered sixth and
seventh scale degrees of D, which imply the minor mode. In subphrase f, a richer harmonic texture
emerges with a I- IV- V- I progression in D major that reasserts the major mode. This goal-directed
harmonic progression gives added forward momentum to the phrase.
As shown in example 3.6, theme IC can be grouped in hypermeasures. Hypermetric
structures occur when strong beats regularly recur in spans longer than one measure. In this case
the strong beats recur every two measures; this creates the impression that the music is notated in
6/4 meter.
Example 3.6
 24

Performance Points
The variants of motive y that I illustrated in ex. 2.3, (the quarter-note upbeats to the longer
notes across the barline in subphrase e and the accented half notes and tied quarter notes in
subphrase f) should be accented and separated from the notes before it; this will emphasize the
phrase’s two-measure hypermeter. By highlighting the presence of these variants, the performer
helps the listener to hear the close relationship between the themes. The conductor will want to
adjust the tempo slower as the transition to the second theme group approaches in order to
highlight the structural downbeat. To maintain the intensity, the conductor must take care to
sustain the forte dynamic through the lower notes. Although no crescendo is marked, one is
implied by the repetition of the hypermeasures containing hemiola, the thickening instrumental
texture, and the fortissimo marking at that arrival of the downbeat at m. 27.

Analysis of the transition to Theme Group II

As I indicated in the formal diagram on page 16, the music of the orchestral thematic
exposition in mm. 1-26 forms a structural upbeat to the large structural downbeat at m. 27. The
harmonic scheme up to this point in the movement is:

Themes: IA IB IC (transition to theme group II)

Background harmony: I IV V I

Brahms solidly establishes the home key of D major with this long-range harmonic progression.
This background harmony is mirrored locally by the same harmonic progression leading to the
large structural downbeat at mm. 23-27 (see example 3.6 on p. 7).
 25

Performance Points
Measure 27 is a structural downbeat, not only because of its place in the large-scale
harmonic structure but also because it marks the return of theme IA’s material in a very dramatic
context. See the entire transition in example 3.7, below.

Example 3.7
mm. 27-41

In this transition there are convergent energy patterns. It is loud, fast, rich in timbre, and
high in pitch. The content of the material in the transition, especially the repetitive nature of the
material and the conflicting accents, give the music added forward momentum. In this case the
performers need only to follow the directions in the musical notation to achieve the necessary
balance between tension and energy.

Analysis of Theme IIA

Brahms releases the accumulated energy of the exuberant transition by beginning theme
IIA with a very thin texture and gradually adding parts. At m. 41, theme IIA emerges out of the A
 26

chord that punctuates the end of the transition. At first the third of the chord is missing until the
clarinet and bassoon enter on an accented C natural one measure later at m. 42. Here, Brahms
gives the listener another indication that the minor mode will be important later in the movement.
(Recall the brief use of the minor mode in theme IC, mm. 17-27).
Example 3.8, below, shows the beginning of theme IIA.

Example 3.8

D: v/V II V7 I

The A minor chord is not part of the functional harmony of D major and Brahms quickly

reasserts the global tonic at mm. 43-45 with a II-V7-I progression in the key of D.
 27

Overall, the harmony throughout theme IIA is ambiguous. Roman numeral analysis isn’t

always a useful analytical tool for this passage because the parts are linearly oriented. See the

remainder of theme IIA in example 3.9, below.

Example 3.9
mm.50-64

This linear orientation is a major feature of the Renaissance music that Brahms studied
extensively, and it became a significant part of his style. In theme IIA there are vertical
alignments that are significant in only a few key places. I have placed Roman numerals to
indicate these in the above excerpt.
In mm. 53-56, diverging energy patterns create tension, or suppressed energy. Brahms
alters the theme’s basic idea, reducing it to five beats by replacing the half note with a quarter
note. This change in the duration from six to five beats is a written out acceleration; however,
because of the hemiola the sense of pulse is temporarily suspended (low energy), and the texture
is full (high energy), the dynamic is decreased (low energy), and the register is high (high
energy). If the conductor and the musicians of the orchestra are sensitive to these diverging
 28

energy patterns, they will achieve the level of tension that Brahms has worked to create in this
passage.

Performance of Theme IIA

Example 3.10 shows mm. 41-52; I have added phrasing slurs to form two six-measure
phrases. The first is a four-measure phrase with a two-measure extension; it is followed by a
second six-measure phrase that repeats the theme’s basic idea in a sequential pattern. The rising
melody lines and dynamic levels create energy and forward momentum in these two phrases.

Example 3.10
mm. 41-52

Example 3.11 shows Brahms’s phrasing slurs that highlight motive x as it comes to the
foreground. Motive x is embedded in the basic idea of theme IIA as shown in mm. 51-52 and
 29

emerges out of the texture at the end of the hemiola pattern in m. 57. The bassoon, second violin,
and viola parts reinforce two-measure phrases beginning in m. 57.

Example 3.11
mm.50-64
 30

Analysis of the Closing Theme

The closing theme contrasts with the linearly derived, polyphonic themes of the second
theme group. Roman numeral analysis is a useful analytical tool for this theme because it is
vertically oriented. The first half of the theme is in example 3.12.
Example 3.12

Dramatic features in the theme set the stage for the solo violin’s entrance at m. 90. These
include the use of the minor mode and the strong rhythmic character of the theme’s basic idea.
Note that Brahms places sixteenth rests between the eighth and sixteenth notes. He also directs
performers to articulate forcefully by writing marcato in the score. In the second half of the
theme, shown in example 3. 13, contrary motion in the outer voices increases the level of tension.
31
 32

Brahms also uses conflict between the rhythm and meter to increase the theme’s tension.
He divides the orchestra into two subgroups; the upper strings and brass reinforce the meter while
the woodwinds are in opposition to the meter through the use of hemiola and syncopation.
Harmonically, the closing theme is a dominant preparation for the tonic at m. 90. In mm.
86-89 the bass line is an unfolding of the dominant-seventh chord; the dominant is intensified by
the flat ninth originally in the bass at m.84 and transferred to the woodwind parts in m. 86.

Performance of Closing Theme

The conductor must control the pacing of this section carefully to achieve the level of
tension Brahms has built into the score and to make an effective connection to the solo violin’s
entrance. In mm.78-81, the tempo should be strictly maintained to highlight the distinctive
rhythm of the theme’s basic idea. At m. 82, the tempo can gather speed as the running sixteenth
notes begin. The conductor must be sure the violin soloist is comfortable with the tempo because
the soloist’s first entrance is an outgrowth of the closing theme. 4

4
In his 1984 performance of the concerto with the Canton (OH) Symphony, Elmar Olivera
played with the first violins beginning in m. 84 to create a seamless connection to his entrance.
 CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS OF AND PERFORMANCE POINTS FOR

THE SOLO PORTION OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT
OF THE CONCERTO

Analysis of Theme IA1 (mm. 90-101)

The solo violin’s opening statement (mm. 90-135) is an especially characteristic

example of concerto writing, because the passage highlights the dual role of both soloist and

orchestra in the sense that sometimes they compete against each another and sometimes they

accompany one another. The Latin words concertare, “to fight, to contend,” as well as

conserere, “to join together,”1 apply to the opening statement of solo and orchestral parts.

See example 4.1, below, where the concertare or contentious character of the relationship

between soloist and orchestra is maintained in mm. 90-101.

Theme IA1’s jagged melodic contour, staccato articulations, and written-in

accelerando are derived from the transition to theme group II (mm. 25-40) and the closing

theme (mm. 78-89). The opening measures of theme IA1 contain extensive incomplete

neighbor-note motions that embellish the minor tonic triad. Most noticeable of these is the

accented B-flat to A (mm. 91-2), a variant of motive y (the incomplete neighbor-note across

the barline).

1
Harvard Dictionary of Music, 12th ed., s.v. “Concerto”, 192.

33
 34

Example 4.1
 35

Throughout theme IA1, Brahms uses durations to create the perception of increased

forward motion; the listener experiences this without any change at all in the actual tempo.

David Epstein describes this feature of Brahms’s music:

There are true fluctuations of pulse in Brahms, and there is room for
flexibility in his phrasing as well. These occur more in the sense of local rubati
rather that alteration of an underlying structural pulse. It is in fact by retaining
this fundamental pulse, and by changing the activity that occurs within it, that
Brahms often achieves the shrinking and swelling of flow and feeling that are
characteristic of his music.2

In mm. 94 and 98-102 the accompanying strings play a sequential pattern containing

motive n (the neighbor-note motive) that emphasizes beat two of the measure; in mm. 98-102

the solo violin plays the same pitches as the accompaniment but in a different sequential

pattern that emphasizes beat one. As the violin soloist and orchestra alternate emphasizing

beats one and two, they create enormous energy in the ascent to the top of the phrase at

m. 102. The contentious (concertare) nature of this interchange between orchestra and

soloist gives way at m. 102 to a cooperative relationship (conserere) for the remainder of the

solo violin’s opening statement.

Performance Points for Theme IA1 (mm. 90-101)

Because of the spare orchestral accompaniment in mm. 90-3, the soloist has a great

deal of freedom in shaping the phrase. The shifting rhythmic patterns, from quintuplets to

quarter notes, to eighth notes, to eighth-note triplets may lead the soloist to approach the

opening statement as a quasi-cadenza. Although the performer may exploit the improvisatory

2
David Epstein, Shaping Time: Music, the Brain and Performance (New York:
Schirmer, 1995), 18.
 36

nature of this opening statement, it is most effective when played within the tempo

established by the orchestra during the closing theme (mm. 78-89).

The violinist Zino Francescatti adds a dot under the slur from D to E in m. 90 in his

edition of the concerto3. This change in articulation can make the notes in the quintuple

figure more clearly heard, but the performer must be aware that the added articulation calls

for stopping the bow, causing the figure to get off to a slow start.

Analysis of Theme IA1 (mm.102-36)

As shown below in example 4.2, the tonic pedal in the timpani and horns that begins

in m. 90 continues through mm. 102 –19 under a succession of diminished-seventh chords.

Beginning in m. 102 the conserere, or cooperative nature of the relationship between soloist

and orchestra is revealed. The solo violin accompanies groups of woodwinds as they develop

theme IA’s subphrase a. The role of the solo violin in mm. 102-19 is to fill in the harmonies

that the woodwind instruments outline.

As David Epstein pointed out, Brahms uses durations to create the perception of

slower or faster motion. In the diminished-seventh chords of the solo violin, the change to

fewer notes per beat causes gradual relaxation by dispelling the energy accumulated during

the closing theme and the first entrance of the solo violin (mm. 78-102).

3
Johannes Brahms, Concerto for Violin in D Major, Zino Francescatti, ed. (New
York: International Music Co., 1971).
 37

Example 4.2

mm. 102-5
 38

Example 4.2 (continued)

mm. 106-14
 39

Performance Points for Theme IA1 (mm. 102-19)

The violin soloist should consider the particular color of the woodwind instrument

that he or she is accompanying in mm. 102-9. The bright colors of the oboe in mm. 102-6

and the flute in mm. 112-5 call for similar color in the accompaniment; conversely, the

darker quality of subphrase a played by the bassoon and clarinet in mm. 108-11 and the

bassoon alone in mm. 116-9 call for a more muted color in the accompaniment. In some

recordings of this movement the solo violin is much more prominent than the solo

woodwinds of the orchestra; this imbalance obscures the equality of soloist and orchestra in

this passage. As a result, the subtlety of the reciprocal relationship of soloist and orchestra is

lost. The virtually flawless recording of Brahms’s concerto by Jascha Heifetz and the

Chicago Symphony is an example of equal balance between parts in this passage 4. In any

performance setting, live or recorded, the soloist and conductor should achieve a good

balance between the solo violin’s important accompanimental pattern and the thematic

material played by the solo woodwinds.

Analysis of Theme IA (mm. 127-39)

Example 4.3 shows the end of the solo violin’s first entrance and the return of theme

IA, harmonized.

4
Johannes Brahms, Concerto for Violin in D major, Jascha Heifetz, Chicago
Symphony Orchestra, Fritz Reiner, RCA Victor 09026-61495-2, 1955, reissued 1993.
 40

Example 4.3

mm. 127-38
 41

A cadential six-four chord in m. 127 moves to V7 at m. 128. The seventh of V (G

natural) is prominent in the solo violin’s melody line. This emphasis heightens tension,

increasing expectation of resolution to the tonic. The G resolves to F-sharp in the second

violin line in mm. 135-6; but the resolution of the solo violin’s G-natural eighth note in m.

134 is delayed by three measures until m. 137.

Performance Points for Theme IA (mm. 127-39)

Brahms increases the anticipation for the tonic major with a long dominant

preparation. The arrival of the tonic doesn’t come as a surprise but the unassuming way the

tonic major returns is surprising because of the understated character of its beginning. In this

harmonized version of theme IA, Brahms directs the violas and woodwinds to play their part

expressively within the piano dynamic, giving the violin soloist plenty of support in playing

the theme.

In terms of the large-scale structure of the movement, the first cadenza-like solo

entrance (mm. 90-135) is an anacrusis, or structural upbeat, to this structural downbeat at

m. 136, because m. 136 contains a return to the tonic in the major mode. Therefore, the

soloist should play the first solo entrance between mm. 90-135 with this understated cadence

at m. 136 as the goal of motion.

Brahms supplies harmonic, rhythmic, and melodic elements that influence the motion

toward structurally important goals. The structural downbeat at m. 136 is both a culmination

of accumulated energy and a continuation toward the next major goal, that of V at the close

of the exposition (m. 272). Therefore, the performer must take care not to begin the ritard

sooner than the middle of the third bar before the a tempo or risk losing momentum.
 42

Another performance decision is how much ritard to make as the cadence at m. 136

approaches. Since Brahms changes activity within the pulse to direct the pace of motion, in

this case slowing the motion by moving from sixteenth notes to eighth notes, a limited

amount of intervention on the part of the performer is necessary in making the ritard. Also,

because the ascending scales in mm. 130-3 are a sequence of three, the pattern of agogic

accents on successive downbeats will be broken since the local goal of the sequence is the A

on beat three in m. 133.

Analysis of Theme IA (mm. 140-52)

Brahms adds eight measures to theme IA in the solo exposition. See mm. 142-9 in

example 4.4, below. The solo violin fills these added measures with sequential material.

These sequences contain extensive incomplete neighbor-note motions that refer to the solo

violin’s opening statement in mm. 90-135.

In mm. 141-2, motive y does not contain a dynamic accent on beat three, as it had in

m. 6. Instead, Brahms emphasizes motive y by repeating it in mm. 145-6 and 149-50 and

varies it by placing accents in the form of trills on the second note of the motive.

At mm. 150-1, the descending half steps C-sharp to C-natural in the second violin

part and F-sharp to F-natural in the solo violin part make for a smooth transition to a C-

major chord at m. 152 and the return of theme IB.

 43

Example 4.4 mm. 140-7

 44

Performance Points for Theme IA (mm. 140-51)

Since mm. 142-9 contain essentially a static harmony progression, the pacing is most

effective if the soloist moves through the sequences without a lot of rubato to the goal-

directed harmony at the beginning of theme IB. There is a natural accelerando and

intensification of energy as the eighth notes become triplets, and the melody moves

continually upward in mm. 146-9. In mm. 150-1 a soloist may use the hemiola to slow the

pace and make a diminuendo on the semi-tone trill, (E to F-natural). Then the soloist is

prepared to begin theme IB very softly.

Analysis of Theme IB (mm. 152-64)

As shown in example 4.5, theme IB begins in m. 152 on E natural, as it does in the

orchestral thematic exposition. On the highest note of the phrase, B-natural, the cellos and

violas take over the melody and restate the theme on this higher pitch level. By beginning the

theme on B-natural, at m. 165 an E major chord (V/V) sets up the expected modulation to V

for the second theme group.

 45

Example 4.5 mm. 152-7

 46

Performance Points for Theme I B (mm. 152-64)

In mm. 152-61 the violin’s large upward leaps, scales and arpeggios, and grace notes

embellish and add energy to this theme. The solo violin is the main part of the melody in the

first four measures (mm. 152-5) therefore, it is important to bring out the thematic notes

within the embellished line.

In theme IB there is another example of changing activity within the fundamental

pulse to create the perception of faster or slower motion, as David Epstein had observed 5. In

the last four measures of theme IB, the solo part becomes increasingly articulated and

emphasizes the meter. The soloist needs to create a lot of energy in these four measures to

make a good connection to theme IC. This energy can be achieved if the soloist plays near

the frog of the bow and dynamically accents each downbeat in mm. 160-3.

Analysis of Theme IC (mm.164-76)

As shown in example 4.6, theme IC is significantly enhanced by the solo violin’s

triple stops and sixteenth notes, both of which contain an E pedal. Brahms lowered the

dynamic marking to piano for the lower strings as they play an accompanimental variant of

the original version of the theme.

Example 4.6

mm. 158-77

5
Ibid.
47
 48

In this version of theme IC, there is an alternation of accentuation patterns between

the solo violin and orchestra; the orchestra emphasizes beat 1, at the same time, the solo

violin emphasizes beat 3. This is a rhythmic idea based on motive y and is shared between

the soloist and the lower strings. Because of this rhythmic feature, theme IC is unified with

theme IA.

Performance of Theme IC (mm. 164-76)

Because of the increasing energy in theme IC it is effective for the soloist to

continually intensify the sound by increasing bow speed. The quick succession of triple stops

requires that the soloist play three notes simultaneously, not arpeggiated. This effect is

accomplished by moving the bow closer to the fingerboard and pulling it quickly across the

strings at the frog. The open E pedal in the top voice would overpower the voices if the

chords are rolled. To outline the shape of the melody embedded in the middle voice of the

triple stop, the soloist should consider phrasing toward and away from the third beat of each

sequence in mm. 164-7.

The expectation of the listener is frustrated twice in mm. 168-9 by hearing only the

first half of the sequence. Therefore, when the soloist does play the downbeat m. 170 there is

a release of tension, the soloist can enhance this release of tension by using a lot of bow

speed in mm. 170-6.

Because the listener is already well acquainted with the themes of the first theme

group, there is no reason to summarize them as Brahms did in the orchestral thematic

exposition. Therefore, the two-measure transition to the second theme group, played by the
 49

solo violin, doesn’t seem too brief. Also, the dominant preparation that usually takes place in

the transition to the second theme group has already occurred in theme IC.

Analysis of Theme IIA (mm. 178-201)

At the beginning of the second theme group (mm. 178-82), shown below, in example

4.7, the same harmonic progression from the corresponding place in the orchestral thematic

exposition occurs. This time the progression establishes the new key, A: V-II-V7-I. Theme

IIA is essentially unaltered from the orchestral thematic exposition despite a few changes in

instrumentation, a thinner accompanimental texture, and the addition of the solo violin that

features triplet figures embellishing the theme.

Example 4.7

mm. 178-82

A: v V II V7 I
 50

Performance Points for Theme IIA (mm. 176-83)

The highly embellished solo violin line might encourage the player to take extensive

liberties with phrasing and even the tempo of theme IIA. However, because there is a close

relationship between the material of the soloist and the orchestra, the freedom in the solo line

consists of fluctuations within individual beats. If the soloist remains aware of the thematic

notes in the passage, it is less likely that the melody will become obscured by the figuration.

Analysis of Theme IIB (mm. 206-45)

Theme IIB is reserved for the solo violin to introduce in the secondary key area

during the solo exposition. It is a particularly string-oriented melody; only the solo violin and

the first violins play the melody of this theme. See example 4.8, below, which shows the

theme becoming increasingly fragmented.

Performance Points of Theme IIB (mm. 206-45)

A major feature of this melody is the appoggiaturas on the downbeats of mm. 206 and

208. Brahms includes expressive markings on these dissonances that resolve upward.

Most soloists choose to play this melody on the A string rather than the E string, not only for

the warmth of the A string’s tone but also for the opportunities for expressive shifting that

playing a melody on a single string can offer.

 51

Example 4.8

mm. 206-23
 52

Example 4.8 (continued)

mm. 224-36
 53

Analysis of the Closing Theme (mm. 246-51)

As shown in example 4.9, the closing theme in the solo exposition serves as a

transition to the development section. The theme’s key, A minor, was hinted at earlier in

themes IB and IC. As with most of the themes in the solo exposition, this theme is an

extended and slightly altered version of the original theme (mm. 78-89) with the addition of

the solo violin.

Performance Points for the Closing Theme (mm. 246-51)

The solo violin plays the first portion the closing theme with limited support from the

accompanying strings. The soloist must convey the full power of this theme without forcing

the sound. The melody alternates between the lowest voice of the triple stop (mm. 246 and

248) and the topmost voice (mm. 247 and 249). The soloist should be in agreement with the

conductor about the articulation of these chords so that there will be consistency between the

closing theme in the orchestral thematic exposition (mm. 78-89) and the closing theme in the

solo exposition.

Example 4.9
 54

Performance Points for the Closing Theme (mm.262-73)

As shown below in mm. 262-4 the increasing energy created by the ascending

chromatic octaves in the solo violin part might encourage the soloist to increase the tempo.

Beginning with the syncopated E-naturals in m. 265, the soloist may hold the tempo back

slightly to have the opportunity to shape the closing measures of the exposition as he or she

chooses.

In mm. 266-7 the two-note slurs that Brahms places over the triplets create an

accentual pattern which is in conflict with the meter; this conflict adds tension to the final

measures of the exposition.

Example 4.10

mm. 262-73
 55

Analysis of Development (mm. 300-12)

The orchestra develops theme IA1 in A minor and IIB in C major before the entrance

of the solo violin at m. 304, where theme IIB is developed in the key of C minor.

Example 4.11, below, shows the modulation from C-major to C-minor. In mm. 301-4,

the F sharp diminished seventh chord in moves to a German augmented-sixth chord, then to a

V7 -I cadence in C minor where the solo violin enters for the first time in the development.

Example 4.11

mm.292-301
 56

Example 4.11 (continued)

mm. 302-12
 57

Performance Points for Development (mm. 304-12)

Beginning at m. 304 the solo violin develops the closing material of theme IIB with

the cellos in two-voice counterpoint. The solo part contains closing material that becomes

increasingly complex. Brahms extends the passage with a 5-10-5 linear intervallic

pattern between the upper voice of the solo part and the cello part, as shown in the above

example.

Analysis of Development (mm. 312-18)

In mm. 312-31 the solo violin develops motive n, the neighbor-note motive, as the

accompanying woodwinds continue to develop the closing material of theme IIB. Example

4.12 shows this simultaneous development of motives.

Example

4.12
 58

Analysis of Development (mm. 344-62)

In preparation for the return to D major, in mm. 340-6 an internal tutti modulated

from C-minor, through C-sharp minor to A major for the final section of the development.

In mm. 348-60 the orchestra plays theme IC as the solo violin develops motive n

further. Like theme IC, the development of motive n here is characterized by octave

displacement. The motive is obscured by the octave and rhythmic displacement, and the two-

note groups. Example 4.13 shows the interplay between the metrically aligned theme IC in

the accompaniment and the non-metrically aligned motive n in the solo part.

Example 4.13

mm. 344-50
 59

Example 4.13 (continued)

mm. 351-62

Performance Points for mm. 347-361

The entrance of the solo violin with an accented note on the last half beat of m. 347

gives a strong feeling of forward motion against the metrically aligned accompaniment. The

rhythmic relationship between the soloist and the orchestra is maintained throughout this
 60

passage. It is important for the soloist to exploit this characteristic of being slightly ahead and

to push the tempo forward to build tension and expectation for the return to the global tonic

and the recapitulation.

Analysis of the Coda (mm. 526-47)

Toward the end of the movement, after the cadenza, the soloist plays an extended

version of theme IA that dissipates the energy accumulated during the cadenza. As shown in

example 4.14 in mm. 539-547 the oboe and clarinet play a new countermelody against the

descending melody of the solo violin.

Performance Points for the Coda (mm. 526-47)

After the rigorous closing theme and cadenza, Brahms gives the solo violinist a very

placid version of theme IA to play. This melody requires excellent bow control and a well-

developed sense of pacing.

 61

Example: 4.14

mm. 522-47
 62

CHAPTER 5

JOSEPH JOACHIM’S CADENZA FOR THE FIRST MOVEMENT

The cadenza was written by the concerto’s dedicatee, Joseph Joachim, at the

request of the composer. The primary chords on which the cadenza is based and the

measures that contain them are as follows:

key: D major - G major/e minor - d minor g minor - A major

(I IV ii i iv V)

mm. 1-20 21 - 34 35-48 49-54 55-82

The cadenza is an outgrowth of the cadential six-four chord that serves as an

introduction. It begins with the same thematic material as the opening of the solo

portion of the concerto (theme IA1, mm. 90-135). See example 5.1, below.

The performer may choose to emphasize the A-naturals in the melody of theme

IA 1 at the beginning of the cadenza. These A-naturals reinforce the dominant before

moving to other key areas. The diminuendo marking at m. 4 may encourage the

performer to lengthen the ascending eighth-note triplets and relax into material derived

from theme IIB; often performers of this cadenza will arrive on the downbeat A- natural

and pause before going on. The marking lusingando (meaning coaxing, wheedling,

caressing) in m. 6 indicates that material from theme IIB should be played freely and in a

tempo different from the opening introductory gesture. Joachim encourages an

 63

improvisatory approach throughout the cadenza by introducing rubato early in the

cadenza.

In m. 5, Joachim refers to Brahms’s trademark use of metrical ambiguity. The A-

natural on the downbeat is structurally important, serving as the starting point of the

cadenza proper after a reference to theme IA1. The A-natural is rhythmically and

dynamically weak, but strong metrically. The rhythm and dynamics act to obscure the

meter and further enhance the improvisatory nature of the cadenza.

In mm. 5-8 the second beat of every other measure has an agogic accent. These

accents are not aligned with the harmonic changes that occur on the downbeat of each

measure.

In mm. 9-13 Joachim changes the accentual pattern to alternating beats of each

successive measure. The performer should emphasize the accentual pattern and the

ascending upper chromatic line from A-natural in m. 5 to the F-sharp in m. 13 including

the B-natural in m. 8, which is the only eighth note among dotted-quarter notes in the

chromatic scale. If emphasized, the nonalignment of harmonic rhythm with the agogic

accentual pattern, along with two divergent chromatic lines marked with a cresendo, all

combine to create a great deal of tension.

The tension is also heightened by the increasing speed of the harmonic rhythm in

mm. 9-13 which may encourage the performer to alter the tempo, either with a

rallentando or an accelerando. The performer should bring out these details to support

Joachim’s efforts to create and sustain tension throughout the cadenza. Joachim builds

on this accumulated tension as the cadenza progresses.

 64

In addition to metrical ambiguity, Joachim emphasizes other key features of

Brahms’s technique that are evident in the main body of the movement, including the

pervasive lower neighbor-note motive (motive n). In m. 13 a variant on motive n appears.

Joachim adds an appoggiatura to the motive, deriving mm. 13-21 from the retransition to

the recapitulation.

In mm. 13-21 Joachim uses compound melody in the same way J.S. Bach does in

his sonatas and partitas for violin solo, repeating the motive in both the lower and upper

registers. The accentual pattern of a strong second beat in alternating measures continues

through m. 18.

In m. 19 Joachim gradually fragments motive n, and settles briefly on the sub-

dominant before turning to it’s relative minor (E minor). As the line is fragmented in

mm.19-20, Joachim removes the tenuto markings. His notation suggests the eighth notes

and sixteenths be played with a short, bounced bow stroke, producing a character that is

unique in the cadenza.

There are several expressive markings in the next section of the cadenza, mm.

22-31. In m. 23the music reaches the key of E minor, at the softest dynamic to this point

in the cadenza. The piano dynamic marking and shifting patterns of accentuation obscure

the arrival of E minor until the clear cadence at m. 31.

In m. 38 the cadenza begins to move toward the harmonic goal of the global

dominant, A major, with the ultimate harmonic goal being the perfect authentic cadence

at the close of the cadenza. In mm. 38-42 Joachim uses a series of applied dominants to

reach F major at m. 43; the stepwise ascent of the bass notes in the chords C-C#- D-E-F
 65

encourages an accelerando to m. 43. This use of semi-tone motion creates tension in the

cadenza, and is taken from passages throughout the first movement of the concerto.

The high point of the cadenza, mm.43-49, is marked con brio. It is a flourish of

arpeggiated chords against a pedal on A-natural, encouraging the soloist to move quickly

through each gesture.

Following the arrival at m. 49 on the subdominant, G minor, the music comes to

rest on A-flat, the neapolitan of G minor. A variant on motive n begins to emerge in

m. 53. The reference to motive n as it appears at m. 348 in the development section

gradually becomes clear as A-flat changes to G-sharp, the leading tone of the global

dominant. Joachim obscures the arrival on the latter by placing it continually on weak

beats and by giving stress and agogic accents to B-flat, the upper neighbor to A-natural.

The repetition of A-natural and the emphasis on E-natural in mm. 60-65, which

forms a fifth with A implying A’s dominant function, begins to bring the dominant area

into view.

The performer should decide how best to highlight this gradual emergence of the

dominant and maintain the accumulated tension for the duration of the cadenza. The

sequence in mm. 55-59 is typical cadenza writing for a romantic concerto. It highlights

the various registers of the violin and the unique timbre of each of the violin’s strings.

The flourishes in mm. 59-65 are based on motive n and show off the violin’s ability to be

played very softly, clearly, and rapidly. In this sequence Joachim also offers the player

the opportunity to explore the violin’s subtle shadings of color.

The cadenza finishes with a close reference to the quasi-cadenza early in the

concerto. This effectively integrates the cadenza with the main body of the first
 66

movement and is an indication of the close affinity that the Brahms and the Joachim had

for one another.

 67

Example 5.1
68
 69

CONCLUSION

In his introduction to the publication of the holograph score of Brahms’s concerto,

Yehudi Menuhin (1916- 1999) writes this advice to the performer:

…in the same spirit in which [Georges] Enesco advised me, may
I make a plea to my fellow violinists of all ages and those yet to
be born. Too often I have heard the Brahms Concerto played as
might a bull in a china shop, using it in the most brutal way as a
vehicle for power and potency, an exhibition of sheer muscle. It
is… so much more than that. Its misinterpretation is as often the
conductor’s fault as the soloist’s. Let no artist forget how
important humility is when facing great works, and let him never
use them as mere vehicles for personal display. 1

In addition to developed technical skill, the performer who carefully studies the

creative process of the composer can gain valuable insights that enhance the musicianship

needed for a polished performance. Over a period of time the performer may even begin

to understand the composer’s motivation for expressing his or her ideas and develop a

greater personal connection to the music. I hope that readers will find my ideas regarding

interpretation in Brahms’s concerto useful. Violinist and music theorist Joel Lester says

this about the dual role of the performer/analyst:

I fantasize about a musical world without performers or

analysts… a world populated instead by musicians whose performances
inspire their analyses and whose analyses ignite their performances.
Music, after all, communicates whatever it does through patterns or
gestures shaped by sounds in time; and both analysts and performers must
by the very nature of things address the various musical elements that
sculpt these patterns or gestures: pitch, rhythm, motives, phrases, form,
texture, dynamics, and so forth. Analysts reveal the workings of one or
more of these elements; performers, whether intentionally or
unintentionally, address them all – since all reside in the sounds that
performers create. Analytical knowledge of any aspect(s) of a piece must
necessarily affect a performer. And experience performing the piece will
necessarily affect an analyst. Ideally, analyst and performer are one and

1
Yehudi Menuhin, introduction in: Concerto for Violin, Op. 77 by Johannes Brahms: A
facsimile of the holograph score (Washington: Library of Congress, 1979), xix.
 70

the same person, so that communication between these two personae is

both continuous and continuously stimulating.2

My aim for this thesis is to inspire performers to take the time to thoroughly study

their performance pieces, and arrive at their own meaningful analytical approaches.

The player will begin to appreciate the composer’s efforts more fully, and improve his

or her own personal interpretation. The process brings about higher quality

performances, with greater satisfaction to both the performer and audience.

2
Joel Lester, “Analysis and Performance in Schoenberg’s Phantasy, Op. 47,” in
Pianist, Scholar, Connoisseur : Essays in Honor of Jacob Lateiner, ed. B. Brubaker,
and J. Gottlieb. (Stuyvesant, N.Y.: Pendragon Press, 2000), 151.
 APPENDIX A

FORMAL DIAGRAM OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT

Exposition:

(orchestral thematic (solo exposition)

exposition)

measure: 1 9 17 27 41 78 90 136 152 164 178 206 246

group: I transition II Closing I II Closing

theme: A B C A (B) Theme A1 A B C A B Theme

key: D d D A a

background
harmony D: I V

Development:
measure: 272 288 304 332 348 361

group: I II II transition I retransition

theme: IA1 B A C

key: a/C C c A

background
harmony: (V, continued)

Recapitulation:

measure: 381 393 405 419 441 487 513 525 527- end

group: I II Closing transition cadenza I

theme: A B C A B Theme

key: D F# /D d (bVI ----- 6/4) D

background
harmony: I

71
 72

APPENDIX B

SELECTED DISCOGRAPHY

Accardo, Salvatore Gewandhaus Orchestra Philips

Masur 9800 624

Francescatti, Zino New York Philharmonic Columbia

Bernstein MS 6471

Hahn, Hilary Acad. of St. Martin in the Fields Sony Classical

Marriner 77138

Heifetz, Jascha Chicago Symphony Orchestra RCA Victor

Reiner 09026-61495-2

Hoelscher, Ulf North German Radio Symphony. Angel

Tennstedt S-37798

Kogan, Leonid Philharmonia Orchestra EMI

Kondrashin 67732

Krebbers, Herman Concertgebow Orchestra Seven Seas

Mengelberg KICC 2055

Milstein, Nathan Philharmonia Orchestra Seraphim

Fistoulari S-60265

Morini, Erica Philharmonia Orchestra Westminster Gold

Rodzinski WG-8354 ABC

Mutter, Anne-Sophie Berlin Philharmonic Deutshe Grammophon

Karajan 439 007-2

Oistrakh, David USSR Radio Symphony Moscow Studio

Kondrashin Archives 18331

____________. London Philharmonic Orchestra BBC Music

Sargent 4102-2

Perlman, Itzhak Chicago Symphony Orchestra EMI

Guilini 66992
 73

_____________. Berlin Philharmonic EMI

Barenboim 545802

Rosand, Aaron Monte Carlo Philharmonic Vox Classics

Inouye VXP 7902

Szeryng, Henryk London Symphony Orchestra Mercury

Dorati SR 90308

_____________. Concertgebow Orchestra Philips

Haitink 6800 530

Totenberg, Roman Polskie RadioWielka Orchestra Titanic

Wit Ti-163

Vengerov, Maxim Chicago Symphony Orchestra Teldec

Barenboim 0630-17144-2

Zimbalist, Efrem Boston Symphony Orchestra Doremi

Koussevitzky 7739

Zimmerman, Frank Peter Berlin Philharmonic EMI

Sawallisch 85455
 74

LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED

Books and Articles

Barra, Donald. The Dynamic Performance: A Performer’s Guide to Musical Expression and
Interpretation. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1983.

Berry, Wallace. Musical Structure and Performance. New Haven: Yale University Press,
1989.

Brinkmann, Reinhold. Late Idyll: The Second Symphony of Johannes Brahms. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1995

Campbell, Margaret. The Great Violinists. New York: Doubleday, 1981.

Caplin, William E. Classical Form: A Theory of Formal Functions for the Instrumental
Music of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Cone, Edward T. Musical Form and Musical Performance. New York: Norton, 1968.

Epstein, David. Shaping Time: Music, the Brain and Performance. New York: Schirmer,
1995.

Frisch, Walter. Brahms: The Four Symphonies. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996.

___________. Brahms and the Principle of Developing Variation. California: University of

California Press, 1984.

Harrison, Julius. Brahms and His Four Symphonies. New York: Da Capo Press, 1971.

Joachim, Joseph and Moser, Andreas. Violinschool in 3 Volumes. London: Simrock, 1958.

Knapp, Raymond. Brahms and the Challenge of the Symphony. New York: Pendragon Press,
1977.

Kramer, Jonathan. The Time of Music: New Meanings, New Temporalities, New Listening
Strategies. New York: Schirmer Books, 1988.

Laitz, Steven G. The Complete Musician: An Integrated Approach to Tonal Theory, Analysis
and Listening. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Latham, Peter. Brahms. New York: Collier Books, 1962.

 75

Lester, Joel. The Rhythms of Tonal Music. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press,
1986.

__________. “Performance and Analysis: Interaction and Interpretation.” In The

Practice of Performance: Studies in Musical Interpretation, edited by J. Rink,
197-212. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

__________. “Analysis and Performance in Schoenberg’s Phantasy, Op. 47.” In Pianist,

Scholar, Connoisseur : Essays in Honor of Jacob Lateiner, edited by B.
Brubaker, and J. Gottlieb, 151. Stuyvesant, New York: Pendragon Press,
2000.

Musgrave, Michael. The Music of Brahms. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985.

Neumeyer, David and Tepping, Susan. A Guide to Schenkerian Analysis. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, 1992.

O’Dea, Jane. Virtue or Virtuosity?: Explorations in the Ethics of Musical Performance.

Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2000.

Rosen, Charles. The Classical Style. New York: W.W. Norton, 1972.

Rothstein, William. Phrase Rhythm in Tonal Music. New York: Schirmer Books, 1989.

Rink, John. “Playing in Time: Rhythm, Metre and Tempo in Brahms’s Fantasien, Op. 116.”
In The Practice of Performance: Studies in Musical Interpretation, edited by J. Rink,
254-267. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Schachter, Carl. “The First Movement of Brahms’s Second Symphony: The Opening Theme
and Its Consequences.” Music Analysis 2:1, 1983. 55-69.

Sessions, Roger. The Musical Experience of Composer, Performer, and Listener.

New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1950), 82.

Stein, Erwin. Form and Performance. New York: Knopf, 1962.

Szigeti, Joseph. Szigeti on the Violin. London: Cassel, 1969.

Toch, Ernst. The Shaping Forces of Music. New York: Dover, 1948.

Tovey, Donald Francis. Essays in Musical Analysis volume III. London: Oxford University
Press, 1948.

__________________. The Forms of Music. New York: Meridian Books, 1956.

White, John D. Comprehensive Musical Analysis. New Jersey: Scarecrow Press, 1994.
 76

____________. The Analysis of Music. New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, 1984.

Zuckerkandl, Victor. The Sense of Music. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1959.

Music Scores

Brahms, Johannes. Concerto for Violin, Op. 77: A Facsimile of the Holograph Score, with an
introduction by Yehudi Menuhin and a foreword by Jon Newsom.
Washington D. C.: Library of Congress ISBN 0-8444-0307-5, 1979.

______________. Complete Concerti in Full Score, edited by Hans Gal.

New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1981.

______________. Concerto for Violin and Piano, Op. 77, edited by Zino Francescatti.
New York: International Music Company, 1971.