Accepted Manuscript

A review on macro-encapsulated phase change material for building envelope

applications

Zhengxuan Liu, Zhun Jerry Yu, Tingting Yang, Di Qin, Shuisheng Li, Guoqiang
Zhang, Fariborz Haghighat, Mahmood Mastani Joybari

PII: S0360-1323(18)30503-1
DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.08.030
Reference: BAE 5643

To appear in: Building and Environment

Received Date: 30 April 2018

Revised Date: 16 July 2018
Accepted Date: 18 August 2018

Please cite this article as: Liu Z, Yu ZJ, Yang T, Qin D, Li S, Zhang G, Haghighat F, Joybari MM, A
review on macro-encapsulated phase change material for building envelope applications, Building and
Environment (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.08.030.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

A review on macro-encapsulated phase change material for

building envelope applications

Zhengxuan Liua,b, Zhun (Jerry) Yua,b*, Tingting Yangc, Di Qina,b, Shuisheng Lid, Guoqiang Zhanga,b*,
Fariborz Haghighate, Mahmood Mastani Joybarie

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a
College of Civil Engineering, National Center for International Research Collaboration in Building
Safety and Environment, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China
b
Collaborative Innovation Center of Building Energy Conservation & Environmental Control, Hunan

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412007, China
c
College of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Xiangtan University, Xiangtan, Hunan 411105, China
d
China Construction Fifth Engineering Division Corporation Limited, Changsha, Hunan 410004, China

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e
Department of Building, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Concordia University, Montreal,
Quebec, H3G 1M8, Canada

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*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 88821040 AN
E-mail address: zhunyu@hnu.edu.cn, gqzhang@hnu.edu.cn
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Highlights
Comprehensive review on macro-encapsulated PCM in building envelopes.
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Definition and material selection for PCM macro-encapsulation.

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Common macro-encapsulation forms and PCM melting processes within these forms.

Thermal performance enhancement for macro-encapsulated PCM.

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Abstract
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Integrating phase change material (PCM) into building envelopes significantly

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reduces building energy consumption and improves indoor environment. Among

different integration techniques, macro-encapsulation allows for an efficient, safe and

convenient way of using PCM, and its applications have been widely investigated in

recent years. However, this study argues that there is a lack of a systematic analysis

regarding the thermal performance of macro-encapsulated PCM, particularly for

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building envelope applications. Also, a number of important issues have seldom been

addressed such as material selection and PCM melting processes at a component level,

and optimal locations at a system level. Such a research gap remains a barrier to

architects and engineers succeeding at making rational decisions during building

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design stages, thereby achieving the optimal building performance. This paper aims to

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provide a comprehensive overview of macro-encapsulated PCM and its integration

into building envelopes. The discussion mainly includes: definition and material

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selection for PCM macro-encapsulation, common macro-encapsulation forms and

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PCM melting processes within these forms, the optimal locations of systems in
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building envelopes, and thermal performance enhancement for PCM and shells. In

addition, the key issues in future studies are discussed. It is hoped that this
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comprehensive review will contribute to a deeper understanding of the design and

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application of macro-encapsulated PCM in building envelopes.

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Keywords: Phase change material; Building envelope; Macro-encapsulation;

Energy storage; Thermal performance; Building design

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1. Introduction
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The building sector has been an important energy consumer with a total of 30%
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share of the overall energy consumption around the world [1]. In some developed

countries, for example in the US and UK, this proportion has already exceeded 40%

[2, 3]. Therefore, energy-efficient technologies are required for reducing building

energy consumption. In the last several decades, the applications of latent energy

storage, particularly phase change material (PCM) in building envelopes have been
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considered one of the advanced and preferred technologies, as they can significantly

reduce building energy consumption and improve indoor thermal comfort [4-6].

In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of literatures investigating

the integration of PCM into building envelopes. Different methods of PCM

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integration are available including: direct incorporation, immersion,

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shape-stabilization, micro-encapsulation and macro-encapsulation [7-9]. Among these

techniques, macro-encapsulation (i.e. enclosing PCM in a shell) is considered a

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promising option in the building sector [10-12].

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The primary objective of using macro-encapsulated PCM in building envelopes
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is to incorporate PCM in an efficient way in terms of diversified shell shapes and

sizes, in a safe way in terms of mechanical stability and protection of PCM against
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environmental influence, as well as in a convenient way in terms of transportation and

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packaging. To achieve this goal, PCM of different categories, and shells of various
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shapes, sizes and materials have been used and investigated [1, 9]. The heat transfer

performance and thermal effects of these proposed systems have also been studied
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[13-15]. However, research in this field is still fragmented, and to date, no

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comprehensive comparison and analysis has been conducted to provide insights into
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their design and applications. Moreover, the performance of a macro-encapsulation

system (e.g. a wallboard consisting of a set of PCM panels) is mainly determined by

the performance of its single macro-encapsulated PCM components (e.g. the PCM

panels). Existing research mainly focused on the effects of the whole system, while

most of them have suffered from a lack of well-grounded theoretical considerations

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(e.g. the melting process of PCM) on single components. To bridge the gap, an

in-depth review of PCM macro-encapsulation and its applications in building

envelopes is carried out.

The paper is structured into seven sections: Section 2 presents the difference

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between macro-encapsulation and micro-encapsulation. Section 3 discusses the

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selection methods of PCM and shell materials for macro-encapsulation. Section 4

summarizes common macro-encapsulation forms and describes the melting process of

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PCM within shells of different shapes. Section 5 analyzes thermal performance

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enhancement methods of macro-encapsulation. Section 6 concludes this paper and
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discusses the future studies and key issues.
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2. Difference between macro-encapsulation and

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micro-encapsulation
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At present, both macro-encapsulation and micro-encapsulation are widely used

in building applications. The main difference between them lies in the size and shape
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of shells. To distinguish macro-encapsulation from micro-encapsulation, different

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definitions of PCM macro-encapsulation have been given in terms of sizes and/or

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shapes, as shown in Table 1. Based on the size, PCM macro-encapsulation is defined

as PCM encapsulated in shells with diameters above 1mm [11, 16] or 1cm [17, 18],

while those with diameters less than 1 mm or 1 cm are viewed as micro-encapsulation.

It should be mentioned that such size threshold values were mainly decided by a

consideration of convenience and intuition.

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Table 1
Existing definitions of macro-encapsulation.
Definition Criteria Ref.
PCM encapsulated in shells with diameters 1mm to greater than 1cm. Size [19]
Macro-encapsulation means that the capsule size of encapsulated Size [16]
PCM is above 1000µm.
PCM encapsulated in shells with diameters of 1mm and more. Size [11]
PCM encapsulated in some form of a package or shells such as tubes, Shape [20]

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pouches, spheres, panels, etc.
PCM encapsulated in a shell, for example, tubes, spheres or panels. Shape [21]
Macro-encapsulation comprises the inclusion of PCM in some forms Shape [22, 23]

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of the package such as tubes, pouches, spheres, panels or other
receptacle.

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Macro-encapsulation can be classified based on size (above 1cm). Shape and [9]
The shells’ shape may be spherical, tubular, cylindrical or size
rectangular.
PCM encapsulated in shells with diameters usually larger than 1cm Shape and [24, 25]

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and it comprises the inclusion of PCM in some form of the package size
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such as tubes, pouches, spheres, panels or other receptacle.
PCM encapsulated in any type of shells such as tubes, spheres or Shape and [3]
panels and the size of these shells is usually larger than 1 cm. size
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The main difference in size leads to different encapsulation processes, which in

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turn have an important effect on shell shape and PCM selection. The encapsulation
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process for PCM macro-encapsulation can be conducted by filling a pre-made shell

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with liquid PCM. On the other hand, for micro-encapsulation, since it is difficult to

produce shells of diameters less than 1 mm or 1 cm, more complicated processes are

needed. This can be conducted by either physical methods, such as spray drying

[26-28], or chemical methods, such as interfacial polymerization [29, 30]. Due to the

basic characteristics of the encapsulation methods, PCM can be encapsulated in any

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shape of shells (e.g., rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical) for macro-encapsulation,

while PCM are commonly encapsulated in spherical capsule for micro-encapsulation.

Moreover, for macro-encapsulation, both organic and inorganic PCM can be used

while only organic PCM, especially paraffin wax [7], is suitable for

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micro-encapsulation.

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Despite the above differences, macro- and micro-encapsulations share some

common merits such as leakage prevention and PCM protection. Compared to

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micro-encapsulation, macro-encapsulation has its own advantages and limitations

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when used in building envelopes. Its main advantages are summarized below:
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1) The flexibility in shapes and sizes enables it to be designed and packaged

according to practical requirements [1, 10].

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2) Its simpler production processes result in lower costs [23, 31, 32].
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3) Usage of shells increases the mechanical stability of PCM systems [20, 32,
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33].

The larger size also places the following main limitations on

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macro-encapsulation:
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1) Reduction of heat transfer efficiency due to the lower surface-to-volume ratio

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[34].

2) Inhomogeneous PCM solidification/melting inside shells [16, 22, 34].

3) Prone to damage or even destruction during both building construction and

retrofitting [1, 3, 35].

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3. The selection of PCM and shell materials for

macro-encapsulation
The selection of both PCM and shell materials for macro-encapsulation plays an

important role in the development and efficient utilization of latent heat storage

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systems in building envelopes. Such selection aims to choose the most suitable

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material for a given application that satisfies a set of requirements imposed. In this

section, the selection of PCM and shell materials are reviewed and some suggestions

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are provided.

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3.1 Selection of PCM for macro-encapsulation
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PCM are commonly classified as organic (such as paraffin and fatty acids),

inorganic (such as hydrated salts), and eutectic materials (such as eutectic fatty acid
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mixtures along with hydrate salts) [36-38]. Each type of PCM has its own advantages
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and limitations, which have already been reviewed in many previous studies [29, 39,
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40]. The number of commercially available PCM has exceeded over one thousand,

leading to difficulties in selecting an optimal one for a given building application [41].
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In prior studies it was suggested that a suitable PCM for building applications should
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meet the criteria shown in Table 2, and these criteria also apply to macro-encapsulated
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PCM. However, these selection criteria are difficult, or even impossible, to be

satisfied simultaneously by a single material in practice. For example, a certain PCM

may have suitable melting/solidifying temperature and high conductivity but low

latent heat of fusion. Similarly, a certain PCM may have high latent heat of fusion and

long term chemical stability but low thermal conductivity. In addition, some issues

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derived from the use of PCM systems such as phase segregation or super cooling

effects should be more important in the selection of certain systems. Consequently,

when choosing PCM for macro-encapsulation in building applications, researchers

and engineers still depend heavily on their major requirements, experience and

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availability of PCM [42, 43].

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Table 2
The main criteria for PCM selection in building applications [1, 12, 24, 25, 44, 45].
Thermodynamic a) Suitable phase change temperature

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properties b) Less phase segregation
c) High latent heat of fusion per unit volume and high specific heat
d) High thermal conductivity

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e) Small volume change and small vapor pressure
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Kinetic properties f) High nucleation rate to decrease super-cooling
g) High rate of crystal growth to meet demands of heat recovery
Chemical properties h) Nontoxic, non-flammable and non-explosive
i) No corrosiveness and capability with construction materials
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j) Long-term chemical stability

k) Complete reversible freezing/melting cycles
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Economic properties l) Low cost

m) Commercial availability
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Other properties n) Low environmental impact and non-polluting during the lifespan
o) Good compatibility with its shell material
p) Fulfilling the fire safety requirements
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q) Recyclable utilization
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To overcome the above limitations, multiple thermo-physical attributes of PCM

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were simultaneously evaluated by employing multiple attribute decision making

(MADM) methods in order to rank and select an optimal one from a set of PCM

candidates with suitable melting temperature ranges [41, 46, 47]. Through assigning

weights to different PCM attributes other than melting temperature, the MADM

methods make a trade-off between the relative importance of these attributes and
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arrive at a choice. Many MADM methods have been developed, such as simple

additive weighted (SAW) methods, analytical hierarchy process (AHP) methods,

technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) methods,

fuzzy TOPSIS methods and weighted product methods (WPM) [46]. Among them, the

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TOPSIS, fuzzy TOPSIS and AHP methods are more efficient in dealing with the PCM

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selection problem since they better handle the subjectivity, uncertainty and ambiguity

aspects [41, 46].

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Despite the development of above PCM selection methods, their adoption in

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practice is limited since they are difficult for common users without advanced
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mathematical knowledge. To aid the practical selection in a simpler way, it is

necessary to develop selection software with user-friendly interfaces. A material

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selection software, CES Selector, was developed [48] and improved by adding a new
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database containing more than 300 commercialized PCM and standard building
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substances [49]. However, only phase change temperature and latent heat of fusion

were considered for PCM classification in this database while the data on other
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attributes were not available. In this view, it is highly desirable that comprehensive
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software and databases are developed to enable simpler and more convenient PCM
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selection processes for researchers and engineers in practical applications. Meanwhile,

the above PCM selection methods mainly aim to achieve desired thermal performance

by considering thermos-physical properties of PCM. However, to achieve high overall

performance with macro-encapsulated PCM for building applications, it is also

necessary to consider other factors such as environmental influence and economic

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costs. Therefore, developing a comprehensive data analysis methodology for

assessing, predicting, and optimizing the overall performance of PCM for

macro-encapsulation in building envelopes is still necessary for the future research.

3.2 Selection of shell materials for macro-encapsulation

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Besides PCM, shell material also can exert considerable influence on the thermal

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performance of macro-encapsulated PCM systems, and thus plays an important role in

applying the system to building envelopes. A number of shell materials have been

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used for macro-encapsulation in previous studies. They can be classified into metal

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materials and non-metal materials. Common metal shell materials mainly include
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copper, aluminum, stainless steel etc. [9, 50, 51]. Common non-metal shell materials

mainly include polyvinyl chloride (PVC), glass, SiO2, plastic, polyolefin, high-density
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polyethylene (HDPE) etc. [9, 52-55].. In prior studies the suggested criteria for
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selecting shell material in building applications mainly include[1, 9, 19, 32, 45]:
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1) Nontoxicity and non-flammability.

2) Compatibility with encapsulated PCM.

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3) Mechanical strength and thermal stability.

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4) High thermal conductivity.

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5) Availability and economic feasibility.

Similar to PCM selection, these criteria are difficult, or even impossible, to be

satisfied simultaneously for a single shell material in practice. For example, aluminum

is one of the most common metal shell materials due to its high thermal conductivity,

low density and high plasticity [56, 57]. However, it easily oxidizes and reacts with

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salt hydrates [58, 59]. Indeed, shell material selection is commonly conducted after

PCM selection. This has narrowed the shell material candidates down to a few that are

compatible with the selected PCM. Then the final decision on shell material selection

is reached among the above candidates by also bringing other criteria into

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consideration and making trade-offs in terms of practical limitations and needs. Such

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a trade-off is commonly made based on researchers' and engineers' experience and

requirements. This may fail to identify the optimal candidate that gives a desirable

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thermal performance at minimum costs. In this view, a possible improvement may be

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achieved by first determining a few candidates in terms of compatibility, nontoxicity,
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non-flammability and thermal stability, and then identifying the optimal one by

simultaneously considering its thermal conductivity and costs. Such identification can
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be realized by using energy simulation and pay-back period calculations.

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Common PCM and corresponding shell materials for macro-encapsulation used

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in building envelopes are summarized in Table 3.

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Table 3
Common PCM and shell materials for macro-encapsulation used in building envelopes.

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Specific heat capacity Density Thermal conductivity
Melting Heat of fusion Market price* Shell
PCM (kJ kg-1 K) (kg m-3) (W m-1K-1) Ref.
point (℃) (kJ kg-1) ($ kg-1) material

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Solid Liquid Solid Liquid Solid Liquid
[57,
RT 28HC 27-29 245 1.65 2.20 880 770 0.24 0.15 2.21 Aluminum

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60, 61]
RT 35 28-35 135 0.20 2.71 Aluminum [62]
Stainless

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RT 42 38-43 174 2.00 880 760 0.20 [51]
steel

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RT 18 18 134 2.00 756 0.20 Steel [63]
RT 27 28 179 1.80 2.40 870 750 0.20 2.71 CSM [64]
C16H34 22 223.66 2.23 Copper [65]

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Capric acid (CA) 30.20 142.70 752 815 3.01 Aluminum [58]
16.50-26.5

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Fatty acids/glycerides 116.70 503.30 4.82 HDPE [66]
0

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PEG 600 21-25 148 2.49 1128 3.01 PVC [67]
Hydrated salt 31.40 149.90 Polymer [35]
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CaCl2.6H2O 26±1 180 2.13 1.46 2130 1460 0.54 0.98 PVC [68]
SP25(hydrate salt) 26 180 2.50 1380 0.60 CSM [64]
TD-MA (tetradecanol 29.51-31.8
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183-186 PE-RT [69]

and myristate) 3
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Capric acid and

1-Dodecanol 26.50 126.90 754 817 Aluminum [58]
(95wt%-5wt%)
CA-PA 27.48 151.54 [70]

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(85wt%-15wt%)
CA-LA
Stainless

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(65.12wt%-34.88wt% 19.67 126.56 1033 981 [71]
steel
)

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* The market price was searched at www.alibaba.com and was provided as reference.

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4. Common macro-encapsulation forms and PCM melting

processes
In recent years, a considerable literature has grown up around the theme of

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integrating macro-encapsulated PCM into building envelopes, including walls, floors,

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roofs, ceilings and windows[5, 84, 85]. Experimental results indicate that such

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integration can significantly reduce building energy consumption and improve indoor

thermal comfort. It should be mentioned that these experiments focus mainly on the

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thermal effects of the whole macro-encapsulation systems consisting of a set of PCM
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components such as panels and bricks. Considering that PCM is encapsulated and its
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melting/solidification occurs in each component, a deeper understanding of melting

processes of PCM at the component level is necessary to further improve system

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performance. Moreover, previous studies show that the melting process of PCM is
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heavily dependent on the form of PCM components [86]. In the following section,
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common forms of macro-encapsulation are summarized and their applicability in

building envelopes is also analyzed. Then, the melting processes of PCM within these
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forms are reviewed and discussed.

4.1 Common macro-encapsulation forms

Different forms of shells have been designed and produced to encapsulate PCM.

Fig.1 summarizes these forms, mainly including panel (i-v), brick (vi-vii), slab

(viii-ix), slat (x), blade (xi), pouch (xii-xiii), sphere (xiv-xv) and tube (xvi).

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Fig.1. Common macro-encapsulation forms used in building envelopes [35, 58, 60, 67, 68, 72,
77-79, 81, 87-91]
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These forms can be further grouped into three categories in terms of their
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geometry shapes: rectangular, spherical, and cylindrical. Rectangular shells include

panels, bricks, slabs, slats, blades, while so far there has been no explicit definition to
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distinguish between them. They are the most popular forms in building envelopes due
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mainly to the fact that their flat surfaces enable convenient integration [3, 86].
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Rectangular shells have the potential for integration with any given building

envelopes, including walls [51, 53, 58, 63, 64, 68, 79, 92], floors [50, 93, 94], roofs

[95, 96], ceilings [87] and windows [60, 97-101]. Moreover, certain rectangular

building construction components with cavities, such as hollow bricks [102], window

glazing and window blind blades [60, 100, 101], can be used as PCM shells.

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Pouch shells can also be viewed as rectangular shells made of flexible materials

such as aluminum foil (xii) and nylon (xiii). They are often divided into several

partitions by using heat bonding machines to prevent PCM from accumulating in one

side when it is liquid [103]. Their main advantages lie in relatively low production

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costs and ease of installation and disassembly. However, they are easily deformed by

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a low pressure-bearing capacity, possibly causing leakage. Pouch shells have been

applied to walls [103-106], floors [80, 107] and roofs [108].

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Spherical and cylindrical shells refer to spheres and tubes, respectively. A search

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of the literature revealed only a few studies which explored their applications and
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effects in building envelopes. Several attempts have been made to apply PCM spheres

in floors [109, 110]. PCM tubes were attached to wood frames [111] or inserted into
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horizontal slots cut into polystyrene foam [36], and then integrated into walls. In fact,
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there has been little discussion about their fewer applications in building envelopes
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compared to rectangular shells. One possible reason may be that they are not easy to

be fixed, especially on walls [86, 112-114].

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Common macro-encapsulation forms and their requirement for use in building

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envelopes are summarized in Table 4.

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Table 4
Common macro-encapsulation forms and their requirement for use in building envelopes.
Shapes Categories Application Size (cm) Requirement for use Ref.
Length: 120 Panels are fastened using
Rectangular
Panel Wall Width: 100 sets of clamps and metal [72]
shells
Thickness: 0.5 frames.
Length: 92 The thickness needs to be
Rectangular
Panel Wall Width:92 chosen according to [67]
shells
Thickness: 2.5 available commercial panels.
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The metal containers are laid
Rectangular
Panel Ceiling on the top of the bearing for [87]
shells
plaster boards.
Length: 19 A wood frame maintains the
Rectangular
Brick Solar wall Width: 19 system as a prefabricated [79]
shells
Thickness: 5 assembly.
PCM is divided into several
Width: 50 stories by baffles to reduce

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Rectangular
Slab Wall Height: 20 phase separation and it is [68]
shells
Thickness: 2 fixed on the insulation wall
with brackets.

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Length: 120
Rectangular Two adjacent PCM form a
Slab Window Width: 20 [77]
shells channel for air flow.

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Thickness: 0.5
The PCM-filled slats are
Rectangular
Slat Window covered with a highly [81]
shells
reflective white fabric.

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The waterproofness and air
Rectangular
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Blade Window tightness of blade should be [60]
shells
tested before its application.
The pouch is divided into
Length: 40.6
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Rectangular several partitions and

Pouch Wall Width: 60.2 [35]
shells laminated with aluminum
Thickness:0.2
foil on both sides.
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The pouch is divided into

Rectangular
Pouch Wall three partitions to prevent [89]
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shells
PCM from tilting to one side.
The sphere PCM was
embedded directly below
Spherical
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Sphere Floor Diameter: 0.3 floor board in the form of [109]

shells
granules as the PCM packed
bed.
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The tubes are capped at both

Cylindrical ends to prevent leakage, and
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Tube Wall Diameter: 2.54 [115]

shells then are assembled by
brackets within the wall.
The pipes are inserted into
Cylindrical
Pipe Wall Diameter: 2.54 horizontal slots cut into the [36]
shells
polystyrene foam.

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4.2 Melting processes of PCM within shells of different shapes

PCM melting processes within shells play a significant role in the understanding

and performance improvement of PCM macro-encapsulation systems. The processes

within shells of different shapes have been extensively studied in some engineering

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applications such as electronic cooling devices [116]. The research findings obtained

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from these applications also provide some insights into the understanding of PCM

melting in macro-encapsulations applied in building envelopes. In the following, the

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melting processes of PCM in rectangular, spherical and cylindrical shells is first

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described, and then the influence of geometric parameters on the melting processes is
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discussed.

4.2.1 The melting process of PCM in rectangular, spherical and cylindrical shells
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The melting process of PCM contained within rectangular shells is mainly

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controlled by two heat transfer mechanisms: heat conduction and natural convection.
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Experimental and computational studies indicate that, with heat flux supplied on one or

more vertical sides of a shell, conduction is dominant at the early stage of the melting
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process, while natural convection becomes more important at the later stage [116, 117].
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Moreover, the later stage can be further divided into two periods with different natural
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convection intensities and melting rates. The first period is characterized by high

convection intensities and melting rates while both of them decrease in the second

period. Typical streamlines and isotherms describing the flow and temperature fields

during these two periods were illustrated by Gong et al [118], as shown in Fig. 2.

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Fig. 2. Typical streamlines and isotherms during these two periods [118].

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As can be seen in Fig.2, during the first period (a1-a3, b1-b3) a rapid advance of

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melting front at the top is observed (Fo represents Fourier number which is a
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dimensionless number that characterizes transient heat conduction and convection of

PCM). This is caused by the vigorous buoyancy driven flow and high convection
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intensity in this region. Meanwhile, as time progresses natural convection prevails in

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the central liquid region, enabling more heat to be transferred to the top and the
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temperature in the central liquid region to be homogenized. During the second period

(a4-a5, b4-b5), the melt region expands as the heating continues. Meanwhile, isotherms
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appear to be almost parallel and a lower thermal gradient is found at the top. In
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particular, the horizontal isotherms indicate an organization of temperatures into stable

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stratification, resulting in a significant decrease in natural convection and heat transfer

rates. Similar trends were also observed by Faraji et al. [116]. Moreover, they

reported that, for a tall shell, the core flow tended to split into different independent

cells separated by stagnant melting regions. The above analysis characterizes the

melting process of PCM enclosed within rectangular shells heated from vertical sides,

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which is frequently encountered in building wall and window applications.

The melting process with heat sources on bottom surfaces was also studied [119,

120]. With the same heat transfer mechanisms, it was found that the main difference

between this melting process and the above process lied in the fact that solid PCM at the

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top could descend to the bottom due to gravity. In this process, a thin liquid layer

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between the solid PCM and the bottom heated surfaces was formed after the solid PCM

eventually descended to the bottom. As a result, the heat transfer from the bottom

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heated surfaces to the solid PCM was greatly enhanced. Such a process is frequently

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encountered in building ceiling applications as the bottom of PCM rectangular shells is
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contacted with indoor air as a heat source.

The melting process in spherical shells based on two different experimental

M

conditions was studied, i.e. unconstrained melting and constrained melting. The
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difference between them was that, in constrained melting conditions, thermocouples

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were inserted into PCM inside spherical shells for temperature measurement. These

thermocouples prevented solid PCM from sinking to the bottom since they tended to
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constrain the solid PCM. A picture of the unconstrained and constrained melting in
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spherical shells is shown in Fig. 3.

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Fig.3 (a) Unconstrained melting inside a sphere; (b) Constrained melting inside a sphere
[122]

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With regard to unconstrained melting conditions, its melting process was found to
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be similar to that in rectangular shells with heat sources on bottom surfaces, particularly

in terms of the descending solid PCM caused by gravity. Tan [122] experimentally
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investigated the melting of PCM inside a sphere and divided the melting process into
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two stages. In the first stage, the melting was dominated by heat conduction across the
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surface of shells. In the second stage, the unconstrained solid PCM started to sink to the

bottom due to the higher density of the solid PCM compared to the liquid PCM. The
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descended solid PCM contacted with shell surfaces and were heated, and thus a thin
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layer of melted PCM between the shell surface and solid PCM was always formed at
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the bottom. At the same time, as the melt PCM grew, the buoyancy-driven convection

was strengthened and it was the main driving mechanism that melted the PCM in the

top region of the sphere. Clearly, heat transfer rates at the bottom dominated by heat

conduction were higher than those in the top region dominated by natural convection.

Similar observations were reported by Assis et al. [123], Hosseinizadeh et al.[124] and

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Rizan et al. [125]. With regard to constrained melting conditions, the solid PCM was

not in direct contact with heated bottom surfaces, and natural convection dominated the

melting process in both top and bottom regions. Moreover, melting in the top region

was much faster than that in the bottom region due to buoyancy effects. Such an

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observation was also made by Khodadadi and Zhang [126]. The melting process in both

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vertically-oriented and horizontally-oriented cylindrical shells was studied since the

melting of PCM was impacted by the orientation of the symmetry axis [127, 128]. It

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was found that the melting process in vertically-oriented cylindrical shells was similar

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to that in tall rectangular shells [129], and the melting process in horizontally-oriented
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cylindrical shells was similar to that in spherical shells [130].

The above studies characterize the melting process of PCM within shells of
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different shapes and can provide a base from which the melting process in building
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envelope applications can be further investigated. In reality, the thermal boundary

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conditions for the melting process of PCM in building envelopes are more complex.

For example, the usage of macro-encapsulated PCM for electronic cooling devices is
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normally studied under constant heat flux boundary conditions, while for building
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envelopes the heat flux varies throughout the day and the main objective of PCM usage
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is to reduce the peak heat flux. Moreover, to improve melting rates, heat transfer

enhancers such as fins, copper foam and graphite can be added to PCM and/or shells.

These enhancers also have an impact on both conduction and convection stages of the

melting process of PCM. Indeed, the use of such enhancers have been well studied

and should be directly transferable to building applications. However, experiments

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specifically undertaken to confirm its operation in building applications are still

necessary.

4.2.2 The influence of geometric parameters

Geometrical parameters have a great influence on the heat transfer and melting of

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PCM in macro-encapsulation [131]. Major geometrical parameters have been identified

for different shapes in previous studies. Specifically, aspect ratios (i.e. a shell's

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height-to-width ratio) were found effective for rectangular and vertically-oriented

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cylindrical shells, while diameters were found important for spherical and

horizontally-oriented cylindrical shells. Regarding the aspect ratio, previous studies

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mainly focused on its influence on the melting fraction of PCM (i.e. the proportion of

melted PCM to the whole PCM in macro-encapsulation). As reported by Mbaye and

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Bilgen [132], they had a negligible impact on the melt fraction of PCM when
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conduction dominated, while smaller ratios had a positive effect on the melt fraction of
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PCM when natural convection dominated. This was supported by the research findings

of Jianhua et al [121] and El Qarnia [133]. In addition, Binet and Lacrois [134] found
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that a higher aspect ratio extended the melting durations for rectangular and
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vertically-oriented cylindrical shells, and the similar result was reported by Ho and
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Chu [135]. Regarding the diameter, Hosseinizadeh et al. [124] reported that it had a

more significant influence on PCM melt fraction and heat flux evolution compared to

dimensionless parameters such as Stefan number. Thus, they recommended changing

shell’s geometrical parameters in practical applications rather than changing the

operating conditions. Moreover, Assis et al. [123] reported that PCM melt fraction and

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heat flux evolution followed similar trends for different diameters. A smaller diameter

tended to result in a more rapid full melting and sharper heat flux increase for spherical

and horizontally-oriented cylindrical shells.

5. Thermal performance enhancement for macro-encapsulation

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For a PCM macro-encapsulation system (an assembly of PCM components such

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as PCM panels) in building envelope applications, its thermal performance can be

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enhanced at both system and component levels. At the system level, its relative

location to the exterior/interior surfaces of building envelopes has significant effects

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on the peak heat flux reduction of the building envelope and indoor temperature
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fluctuations [105, 106]. At the component level, the low thermal conductivity of most
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PCM leads to poor heat transfer performance [136, 137]. Meanwhile, large shell size

further hinders effective heat transfer [1, 16, 22]. Enhancing the thermal performance
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between macro-encapsulation and surrounding environment as well as within the

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macro-encapsulation is necessary [136, 138, 139]. In the following, optimal locations

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of PCM macro-encapsulation systems and heat transfer enhancement of PCM and

shells are reviewed and discussed, respectively.

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5.1 Optimal locations of PCM macro-encapsulation systems

The relative location of PCM macro-encapsulation systems to the

exterior/interior surfaces of building envelopes significantly affects the peak heat flux

reduction of the building envelope and indoor temperature fluctuations [105, 106]. A

number of studies analyzed the effect of PCM macro-encapsulation systems in

different locations, and most of them focused on walls. For example, Kong et al. [58]
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found that PCM panel systems showed higher energy saving potential at the interior

surface compared to the exterior surface. Jin et al. [105] reported that the optimal

location of PCM pouch systems was at a distance of (1/5)L from the interior surface

of walls (where L was the wall thickness). Fang [114] found that PCM tube systems

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placed at (3/16)L from the interior surface would produce large peak reductions. The

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different optimal locations obtained from these studies indicate that such a location is

influenced by different factors. Some studies were conducted to further investigate the

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influence of several factors, mainly including wall orientations, PCM system

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thicknesses and PCM thermal properties.
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The optimal location of PCM systems is deemed to be related to wall

orientations, which is mainly due to the variations of solar radiation received on

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different orientations. Lee et al. [104] analyzed the optimal location of pouch PCM
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systems for south and west walls with conventional residential construction in
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Lawrence, US. The results showed that the PCM optimal locations for the south and

west walls were 2.54 cm and 1.27 cm from the interior surface, respectively. Mankibi
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et al. [140], however, reported the optimal location of PCM systems was the interior
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surface for all orientations. In their view, the possible reason was that the thermal
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resistance of walls was mandated by the local design criteria, which made the solar

radiation less significant regardless of orientations.

Through the numerical analysis, Jin et al. [105] investigated how optimal

locations of pouch PCM systems were affected by PCM system thicknesses and

thermal properties of PCM. The results showed that the optimal locations were (1/16)

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L, (2/16) L, (3/16) L, and (3/16) L (where L was the wall thickness) from the interior

surface of walls when the PCM system thicknesses were 1 mm, 2 mm, 5 mm and 7

mm, respectively. It was concluded that, with increasing PCM system thicknesses, the

PCM location should be moved towards the exterior surface of walls to absorb more

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heat. Similar trends were observed for the melting temperature and heat fusion of

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PCM.

The optimal location of a PCM system for walls is affected by a number of

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factors. Existing studies mainly focused on the effect of several factors separately,

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while more factors and their combined effects should be further studied. For instance,
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the optimal location of PCM within the walls is partially dependent upon which loads

to be mitigated, such as internally generated loads and external weather-related loads.

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This also needs to be considered as an important factor. In addition, more research is

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needed to investigate the optimal PCM locations for other building envelopes such as
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floors, roofs and windows.

Table 5 summarizes the typical studies on the optimal locations of PCM system
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in building envelops.
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Table 5
Typical studies on the optimal locations of PCM systems in building envelopes.
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Impact factors Evaluation

Application Location Remarks Ref.
considered criterion
The optimal PCM location in
Lawrence, the south wall and west wall
Wall Heat flux
Wall Kansas, was 2.54 cm and 1.27 cm [35]
orientation reduction
USA from the wallboard,
respectively.
PCM thermal Peak heat The optimal PCM layer was
North
Wall properties, wall flux the inward-most location of [52]
America
structure and reduction internal face of gypsum

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climate wallboards.
PCM thermal
properties, PCM panels installed on
Energy
Wall and Tianjin, building inside surface of walls and
saving [58]
roof China construction roofs performed better than
potential
design and that of outside surface.
climate
The optimal PCM location

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Peak heat was at a distance of 1/5L (L
North PCM thermal
Wall flux was thickness of cavity) [105]
America properties
reduction from the internal surface of

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wall.
The optimal location was

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Thermal closer to the exterior surface
PCM thermal mass of the wall as the PCM
Lawrence,
properties and increase and thickness, heat of fusion,
Wall Kansas, [106]
environmental peak heat melting temperature were

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USA
conditions fluxes increased, while it was closer
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reduction to interior surface as wall
temperature was increased.
The optimal PCM location
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Lawrence, PCM thermal Peak heat was 3/16 L from the

Wall Kansas, properties and flux wallboard with a large peak [114]
USA climate reduction reduction for most climate
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zones.
The PCM located in the
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Minneapolis center of composite

Thermal
, Louisville, wallboards had a better
Wall Climate resistance [141]
and Miami, performance than that of
increase
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USA externally and internally

located PCM composites.
The PCM layer placed close
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Heat flux to the heat source reduced

PCM thermal and wall the outside surface
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Wall properties and surface temperature by 2℃ and no [142]

wall structure temperature impact was observed as the
reduction PCM layer was located at the
external face of the wall.

5.2 Heat transfer enhancement of PCM

Heat transfer enhancement of PCM can be achieved by adding high conductivity

materials. Commonly-added materials mainly include graphite, metal particles, metal

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structures and carbon fibres (summarized in Fig. 4).

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Fig.4. Commonly added materials to enhance heat transfer of PCM [88, 143-149].
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Graphite has been widely used to improve the heat conduction performance of
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PCM, due to its high thermal conductivity and absorbability [15, 150]. Mills et al.
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[143] experimentally investigated the thermal conductivity of paraffin mixed with

porous graphite matrices. The results showed that the thermal conductivity was
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increased by 20-130 times compared to the pure paraffin. However, such addition also
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significantly decreased the PCM volume [151]. Some researchers further investigated
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the influence of weight percentage of the added graphite. Shin et al. [152]

demonstrated that the thermal conductivity of sodium acetate trihydrate containing 2.5

wt% expanded graphite reached 1.85 W m-1 K-1, which was significantly higher than

0.3 W m-1 K-1 for pure samples. Dannemand et al. [144] reported that the thermal

conductivity of the PCM composite reached 1.1 W m-1 K-1 when 5 wt % expanded

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graphite was added.

Metal particles and structures were also widely adopted for PCM thermal

conductivity enhancement. The metal particles mainly include nano, micron and

larger metal powders made from aluminum, copper, nickel, stainless steel and their

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oxides etc. Sharma et al. [10] demonstrated that nano particles conducts heat more

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effectively than larger particles, especially in a small cylindrical PCM shell. The metal

structures mainly consist of metal beads, metal matrix, metal foam etc., which are

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suitable for large PCM shells [15]. For example, Zhao et al. [153] embedded metal

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foam within PCM and found that the heat transfer rate was enhanced by 5-20 times.
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However, the high density of metal particles and structures also reduces the effective

energy density of PCM, and these metal additives tend to sink to the bottom of PCM
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shells instead of dispersing uniformly.

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Carbon fiber is a promising candidate for PCM additives, due to its low density,
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acceptable compatibility with PCM, and the fact that micro-fiber can reduce phase

separation for most inorganic PCM [154, 155]. Frusteri et al. [156] found that the
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thermal conductivity of inorganic PCM was increased by 4 times by randomly adding

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a carbon fiber loading of about 7 wt%. In addition, a more uniform PCM temperature
AC

distribution could be achieved with an increase in the percentage of carbon fibers

[154].

Previous studies mainly focused on the selection of different additives and their

effects on thermal conductivity enhancement. However, with the addition of these

additives, the PCM content in shells is reduced and the heat storage capacity is

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subsequently decreased. Thus, the optimal percentage of additives needs to be

identified in order to meet the requirements of both enhancing the heat transfer of

PCM and maintaining their thermal capacity. Meanwhile, the location of additives,

particularly metal structures, also have an impact on thermal conductivity

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enhancement and needs to be investigated in shells of different shapes. In this view,

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more in-depth studies on identifying the optimum locations of additives should be

conducted in building applications. Furthermore, new additives are still necessary to

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be developed in order to better enhance the thermal performance of PCM

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encapsulation.
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Common methods for heat transfer enhancement of PCM are summarized in

Table 6.
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Table 6
Common methods for heat transfer enhancement of PCM.
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Description of Effect on
Added material PCM Ref.
the method PCM thermal conductivity
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Paraffin wax was

20-130 times greater than
Graphite matrix Paraffin wax encapsulated in the [143]
that of pure PCM.
graphite matrix.
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2.5 wt% expanded

Expanded NaC2H3O2 6.1 times greater than that
graphite was added to [152]
graphite ·3H2O of pure PCM.
melted PCM.
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Compressed CENG matrices were

28-180 times greater than
expanded natural Paraffin wax wrapped by paraffin [157]
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that of pure PCM.

graphite (CENG) wax.
1% and 2% aluminum
Aluminum The heat transfer of PCM
Paraffin powder was added to [158]
powder was accelerated.
melted PCM.
Increased from 17.18 to
The dendritic copper
156.30 W m-1K-1 as the
powders were used as
Copper powder Paraffin porosity of copper powder [159]
the skeleton material
sintered paraffin increased
for paraffin.
from 47% to 74%.
Copper matrix Paraffin wax Thin copper sheets The maximum conductivity [147]

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were cut and slotted was 3.78 W m-1 K-1.
and then constructed
using an interlocking
technique.
Liquid PCM filled the The maximum conductivity
Copper foam Paraffin wax [147]
copper foam structure was 3.70 W m-1 K-1.
Copper foam was
The heat storage time was
Copper foam Paraffin wax embedded into liquid [160]

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reduced by 40%.
paraffin.
Carbon-fiber chips and
brushes and the melted

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Carbon-fiber Carbon brushes were
n-octadecane PCM were mixed in [149]
chips and brushes superior to the fiber chips.
containers.

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5 wt% carbon
Carbon 1.7 times greater than that
Paraffin wax nanofillers were added [161]
nanofillers of pure PCM.
in melted paraffin wax.

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PCM composite was
18 to 57 times greater than
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Carbon fiber Paraffin wax placed inside a copper [162]
that of pure PCM.
tube.
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5.3 Heat transfer enhancement of PCM shells

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The existing methods of enhancing PCM shells' thermal performance mainly

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include the usage of high thermal conductivity materials, the selection of appropriate

geometric configurations and the increase of heat transfer areas. Fig. 5 summarizes
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the above measures. The impact of different shell materials (Fig.5 i-iii) and geometric
C

configurations (Fig. 5 iv-vi) have been discussed in Sections 3.2 and 4.2, respectively.
AC

This section mainly focuses on increasing heat transfer areas by adding fins to shells

(Fig. 5 vii-ix).

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Fig.5. Various measures used for enhancing the thermal performance of PCM shells [1, 15, 73, 78,
87, 163-168]
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Metal fins are widely adopted to increase the heat transfer area of PCM shells

since they are relatively easy and cheap to fabricate [169-171]. For example, Stritih
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and Butala [166] attached two aluminum fins to the external and internal surfaces of a
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metal box. The external aluminum fins lead to a higher convective heat flux, whereas
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the internal fins lead to a higher conduction heat flux [172]. Furthermore, the heat

transfer effect of fins is mainly affected by their amounts and geometry. Regarding the
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amounts, previous studies showed that the increase of fin numbers per unit length can

improve the heat transfer performance of PCM shells [15, 173-175]. However, with

the growing number of fins, the increase of the heat transfer rate of PCM shells slows

down. Moreover, excessive numbers of fins increase the weight and may be

challenging for some vertical building applications [164]. Regarding the geometry (i.e.

thickness, pitch, width, length and height), previous studies showed that it has a great
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influence on the melting rate of PCM [167, 174, 175]. Lv et al.[167] conducted

numerical simulation of seven metallic cylindrical shells installed with finned tubes

located at the central axis. It was found that reducing fin pitch and increasing fin

width could promote thermal efficiency by expanding heat transfer areas.

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These studies have proved that adding metal fins is an effective means of

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enhancing the thermal performance of PCM macro-encapsulation. Main influencing

factors such as the number and geometry of aluminum fins were also investigated

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experimentally and numerically. Existing studies mainly focused on the effect of

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individual factors, while the combined effect of the above factors on heat transfer
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performance should be further studied. In addition, external fins may lead to increased

spacing between encapsulation containers, and thus the parameters of external fins
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should be optimized considering their impact on container placement density and

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performance of an actual building.

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Table 7 summarizes a number of studies on heat transfer enhancement of PCM

shells by adding fins.

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Table 7
Heat transfer enhancement of PCM shells by adding fins.
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Fin Fin Fin Fin dimension

Effect on thermal conductivity Ref.
material shape location (mm)
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The fins contributed to the

improvement of heat
Aluminum Circular External Thickness: 3 extraction and made the PCM [176]
reach needed temperature
more rapidly.
L: <10
PCM had a larger temperature
Aluminum Rectangular External W: 0.15-1.2 [174]
distribution with a thinner fin.
H: 5-10
L: 230 The average temperature of
Aluminum Rectangular Internal [177]
W: 2, 4, 6 system with fins was 3℃ lower

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H: 42 than that without fins.
L: 300 The temperature rise of system
Aluminum Rectangular Internal W: 5 was reduced by more than [178]
H: 30 30℃.
L: 120
Heat transfer was enhanced by
Aluminum Rectangular Internal W: 4 [179]
56%.
H: 25
L: 500

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Solidification time was
Steel Rectangular External W: 1 [180]
reduced by 40%.
H: 120
Thermal conductivity was

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Copper Spiral External Thickness: 0.25 [181]
increased by 3 times.
L: 480
The melting time of PCM was

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Copper Rectangular External W: 1 [182]
reduced by 43.3%.
H: 42
*
L: length, W: width, H: height

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6. Conclusions and future studies
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6.1 Conclusions
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PCM macro-encapsulation and its applications in building envelopes, including

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walls, floors, roofs, ceilings and windows, have been widely investigated in recent

years. Experimental results reported in previous studies indicate that integration of

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macro-encapsulated PCM into building envelopes significantly reduces building

C

energy consumption and improves indoor thermal comfort.

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Currently, both macro-encapsulation and micro-encapsulation are attracting

considerable interest in building applications. They share some common merits such

as leakage prevention and PCM protection. What makes PCM macro-encapsulation

particularly interesting is the fact that its encapsulation processes allow for more

flexible choices of shell shape and PCM selection according to practical requirements.

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However, to achieve a better overall performance, both PCM and shell shapes need to

be carefully selected, ideally by following a standard selection procedure. Such

procedure could be established by using a comprehensive data analysis methodology

such as multiple attribute decision making methods. Moreover, it should be based on a

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good understanding of the melting processes of PCM in shells of different shapes,

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which is also an area in need of further investigation. Thermal performance

improvement of PCM macro-encapsulation systems at both system and component

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levels were studied as well. At the system level, optimal locations of the systems in

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building envelopes is still an issue. For both PCM and shells, determining the optimal
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parameters of adopted heat transfer enhancement measures in practical applications is

an issue to be addressed.
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6.2 Future studies and key issues

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The application of PCM macro-encapsulation in building envelopes is

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considered as a promising technology. However, there are still some barriers need to
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be removed before its development on a large scale in the building industry. The

future studies and key issues of applying PCM macro-encapsulation in building

C
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envelopes are addressed as below.

1) One key issue is the selection of appropriate forms and associated geometric

parameters of rectangular shells that are the most popular in building envelopes.

Currently, most researchers, architects and designers choose the forms and associated

geometric parameters according to their own interests or experiences. Therefore, it is

desirable that a standard selection procedure can be established in order to achieve

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better thermal performance. Such procedure should be made based on the deep

understanding of PCM melting processes in rectangular shells. In this view, future

studies should focus on the PCM melting processes in rectangular shells of different

aspect ratios under real boundary conditions.

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2) For building envelope applications, PCM macro-encapsulation would be more

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energy efficient if it can be used in both summer and winter. However, a single PCM

is difficult to satisfy both heating and cooling demands since its optimum melting

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temperature in summer is usually different from that in winter. To address this issue,

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the usage of two types of PCM with different melting temperatures was proposed
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through developing a two-layer PCM panel structure [93, 94]. Inevitably, the heat

transfer process of the two PCM is affected by each other, thereby decreasing the
M

thermal efficiency. More studies are necessary to overcome this limitation. Indeed, the
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application of portable/mobile and modular PCM macro-encapsulation could be a

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potential solution [183].

3) Concerns with the environmental impact of used PCM in building envelope

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applications play a certain role in deciding its acceptance, adoption and popularization
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in the building industry. Recycling and reusing the PCM formerly utilized in building
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envelopes bring in both environmental and economic benefits. Compared to PCM

micro-encapsulation, the ease of separating PCM from shells gives PCM

macro-encapsulation advantage in terms of recyclable utilization. However, this has

not yet received adequate attention in the studies found and further research is still

needed.

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4) More demonstration projects and long-term operational data are needed to

better understand and evaluate the overall performance of PCM systems in practice.

Moreover, a comparison of energy savings between different systems will deepen our

understanding of their performance, taking into account that the performance may

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decrease with melting cycles. To facilitate such a comparison, typical or even ideal

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PCM systems installed into a residential building can be designed based on existing

studies, with a service life of at least 25 years.

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Acknowledgements
The research work presented in this paper is supported by the National Natural
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Science Foundation of China (Project No. 51408205), China State Construction

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Engineering Corporation Limited (Project No. CSCEC-2015-Z-15) and the

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Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities.

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