Scott McCoy | 43 Chapter 4 Larynx and Vocal Folds As we learned in the previous chapter, the pulmonary system serves as the power source and actuator of the vocal instrument. All musical instruments, of course, must also possess a vibrator (oscillator) that creates the periodic variations in air pressure our ears interpret as sound. The vibrator for the human voice is the larynx, or more specifically, the vocal folds. That the larynx can produce sound at all might be considered biological and evolution- ary serendipity. All mammals have larynxes (alternate plural, larynges); however, not all pro- duce sound. Biologically, the larynx is nothing more than a sphincter valve, not all that different from the valves found at either end of the alimentary canal. In this capacity, it serves two functions. First, it is the ultimate protector of the airway, helping to prevent foreign objects from entering the lungs. Second, it allows people to voluntarily block their airways to increase the intra-abdominal pressure that assists with activities such as elimination, childbirth, and the lifting of heavy objects. The Vocal Folds We begin our study of the larynx with the vocal folds themselves. Housed within the protective cartilage of the larynx, the actual vocal folds are remarkably small. Their total length at rest averages only eighteen millimeters for adult women (about the diameter of a dime) and twenty-three millimeters for men (about the diameter of a quarter). As small as that might seem, the portion of the fold responsible for sound production is even smaller. During phonation, only the anterior part is free to vibrate, a segment that ranges from about twelve to fifteen millimeters long for women and men (Zemlin, 1998). That anything this small can produce a sound loud enough to be heard over a symphony orchestra or to portray the full spectrum of human emotion truly is remarkable. Most readers will remember a time when singers had “vocal cords,” not vocal folds.? This new nomenclature is more than a semantic change. The term vocal fold more precisely describes their true physical characteristics; they are small folds of tissue located in the an- terior/posterior plane (front to back) at the top of the airway. (I have encountered many people who mistakenly believed their “vocal cords” were a series of longitudinal bands ar- ranged in their necks like the strings of an upright piano.) Before we get down to the details, take a few moments to look at some photographs and videos of various larynges and vocal folds (4/1-4). The vocal folds themselves are visible » Some even had vocal “chords,” which begged the question, were they augmented or diminished?44. | The Basis of Voice Science and Pedagoey but come together, ¢) . Jeter V at rest, » Closin, ‘ i ds; they look like the is V points i as two Pearly white bands; ae For orientation, the bottom na Points to the fron, of the posterior, during phonation. between the vocal folds is the area called the Blots "s apple. The space ey ties tea , Thich ae ec and closes during phonation. Lying directly above the folds folds—the actual lled the false vocal Ocal fo) the pink-colored ventricular folds, also Se Feamniom phe veandcaar es a Ids t Jy are called the true vocal folds to dis e mt : Ba eet scsi called the epiglottis is seen to arise from the closed point of, vocal folds. Its purpose is to cover the ai esophagus toward the stomach. Jotti : rwvay during swallowing and direct food ingg Vocal Fold Structure epithelium iy, The internal, microscopic structure of the folds plays a significant role in sound production; thy are composed of discreet layers of varying density and viscosity, which allows the inner and Outer portions to move independently. This layere structure is clearly visible in Figure 4.1, We speak of the vocal folds as having a body ang cover that are loosely coupled together. The ey. ternal layer, or cover, consists of a thin layer of skin cells called the stratified squamous epithe. lium. Its name is derived from its structure, which consists of several layers of skin cells (ep. ithelium) that interlock like paving stones (squa mous), which progressively become larger toward the bottom layer (stratified). Because this area is constantly bathed in mucus, itis also referred to as the mucosa of the vocal folds, The entire respiratory tract—from the lips to the bottom of the trachea—is lined with mucosa This takes the form of stratified squamous epithelium only on the surface of the vocal folds and in some of the areas that lie immediately above them. The remainder consists of colum- har epithelium (cells arranged in columns). Below the vocal folds, the columnar epithelium is ciliated. This region is covered with microscopic hairs that constantly transport mucus up the airway for disposal via the esophagus and stomach. Figure 4.1: Layered structure of vocal folds (from Hirano, used with permission) The body of the vocal fold consists of a muscle called the thyroarytenoid, which takes its name from its points of origin (thyroid cartilage) and insertion (arytenoid cartilage). A transitional layer called the lamina propria lies between this muscle and the epithelial cover (Figure 4.2). The lamina propria subdivides into three distinct regions with different physical characteristics, which are caused by changes in the distribution of elastin and collagen fibersScott McCoy | 45 The superficial (outermost) layer is epithelium coupled to the epithelium through a basement membrane. This is the thin- basement nest layer and has the lowest viscosity. ae ou membrane (Viscosity is a measure of fluid density. Water has low viscosity; pancake syrup has much higher viscosity.) Lying in the middle of the lamina propria, the intermediate layer is both wider and more viscous than the super- ficial layer. A ligament, called the vo- cal ligament, passes through this Figure 4.2: Schematic illustration of vocal fold layers region, resulting in a texture like gelatin that has been mixed with strands of cotton. The transition from vocal fold cover to body is completed by the deep lamina propria, which is the densest, most viscous of the three layers. Overall, the structure of the lamina propria might be compared to a three-layered gelatin dessert in which the superficial layer has not completely “set,” the intermediate layer is like normal gelatin (but with those appetizing cotton fibers added), and the deep layer more closely resembles a “gummi® bear.” Construction of the vocal folds in this manner allows the cover to slide gently in posi- tion relative to the body. To better understand how this works, try a little experiment on yourself: gently massage the back, and then the palm of your hand. Notice that the skin on the palm is firmly attached to the flesh beneath it. As you massage the back of your hand, however, the skin is relatively free to move (somewhat like the skin of a kitten). Next, gently poke a finger against the palm and back of your hand; the palm offers much more padding than the back, acting somewhat like a shock absorber. Your vocal folds share both character- istics; the cover slips over the body like the skin on the back of your hand, while the lamina propria cushions blows like the palm of your hand. Why is this important? In healthy vocal folds, oscillation is facilitated through the gentle slippage of the cover over the body. When viewed in slow motion, using high-speed or stroboscopic cameras, the surface of the fold appears to ripple in a wavelike motion. This phenomenon is called the mucosal wave, which can be seen clearly in this video. Some voice disorders impair phonation by impeding mucosal wave formation. For example, the hoarse- ness or loss of voice from laryngitis (laryngeal inflammation) results from vocal fold swelling that makes the cover adhere tightly to the body. The folds lose their suppleness and become t00 rigid to oscillate freely. The significance of the vocal fold mucosa was not really known until the pioneering discoveries of Hirano and others during the 1960's and early 1970's. Their work has enabled major advancements in vocal health care, including new surgical techniques that are less invasive and more likely to result in complete restoration of normal vocal function.46 | The Basics of Voice Science and Pedag°BY Vocal Fold Oscillation the glottis ra Muscular activities alone are not able to open and close the gl idly enough fo, iment. Tap one of your fin roduction. To understand why, try another experiment Bets a5 ae possible on a solid object. If you are particularly eer at able do this as quickly as 7.5 times per second. If you ates e a i i rill on the piano, you might approach 15 or more strokes Per second. To eee Pa aE eal folds must open and close at a much faster rate—up FO 1,400 ee pel eanae s sng Mozart’s Queen of the Night. No muscle in the human ly ee see relax at any. thing close to that rate. Vibration at this velocity only can be achi 1 assistance of airflow. jficantly over the past 50 years, leading to greater com. Voice science has evolved signi ; ¢ to produce sound. This is most prehension of how and why the glottis opens and closes to the steps in a single cycle of vibration: 1. Tobegin phonation, the vocal folds are gently brought together, closing the glo. tis by muscular forces within the larynx 2. Air pressure increases beneath the closed glottis 3. Increasing air pressure begins to open the glottis. Because of the ability of the cover to move independently of the body, this opening begins on the underside of the glottis 4, The glottis continues to open, from bottom to top, until air begins to escape 5, As the air begins to flow through the glottis, its velocity increases and its pres. sure decreases, as explained by the Bernoulli Effect 6. Elasticity of the vocal fold acts somewhat like a spring, exerting a return force that begins to close the glottis; negative pressure caused by the Bernoulli effect and inertia in the airstream above the glottis supply additional closing force 7. The glottis closes again, from bottom to top 8. As soonas the glottis is fully closed, the process begins again, repeating as many times per second as the frequency of the pitch being spoken or sung clearly seen if we describe ‘The steps in this process are shown in Figure 4.3 and animated in 4/5. These images present the glottis in a longitudinal cross-section, slicing the larynx from top to bottom through the medial/lateral plane (sideways). Note the vertical phase difference between the lower and upper edges of the vocal folds throughout the oscillatory cycle During phonation, glottal opening and closure always occurs in this manner with move- ment of the lower edge preceding the upper edge (at high pitch, the folds often are so thin that this phase difference no longer is significant). Independent movement of the inferior and superior portions of the vocal folds is a major factor in the creation of the mucosal wave; as the folds make contact at their lower edge, a wave begins to ripple across their surface, much like a wave traveling across the surface of a pond into which a pebble has been droppedScott McCoy | 47 Opening and closing ofthe glottis is more thoroughly described by consid- \ ering the vocal folds as three intercon- nected masses. this model, the body () () () () 1 : iS ? of the vocal fold (thyroarytenoid muscle) is the first and largest mass. The upper and lower portions of the cover (amina propria and epithelium) — com- () prise two smaller \ masses. As we ready have seen, glottis opens « closes asymme cally with vertica , : Air pressure also is asymmetrical, increasing when the glottis is in a convergent shape (bottoms of the two { folds are farther apart from each other), and decreasing convergent glatis when the glottis is divergent (tops of the two folds are farther apart) (Figure 4.4). This asymmetry of air pres- sure provided by the three-mass model, combined with the impact of pressure changes above the glottis caused by inertia is sufficient to sustain vocal fold oscillation. t divergent glottis Figure 4.4: Glottal configurations S Figure 4.3: Vocal fold oscillation Structural Anatomy Laryngeal Framework—Meet the “Oids” To this point in the chapter, we have been looking at vocal folds as independent enti- ties abstractly fixed somewhere in space. This is not, of course, the case. The vocal folds are enclosed within the structural framework of the larynx, a complex biological device com- Posed of bone, cartilage, membranes, ligaments, and muscles. In the average adult male, the entire larynx is no larger than the size of a typical English walnut. In women, it is about 40%48 | The Basics of Voice Science and Pedagogy pecan. Take a moment to find your as often is the case in tall, slendey lay, es, or fi - smaller—perhaps analogous to the size of a i i minent, in your neck. It might be large and pro! Ee Gatae a might be so small that you barely can see OF feel it in y* ye ub an x need not to gently palpate it, noting its size, Jumps and bumps. You need not be squeamg won't hurt yourself. superior horn (cornu) // epiglottis lateral view Figure 4.5: Laryngeal bones & cartilages The larynx is suspended from the hyoid, a wishbone-shaped bone in the anterior just below the jaw (Figure 4.5). Because the hyoid has no joint connecting it tothe skeet, it enjoys substantial freedom of movement. (The only other bones in the body that have no skeletal connections are the patellae or kneecaps.) Find your own hyoid bone by again pa. pating your larynx. It is located about a finger’s width above the largest part of the lar, and will feel like a little ridge. Notice that as you swallow, the hyoid and larynx ascend y little; if you yawn, they probably will descend. Because the larynx is attached to the hyoid any movement of that bone is transferred to the larynx. Paleoanthropologists believe ths freedom of movement was a crucial evolutionary step in the development of language; with. out it, the articulations required for speech are impossible. The hyoid bone also is the attachment point for the base of the tongue, several muscles of the jaw, and several muscles that are important for swallowing. Unfortunately, this situz- tion can lead to technical problems for singers. Many structures important in singing share attachments to the hyoid bone; improper postures and tensions therefore easily aeScott McCoy | 49 transferred from one location to another. This is articul: j which are passed directly down to the I : Particularly true of jaw and tongue tensions, comiculate cartilage arytenoid cartilage inferior horn f ‘membranous portion of trachea Figure 4.6: Laryngeal framework, posterior & three-quarter view Five cartilages form the basic laryngeal framework (Figure 4.6). The largest of these is called the thyroid cartilage, which is shaped somewhat like a shield. You will note that several laryngeal structures have the suffix “oid” in their names. This is an anatomical suffix indi- cating “like,” just as the word ovoid means like an oval. In the case of the thyroid cartilage, the name comes from the Greek word for a shield and literally means shield-like. For the sake of absolute clarity, it is a good idea always to say the complete name of the thyroid cartilage. If you simply say “thyroid,” most people will assume you are talking about the thyroid gland (Figure 4.7, next page). This gland is part of the endocrine system and helps to control a range of bodily functions, ranging from heart rate and body weight to menstrual cycles and cholesterol levels. Many people experience disease or dysfunction in the thyroid that requires surgical intervention. Because of its proximity to the larynx—not to mention the fact that nerves that innervate the larynx run right through the gland— thyroid surgery comes with an elevated risk for neurologic voice damage. So, if you must have surgery on your thyroid, but sure to speak with your entire medical team, reinforcing that you are a singer who uses your voice professionally. It never hurts to be a bit extra careful!50 | The Basics of Voice Science and Pedagr8y bronchial tubes Figure 4.8: Larynx, trachea, and bronchi when you palpate (touch) your che thyroid cartilage is the largest sin rou feel. It has a small notch at its - ure (front), superior (above) point, which Vali jin prominence from Person t0 person, Te anterior attachment point of the vocal foe js located slightly below this notch; Alocation called the anterior commissure, Two Projee tions called the superior horns or cccne tend upward from the postetior of cartilage and connect through a ligamentous capsule to the hyoid bone. Two additiona projections called the inferior horns extng downward to attach 10 the cricoid cartge below. %, “The cricoid is the second largest larynge, cartilage and is the only one to form a com, plete circle. Its shape is often compared tp that of a signet ring, with one side conside. ably wider than the other; in this case, the wide portion is at the posterior. The cricoig is attached to the inferior horns of the thyroid cartilage through synovial joints, which alloy the cartilages to both pivot and slide in pos. tion relative to each other. The importance of this movement becomes apparent when the next cartilages are set in place, the ante. noids. Two arytenoid cartilages sit atop the pos- terior, superior surface of the cricoid. They are shaped rather like malformed pyramids with a triangular base and a top that droops toward the side like an elf's hat. Synovial joints connect the arytenoids to the cricoid, permitting them to rotate on its surface and to slide together and apart. The arytenoids are the posterior point of attachment for the true vocal folds as well as connecting points for all the muscles that open and close the glottis.A leaf-shaped cartilage called the epiglottis is found at the top of the larynx. Attached to the inside of the thyroid cartilage just below the notch, it folds over during swallowing to direct the bolus (chewed material that is swallowed) into the esophagus, preventing it from going down the air- way (Figure 4. 8). The final laryngeal connection is to the trachea, also known as the windpipe, which is composed of a series of incomplete cartilaginous rings that are held together and closed in the pos- terior by a membrane. This structure gives the tra- chea great flexibility, allowing it to be distended, compressed, or even gently twisted, In this regard, it somewhat resembles the flexible tubing that is used to vent clothes dryers. The trachea descends into the thorax where it bifurcates (divides in two) at a location called the carina into the two bron- chial tubes, which further divide into the lobar bronchi for insertion into the lungs. In addition to the membranous portion of the trachea, several membranes and ligaments are found within the larynx. Just as its name implies, the thyrohyoid membrane, located in the area be- tween the thyroid cartilage and the hyoid bone. Its purpose is to link the two structures, providing a seal and preventing excess movement. Two small holes are found toward the sides of this membrane through which pass one pair of the nerves that serve the larynx (Figure 4.9). Both a membrane and ligament are in the anterior space between the cricoid and thyroid car- tilages, labeled, of course, cricothyroid. Their func- tion is like that of the thyrohyoid membrane. An additional membrane is found lining the inside of the cricoid cartilage called the conus elasticus, which strengthens the underside of the vocal folds and seals them to the airway below. Scott McCoy | 51 Figure 4.9: Ligaments & Membranes ‘Netter medical illustration used with permission of Elsevier. All Rights reserved, Aryepiglottic Fold << (laryngeal collar) Figure 4.10: Aryepiglottic Fold Netter medical illustration used with permission of Elsevier. All Rights reservedve and Pedagogy 52 | The Basics of Voice Scienct An important structure aryepiglottic fold is found ay _ tle the larynx, which is alternat, ri top of the laryngeal collar or the oy: (Figure 4.10). This region jg gr. muscle and tissue that aoa ie the epiglottis and arytenoigg us to pull the epiglottis down to hel airway for swallowing. As we oa a bit later in this book, the ae plays an important role in Vocal re nance and is the probable sour, esq, ringing sound that is characte operatic singing. The piriform «< makes another important oan ength of) frequencies beyond 4kH, tion Figure 4.11: Laryngeal structures, superior view helping to attenuate (reduce the str ntioned vocal ligaments extend from the thyroid cantil the anterior commissure to insert into the arytenoid cartilages at the vocal processes, a a reminder, an anatomical process is point of attachment, not an action.) This liga a which runs through the intermediate lamina propria, is made of filamentous strands fai : bling cotton fibers. Its purpose is to add strength to the medial edges of the vocal folds a, to limit the extent to which they can be stretched. oa to resonance, Finally, the previously mel Physical Actions Required for Phonation Phonation requires four independent but interrelated laryngeal actions. To initiate. sustain phonation, the vocal folds must be drawn together to close the glottis, an a a called adduction. Conversely, they must be drawn apart, opening the glottis to sto a tion and for respiration, an action called abduction (Figure 4.12). Because both ibe: singing are inflected with a variety of pitches, a mechanism also must exist for length = and shortening the vocal folds. In this regard, the vocal folds function somewhat like a a band; when stretched, they become thinner and tighter, producing oscillations of hie fe. quency.Scott McCoy | 53 abduction. (glottis open) Figure 4.12: Abduction & Adduction The above actions are the responsibility of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles. Intrinsic muscles reside within the larynx itself and directly interact with the vocal folds or epiglottis. Extrinsic laryngeal muscles also connect to the larynx—often through the hyoid bone—and serve to position it in the vertical plane, raising and lowering it for swallowing and articula- tion. Before we examine the intrinsic musculature, please take a few minutes to watch an extended video. In this demonstration you will see adduction, abduction, lengthening and shortening of the vocal folds while the male and female singers perform a variety of vocal maneuvers. (4/5) Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles As previously mentioned, the body of the true vocal fold is formed by the thyroarytenoid muscle (TA), which is named for its origin at the thyroid cartilage and insertion into the vocal pro- cess of the arytenoid cartilage (Figure 4.13). On contraction, it draws the arytenoid cartilage closer to the anterior thyroid cartilage, thereby shortening the vocal fold and lowering pitch. Pri- mary muscle fibers in the thyroarytenoid run lat- erally, parallel to the medial edge of the fold. ‘Additional fibers are present as well, running both in the transverse plane, perpendicular to the medial edge, and in the horizontal plane. As a re- sult, the muscle is capable of a complex range of vocal process acm agar ligament i = 5 i TA vocalis thyroarytenoid (TA) ~ Figure 4.13: Thyroarytenoid muscle and vocal ligament [Netter medica illustration used with permission of Elsevier. All Rights reserved.54 | The Basics of Voice Science and PedagoBy vocal folds. The thyroarytenoig etely fills the space between the medial edge .0 2d pid cartilage, and the arytenoid cartilage, a OF the ye ‘mages by Frank Netter, M.D., cee ofa Jow. This illustration technique Pare me ow band of muscles running aa re @ mn both shortening and thickening th bundle that compl! sides of the thyr' including the famous i part of this muscle © “eveal structures lying be false impression that the TA isa relatively narr ‘erior commissure (0 the arytenoid cartilage. movement, shaped muscle fold, the front and laryngeal musculature, ant Because its function is to shorten and thicken the vocal folds, the thyroarye, primary muscle in the production of low-pitched sound, and is strongly peaER, ivy chest voice or modal register (see Chapter Eight) et Wit Ntract Guality often referred t0 as id also is used to thicken the vocal folds while singing high pitch, ono patch between the folds during oscillation, increasing a Pi they "udness the thyroarytenoii widening the contact harmonic overtones (Sundberg, 1987). In the highs ang lest enhancing the production of sich as the mal falserto of female whistle VOICE, the thyroarytenoid may becom eS me al; os, totally passive. ‘The medial edge of the thyroarytenoid (behi «al ligament) is sometimes called the thyrov hind the yes wala is therefor diferente aba ofthe TA masle, which On is lapel et romuscularis. Anatomically, these are differe Hed thet, the same structure; functionally, however, th rt aspects of have little independence. For the remainder ofan the term thyroarytenoid (TA) indicates the ate book, muscle, Acting as the primary antagoni: and serving to elongate the veal er ‘roar roid muscles arise from the external hin ede el Eeaetee che bide of tha horold ecrase a 4.14). Each cricothyroid (CT) is in two porti es Seas dich run versely and the pare Gules, ae pendent function has been demonstrated for eet tics ‘On contraction, the cticold and tykaid eet Hs drawn closer together at the anterior ae ae pivot point for this action is the synovial jae i Peni oloamaiele inferior horns of the thyroid attach to the cri id ae Netter medical illustration used with permis- sult, when the front portions of th rahe s ct oe bP ough closer together, thet Far portions ae broug together, are pulled fa ter ras hit in turn lengthens and thins the voalScott McCoy | 55 The cricothyroids are the primary muscles of high-pitched sounds, particularly those associated with the vocal qualities identified typically as head voice for worn light mecha- nism, and falsetto. In singing, there is a constant interplay between the TA ai CT muscles as pitch rises and falls. This is Particularly apparent in transition ranges, often called passaggi; if the exchange of control from one set of muscles to the other i i Fi er the voice is likely to crack or break, is not perfectly synchronized, To initiate phonation, the glottis must be posterior cricoarytenoid closed through adduction of the vocal folds, <> which is accomplished through the actions of two separate pairs of muscles (Figure 4.15). The lat- eral cricoarytenoid (LCA) muscles take their name from their point of origin on the superior, lateral surface of the cricoid cartilage and their in. sertion into the muscular processes of the aryte- noids. On contraction, they rotate the arytenoids, bringing the vocal processes together to close the posterior portion of the glottis. (4/7) lateral Action of the lateral cricoarytenoids alone, _“"i“2#¥vtenoid however, results in incomplete glottal closure, al- Figure 4.15: Adductor and lowing a significant quantity of air to pass abductor muscles . " ‘Netter medical illustration used with permission through an open gap. This space is closed by ac- oe tion of the interarytenoid (IA) muscles, which run between the two arytenoid cartilages. IA muscles have two portions: the transverse interary- tenoid, which slides the two arytenoids together along the surface of the cricoid cartilage; and the oblique interarytenoids, which crisscross behind the transverse portion of the muscle and continue into the aryepiglottic fold. (4/8) To stop phonation and to maximally open the airway for respiration, the glottis must be opened through abduction of the vocal folds. This is the job of the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, which arise from the posterior surface of the cricoid cartilage and fan-out to insert into the muscular processes of the arytenoid cartilages adjacent to the insertion point of the lateral cricoarytenoids. On contraction, the arytenoids are rotated in a direction opposite from the action induced by the lateral cricoarytenoid muscles, thereby opening the glottis. Since they abduct, they are direct antagonists to both the LCA and IA muscles. They also, however, can serve as antagonists to the thyroarytenoids, stabilizing the arytenoid cartilages in the fore/aft plane atop the cricoid to resist their movement during TA contraction. (4/9) ‘The final two intrinsic laryngeal muscles assist with swallowing, not phonation. As previously mentioned, the epiglottis must be pulled downward when swallowing, covering the glottis to prevent choking. This is the job of the aryepiglottic and thyroepiglottic muscles,56 | The Basics of laryngeal collar ryngeatcolas aryepiglottic — ron tay glottc Figure 4.16: Muscles of the epiglottis ‘Netter medical illustration used with permission of Elsevier. All Rights reserved. thyroid cartilage conus elasticus cricoid Figure 4.17: Coronal section of larynx Voice Science and Pedagoey «ch, as their names suggest, originar, sae and thyroid cartilages, and ise ae the aryepiglottic fold. During singing, these ty, "0 the cle pairs often tilt the epiglottis, slightly beat while simultaneously narrowing the |, : at ferat the epilarynx, thereby enhancing the = oe of the singer's formant. ng ‘When we view the larynx in Coronal cy section, additional significant structures apparent—Figure 4.16 presents this view look, from the posterior of the larynx. The Overall w shape ofthe true vocal folds is now clearly isis” as is the extent to which they fill in the space a 6 the sides of the thyroid cartilage. Two smal oe ties called the laryngeal ventricles lie immedian above the true folds. This location is Patticulrh rich in cells that produce mucus that bathes the the: cal folds. . Lying above the laryngeal ventricles ‘a the false vocal folds. Because these evolution, vestiges cannot be fully adducted or tensed, they have nothing to do with normal phonation, Some people, however, can squeeze the entire | tightly enough to bring the false folds into Contact, producing a raspy, rattling sound that resembles the voice of the immortal jazz musician Louis Arm. strong (Figure 8.17). 88 Onset, Offset and Phonation Modes Let’s take a break from discussing muscles and their attachment points to examine phonation modes. (Readers who want additional information about the extrinsic laryngeal muscles—those that raise and lower the larynx—are referred to Your Voice: An Inside View.) Whenever we speak or sing, sound must be initiated, sustained, and stopped, all of which happens through the coordinated e- forts of the larynx and pulmonary system. Three fundamental options exist for each of these phon: tory phases, which resemble the predicament facedScott McCoy | 57 by Goldilocks in the famous children’s tale involving the three bears: too hard, too soft, and just right. Examples of these variations are found in the following audio examples. The initiation of vocal tone is described as onset. An alternate term, attack, has fallen into disuse because of its potentially negative connotation. Any time phonation begins, two things must happen: 1) the vocal folds must be adducted; 2) breath pressure must be in- creased to exceed phonation threshold pressure. (Phonation threshold pressure, or PTP, is the pressure required to overcome the resistance of glottal adduction and initiate vocal fold oscillation.) Three principal types of onset are used, which differ in the sequencing of adduc- tion and airflow, and in the amount of energy expended to initiate sound. A glottal onset (glottal stop or hard onset) occurs when strong adduction precedes breath energy. In this articulation, the glottis is squeezed tightly shut by the adductor mus- cles, after which subglottal pressure is increased until breath explodes through the glottis; strong glottal onsets resemble a grunt. Excessive use of these harsh onsets can lead to patho- logical voice problems, including vocal nodules. Gentle glottal onsets, however, should have no negative impact on the voice; indeed, if they did, virtually all speakers of German and English would have voice disorders! The key is degree. A successful glottal onset must have only enough adduction prior to phonation to produce the appropriate phoneme. (4/10) ‘The opposite of the glottal onset is the aspirate (breathy or soft) onset. Adduction and breath flow now occur in the reverse order; breath flow is started, and the vocal folds are slowly adducted into the moving air until the Bernoulli effect enables oscillation to begin. Aspirate onsets are usually marked by a distinct /h/ that precedes each utterance. Like the glottal extreme, excessive use of strong aspirate onset can lead to voice problems, including chronic incomplete glottal closure and muscular tension dysphonia. (4/11) The goal, of course, is to begin the tone with a balanced (simultaneous) onset in which adduction and airflow begin at precisely the same instant. The resulting sound is clean and easy, without the strong click of the glottal stroke or the hissing of the aspirate. Singers can practice balanced tonal onset using exercises that require gentle rearticulation of re- peated notes. (4/12) A great deal of confusion and controversy has arisen over the onset recommended by the great 19th century pedagogue Manual Garcia Il, which he labeled the coup de la glotte (stroke of the glottis). As described by Garcia, this onset was performed by firmly closing the glottis prior to onset, resulting in a clean initial sound with accurate intonation. Complete glottal closure also led to a clean, vibrant sustained tone without surplus airflow. Unfortu- nately, Garcia predates the invention of sound recording, so we have no direct evidence of how singers chose to execute the coup de la glotte. I believe, however, that he was describing a clean, balanced onset. Singers and their teachers sometimes use the idea of a “silent H” as the basis for onset. The better option might be to think of a “silent glottal,” which follows more in Garcia’s tradition and the benefits he described.58 | The Basics of Voice Science and Pedagoey anced variants, which can be h al in hard, soft, and 2 h 5 am by forcefully and tightly adducting th agg © : usually accompanied by @ Cand noes This offser ie Used § cut off airflow abruptly, usually particularly verismo an spinto tenors. Like expressive purposes by some SPIT use ofthis offset can lead to voice damage; itis poy, tremely harsh gloal ons, ave problems with unintentional hard releases migh ably best pees i anes sing airflow, ending the note with a silent inhalation through an stopping y Offset (release) also occur’ ss 4/13. The glottal (hard) offset stops SoU} pera singers, open glottis. ei ‘ eis cars when the vocal folds are abducted while air continues t fo, Aspirate offset oct anied by an obvious /h/as the air rushes through the i 1 is accom h/ r ‘As with onset, aspirate offset Ps fewer opportunities for voice damage, ic is ny : is. While this option offer fo now opened glottis. While this OP! tore be avoided-unless it is sung tastefully and; particularly aesthetic, and should moderation to characterize words such as “sigh” or “sospiro. (4/14) ‘When abduction occurs at the exact instant breath fiow stops, a balanced offset 08: curs. Again, the sound is clean and effortless. For most singers, sie releases are easier tp produce in the lower and middle portions of the voice. Higher pitches, which require i. creased glottal adduction and higher air pressure, are more difficult to end in abalanced way, In this case, the technique mentioned for curing unwanted glottal offsets might prove help. ful. (4/15) Optimal production of sustained tones requires a perfect union of airflow and adduc. tony tension. When this occurs, the tone is described as balanced, as is heard in this example (4/18). Some voice scientists, including Johann Sundberg, refer to this as flow mode phona- tion (Sundberg, 1987). If adduction is too tight, the result is a harsh sound that is described as pressed. Pressed tones (4/16) are produced when the closed phase in the oscillation cycle is significantly longer than the open phase. If, however, the open phase is too long, the tone becomes aspirate or breathy (4/17). In extremely aspirate phonation the vocal folds might never completely close, but simply chop into the moving air stream (which is sufficient to create the periodic pressure changes required to generate sound). This helps explain why unamplified breathy voices rarely are as loud as those that are clear. The quality of sustained phonation is strongly influenced by the method of onset; as- pirate onset almost always leads to aspirate phonation, while glottal onset tends to induce a pressed sound. Understanding the physiological steps behind these variations helps inform teachers of appropriate steps toward improvement. For example, we now know that the singer with a breathy voice is probably doing two things: she is not adducting the glottis firmly enough, and she is blowing out too much air. Therefore, to correct the problem, both issues must be addressed. The breath can be corrected by proper implementation of muscular antagonism in the support process; insufficient adduction might be improved through judi- cious application of exercises that employ glottal onset (under close teacher supervision, of course). Working in this manner is somewhat like the swing of a pendulum. If the voice isScott McCoy | 59 functioning too far in one direction, apply alittle of the opposite extreme as a counterbalance, realizing that the goal is to find the appropriate balance near the center. Control of loudness and pitch We now understand that there is a close relationship between laryngeal and respiratory events during onset, offset and sustained phonation. What happens when we need to change pitch or loudness? Again, a dynamic relationship exists, this time including elements of breath pressure, glottal adduction, airflow rate, vocal fold length, and the thickness of the vocal folds at their vibrating margins. Intensity Control Intuition tells us singers must increase breath pressure to increase amplitude. This is true—at least to an extent—but only explains part of the process. If breath pressure is in- creased and glottal adductory tension remains constant, the sound will probably get slightly louder; but it also will rise in pitch and has the potential to become aspirate from excess airflow. You can demonstrate this action by wrapping your arms around someone as if you are going to perform the Heimlich maneuver; while the person sings, gently tug inward against his abdominal wall as if you are trying to stop him from choking. Each time you pull against him, the sound will spike in loudness, but pitch also will rise by about a whole step. To avoid this intonation effect, glottal resistance must be increased concurrently with sub- glottal air pressure. Increased resistance causes the vocal folds to oscillate at higher ampli- tude (greater range of motion) and to close more quickly during each cycle of vibration. As losing velocity within the vibratory cycle increases, the ratio of time the glottis is closed— the closed quotient—also is likely to increase. The result is a crisper, firmer cessation of airflow that increases the amplitude of the sound. You can simulate the above scenario by clapping your hands. First, clap in slow motion. The closing rate at which your hands come together is low and the sound produced will be muted. Now, clap vigorously; the closing rate is much faster, and the resulting sound is sig- nificantly louder. You can use clapping to demonstrate another factor in changing intensity: the thick- ness of the vocal folds at their medial edges. As amplitude increases, the glottis must work harder and harder to resist subglottal air pressure. This occurs through increased contraction in the adductor muscles (LCA and IA) and through contraction of the thyroarytenoid to cre- ate medial tension in the glottis. Remember, thyroarytenoid contraction results in shortening and/or thickening of the vocal folds; when the TA contracts in isometric antagonism with the CT muscles, one result is thickening of the vocal folds. This widens the contact area between the two folds and effectively increases the vocal fold mass that is in oscillation. To demonstrate the impact of changing thickness on amplitude, sequentially clap one, two, three, and then all four fingers of one hand against the other. You will hear the sound pro- gressively get louder as the width of the clapping hand increases. Changes in the verticalpedagogy The Basics of Voice Science and 60 «ar changes in amplitude—albeit not Precise, he vocal folds induce similar fe thickness of the vt same reason! trol requires an exquisite interplay bety, al terms, the vocal folds must bei = le know, the cricothyro;q Sted “ech to descend. As we h a frp noids for shortening. The simp, TMNisly longati he thyroarytel t ; are responsible for elong tion and the d p ee ae fi Ree is not the sole cause 0 pitch modulation. When th, et og changing length, 1 : ‘ome thinner, tighter, and more rigid. In on rear , they fol are lengthened, they bec fa guitar. When the tuning peg is ture Ld sting ' eee ti va and—even though you probably can’t see it with the tn eights becomes mor A sueisineeasedfequency of bration. The vocal gn eye—it becomes ; ever, have n . tighten them; to achieve the same effect, th hoy. have no tuning peg to ight i i ley Must be phys : ied longer or stiffened by some other means. Physi pulled long i y ical Pitch Control intensity, pitch con As with control o} YP gery geet jon and breath pressul yngeal tension al : for pitch to ascend and shorten ie pitch control process, We need to remember the bo, y/o, Tot tr Fequencies, the enie fold tends t0 oscil, te body and cover become more independent, and for the highest he male falsetto), the vocal folds might become so thin and stiff that edge of the cover is in oscillation. Pitch and sen control Overlap at this point. Higher pitches require longer, stiffer, and narrower vocal folds but louder soun sey thicker vocal folds that offer more resistance to glottal airflow. This simultane jenstheniog and thickening of the folds might appear to 7 a redo vocal technigu, but it really is not. Again, we encounter the antagonistic relationship etween the cticoty, roids and thyroarytenoids, assisted by the stabilizing efforts of the posterior cricoarytenoi, The CT muscles pull the folds to the appropriate tension for a given pitch while the Ty muscles counter with appropriate tension for the given amplitude. Sitch icture of the v i: Pitches ascends, however, (including those of only the very leading Conclusion ‘The larynx, our organ of phonation, truly is a remarkable instrument. Intended asa sphincter valve to protect the airway, it has developed the ability to produce the vast range of sound required for human verbal communication. It is no larger than a walnut but can produce enough sound to compete successfully with an entire symphony orchestra. Its complex structue and functions are a true miracle of nature, Understanding its anatomy will lead to more efficient teaching—teaching based on accurate physiological principles, not mythology and wishful think- ing. Generations of singers have produced beautiful sounds without possessing this knowledge. Today's singers, however, need not remain in this intellectual vacuum. Knowing how the body functions might not produce artistic singing; it will, however, help guide and inform the learning process, allowing teacher and student to concentrate on those technical precepts that havea te physiologic foundation and a reasonable chance for success.