5 - 2023 - Sustainability 15 04582 v2

sustainability
Article
Novel Isolated Multiple‑Input, Multiple‑Output
Multidirectional Converter for Modern Low‑Voltage DC Power
Distribution Architectures
Raphael Carrijo de Oliveira 1 , Fernando Lessa Tofoli 2 and Aniel Silva de Morais 1, *
1 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia 38400‑902, Brazil

2 Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of São João del‑Rei,
São João del‑Rei 36307‑352, Brazil
* Correspondence: aniel@ufu.br
Abstract: This work introduces a multiple‑input, multiple‑output (MIMO) isolated converter for
low‑power applications involving residential DC nanogrids and nanogrids. The topology has a mul‑
tiport characteristic that allows for the integration of loads and sources with distinct ratings, e.g.,
photovoltaic (PV) modules, battery banks, DC loads, and the AC grid. The structure relies on a
DC‑DC multi‑winding multidirectional flyback converter that operates as power interface and can
minimize the number of power conversion stages while enabling flexible power flow control. Owing
to its multidirectional characteristic, a port can be responsible for supplying or absorbing energy us‑
ing duty cycle control or phase‑shift control, respectively. Since the operating modes of the converter
are decoupled, a predictive controller is capable of managing the power flow among the ports inde‑
pendently. Simulation results are presented and discussed to evaluate the control system robustness
and its performance in power flow management.
Keywords: DC‑DC converters; flyback converter; microgrids; MIMO systems; multiport converters;
predictive control
Citation: Carrijo de Oliveira, R.;

1. Introduction
Tofoli, F.L.; Silva de Morais, A. Novel
Isolated Multiple‑Input, Smart grids involve a complex scenario in which renewable energy sources (RESs),
Multiple‑Output Multidirectional energy storage devices (ESDs), and electric vehicles (EVs), among other components, may
Converter for Modern Low‑Voltage interact with each other. In contrast to traditional power systems, consumers may play
DC Power Distribution Architectures. an active role while behaving as prosumers [1]. In this context, the use of distributed en‑
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4582. https:// ergy resources (DERs) in residential, commercial, and industrial facilities is a prominent
doi.org/10.3390/su15054582 solution for mitigating the worldwide energy crisis [2].
Academic Editor: Aritra Ghosh
Microgrids are independent systems that can operate in grid‑connected or islanded
mode. In addition, distinct energy sources, ESDs, and loads can be incorporated into such
Received: 18 January 2023 architectures to make them fully or partially self‑sufficient. In this regard, multiple energy
Revised: 24 February 2023 sources can both supply the existing loads and inject power into the traditional AC grid.
Accepted: 1 March 2023 However, owing to their intermittent nature, such resources are not capable of ensuring
Published: 3 March 2023
an uninterruptible power supply. For instance, photovoltaic (PV) modules are unable to
operate properly under certain weather conditions or even at night, whereas wind power
relies strictly on the installation of turbines at proper sites. This is why ESDs are of ma‑
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
jor importance as a backup resource [3]. Bidirectional power flow is also a key issue in
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. microgrids, whereas the simultaneous operation of multiple sources aims at an optimal
This article is an open access article economic and energy dispatch [4].
distributed under the terms and As the demand for renewable energy sources increases, combining them with ESDs
conditions of the Creative Commons may no longer be just an option, but a mandatory requirement. A practical example is the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// State of California in the United States of America, which has taken the lead in the estab‑
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ lishment of policies and mechanisms for the installation of distributed generation (DG) sys‑
4.0/). tems associated with ESDs [5]. Besides, the growing number of DC‑powered consumers
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4582. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054582 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 34
State of California in the United States of America, which has taken the lead in the estab-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4582 lishment of policies and mechanisms for the installation of distributed generation 2(DG) of 33
systems associated with ESDs [5]. Besides, the growing number of DC-powered consum-
ers and facilities comprising telecommunication equipment, light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
systems,
and battery
facilities chargers,
comprising and EVs, among equipment,
telecommunication many otherlight‑emitting
low-voltage devices, do involve
diodes (LEDs) sys‑
the combined operation of loads and sources with multiple ratings.
tems, battery chargers, and EVs, among many other low‑voltage devices, do involve the In this scenario, the
conception of simple and effective energy management architectures
combined operation of loads and sources with multiple ratings. In this scenario, the con‑ is of major interest
[6].
ception of simple and effective energy management architectures is of major interest [6].
Multiport converters
Multiport converters (MPCs)
(MPCs) are are aa potential
potential andand versatile
versatile solution
solution for for this purpose,
as they
as they help
help achieve an efficient power flow control in aa single single power
power stage.
stage.This
Thisisisalso
alsoa
cost-effective approach for hybrid power
a cost‑effective approach for hybrid power systems that systems that will certainly integrate modern
integrate modern
smart homes
smart homes and and DCDC microgrids
microgrids in in the
the near
near future.
future. In contrast to traditional single‑input,
single-input,
single-output(SISO)
single‑output (SISO)converters
convertersconnected
connectedat ataacommon
commonDC DC bus
bus toto exchange
exchange power,
power, MPCMPC
topologiespresent
topologies presentpromising
promising advantages,
advantages, such
such as higher
as higher conversion
conversion efficiency,
efficiency, fewerfewer
com‑
components,
ponents, the possible
the possible adoption
adoption of centralized
of centralized control
control strategies
strategies andand higher
higher power
power den-
density,
as well
sity, as as galvanic
well isolation
as galvanic for safety
isolation issuesissues
for safety [7]. [7].
Although
Althoughless lessattention
attentionhas hasbeen
beengiven
giventoto
thethe
development
development of multiple‑input,
of multiple-input, multiple‑
multi-
output
ple-output (MIMO)
(MIMO) converters,
converters, multiple‑input,
multiple-input,single‑output
single-output(MISO),(MISO), and and single‑input,
single-input,
multiple‑output
multiple-output (SIMO) (SIMO) converters
converters have havebeen
beenwellwellstudied
studied[8,9].
[8,9]. In
In the
the literature,
literature, MISO
MISO
converters
convertersare aredescribed
described as as
a cost‑effective solution
a cost-effective that incorporates
solution that incorporatesmore than moreone source.
than one
Applications of MISO of
source. Applications converters can be found
MISO converters can bein PV utility
found in PVsystems
utility[10], hybrid
systems PV/wind
[10], hybrid
systems
PV/wind[11], renewable
systems power generation
[11], renewable systems with
power generation systems battery
withbackup
battery [12],
backupand[12],
hybrid
and
EVs [13]. In turn, SIMO converters are considered efficient power
hybrid EVs [13]. In turn, SIMO converters are considered efficient power distributors for distributors for sup‑
plying
supplyingmultiple loads.
multiple Some
loads. applications
Some in theinliterature
applications include
the literature portable
include and electronic
portable and elec-
devices [14], telecom and computer systems [15], and fuel
tronic devices [14], telecom and computer systems [15], and fuel cell generation cell generation systems [16],
systems
among othersothers
[16], among [17–19].[17–19].
In
In general,
general, MPCsMPCs represented
represented in in terms
terms ofof MISO,
MISO, SIMO,
SIMO, and and MIMO
MIMO architectures
architectures can can
be classified into two categories—that is, non‑isolated and isolated
be classified into two categories—that is, non-isolated and isolated topologies, as shown topologies, as shown
in
in Figure
Figure 1. 1.
MPCs
Non-Isolated Isolated
Coupled ports associated Coupled ports associated Coupled ports associated Coupled ports associated
Combined Reconfigurable Magnetically-/capacitive-
with two-winding with multi-winding with multiple with multi-winding
input/output ports ports coupled ports
transformers transformer transformers coupled inductor
Figure 1. Classification of MPCs.

Figure 1. Classification of MPCs.
According to [20], isolated and non-isolated MPCs have been reported in the litera-
According to [20], isolated and non‑isolated MPCs have been reported in the litera‑
ture since the early 2000s. The main motivation for developing non-isolated topologies
ture since the early 2000s. The main motivation for developing non‑isolated topologies
often relies on reducing the number of active switches and achieving a higher efficiency.
often relies on reducing the number of active switches and achieving a higher efficiency.
However, isolated topologies remain equally popular because they offer greater flexibility
However, isolated topologies remain equally popular because they offer greater flexibil‑
in managing the power flow among multiple ports, while performing better in higher
ity in managing the power flow among multiple ports, while performing better in higher
power systems and providing galvanic isolation associated with safety issues.
power systems and providing galvanic isolation associated with safety issues.
The multiple input/output ports result from the combination of various basic con-
The multiple input/output ports result from the combination of various basic con‑
verter cells such as buck, boost, or buck-boost, as demonstrated in [21]. However, the latter
verter cells such as buck, boost, or buck‑boost, as demonstrated in [21]. However, the
scheme
latter only only
scheme allows obtaining
allows unidirectional
obtaining power
unidirectional flow.
power InInturn,
flow. turn,the
theauthors
authors in [22]
in [22]
propose bidirectional switching cells for battery charging and discharging. Other works
reported a similar concept in which basic converter cells are associated in the form of cas‑
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4582 3 of 33
cade, series, or other combinations to implement a three‑port non‑isolated converter topol‑

ogy [23,24].
Reconfigurable ports present a simpler design and typically use one or two converters
to connect multiple ports. In addition, relays or other slow switching devices are used to
reconfigure the circuit. A compact MPC topology is proposed in [25], in which a three‑
phase inverter is reconfigured in the form of an AC‑DC front‑end stage to charge the battery
from the grid. It can also perform DC‑DC conversion between the PV system and the
battery when a portion of the three‑phase bridge is used. This topology is attractive because
of its single‑stage operation and relatively small number of components. However, the
overall operational flexibility is limited because reconfiguring the converter to operate in
different modes is difficult and requires a high number of relays/switches.
Magnetically/capacitive‑coupled converters do not necessarily provide galvanic iso‑
lation between the ports, but they are often used for achieving a higher voltage gain. This
is particularly useful for the integration of RESs and ESDs over a wide voltage range. Ca‑
pacitive coupling was used in [26], in which multiple input ports were combined by means
of the capacitive coupling of two boost stages. Capacitive coupling relies on charge pump
circuits and increases the output voltage based on the voltage multiplier stages composed
of diodes and capacitors.
In multiport configurations that use two‑winding transformers, two ports are non‑
isolated from each other, whereas the third one remains isolated from its counterparts.
In the topology described in [27], two ports are cascaded in the primary side of a full‑
bridge converter to create an MPC. In turn, the topology proposed in [27] allows obtaining
the third port by connecting a boost structure to the secondary side of the center‑tapped
transformer of a half‑bridge converter.
All ports are galvanically isolated in structures comprising coupled ports associated
with multi‑winding transformers. Either a half‑bridge or a full‑bridge arrangement can be
used as in [28,29] or [30], respectively. As for topologies in which the coupled ports are
associated with multiple transformers, each transformer couples at least two ports through
a dual‑active‑bridge (DAB) type arrangement [31]. In topologies based on coupled ports
associated with multi‑winding coupled inductors, all ports are galvanically isolated and
are usually generated from flyback arrangements in the form of MISO or SIMO converters
as in [32,33], respectively.
Figure 2 shows a conceptual DC power distribution architecture for future residential
applications, in which there are multiple energy sources like wind turbines, PV modules,
ESDs, and loads. Two distinct approaches allow obtaining a multiport system for such an
application. The first one consists of connecting two DC buses rated at distinct voltage
levels while using a bidirectional DC‑DC converter known as an interlink converter (IC).
In this scenario, SISO converters are controlled independently and associated with each
individual source and/or load. The IC is responsible for the power management, as seen
in Figure 2a, while requiring a proper communication system for exchanging information
between the buses and ports. Although such configuration is predominant in most micro‑
grids nowadays, it will inevitably require a large number of converters and higher imple‑
mentation cost. Additionally, the communication‑based control system is prone to a data‑
processing delay and errors that may affect the overall performance [34]. A MIMO con‑
verter can be used instead, resulting in the far less complex architecture shown in Figure 2b.
The resulting structure relies on a single converter, while reducing the number of power
processing stages.
In this context, the main contribution of the present study consists of an MPC topol‑
ogy called a multi‑winding flyback converter with multidirectional power flow capability,
which is expected to operate as an interlink multiport converter (IMPC) in the MIMO sys‑
tem represented in Figure 2b. A prominent advantage of this arrangement is the possi‑
ble elimination of intermediate DC‑DC converters, while the sources and loads can oper‑
ate with distinct voltage levels. Moreover, one can achieve voltage regulation and power
management simultaneously, allowing for a compact design and the use of modern and

with distinct voltage levels. Moreover, one can achieve voltage regulation and power
management simultaneously, allowing for a compact design and the use of modern and
relatively
relatively straightforward
straightforward control
control solutions.
solutions. TheTheaforementioned
aforementionedaspects
aspectshave
havea adirect
directim‑
im-
pact
pact onon the
the power
power stage
stage performance
performance and
and eliminate
eliminate the
the need
need forfor complex
complex communication
communication
architectures.
architectures.
Solar Panels Wind Turbine Utility Grid
DC LOADS
Interlink Converter
2°C
DC LOADS
Electric Vehicle
Batteries
(a)
Solar Panels Wind Turbine Utility Grid
Interlink Multi-Port
Converter
DC LOADS
2°C
Electric Vehicle
Batteries
(b)
Figure
Figure 2. 2.DC
DCmicrogrid
microgridarchitectures:
architectures:(a)
(a)decentralized
decentralizedapproach
approachbased
basedononananIC,IC,(b)(b) centralized
centralized
approach based on an IMPC.
approach based on an IMPC.
The
The remainder
remainder of of
thisthis
workwork is organized
is organized as follows.
as follows. Section
Section 2 describes
2 describes somesomeimpor‑im-
tant concepts involving a discrete model predictive controller for MIMO systems. It also It
portant concepts involving a discrete model predictive controller for MIMO systems.
also outlines
outlines the augmented
the augmented state-space
state‑space modelmodelwith awith a built-in
built‑in integrator
integrator and constant
and constant dis-
distur‑
turbance,
bance, as well
as well as a brief
as a brief description
description of theofcost
the function.
cost function. Section
Section 3 describes
3 describes the operat-
the operating
ing stages
stages of the of the four-port
four‑port multi-winding
multi‑winding multidirectional
multidirectional flybackflyback
converterconverter
and the and the op-
operating
erating principle according to the proposed control strategy. Section 4
principle according to the proposed control strategy. Section 4 describes the mathematicaldescribes the math-
ematical modeling of the n-port IMPC. Since the operating modes
modeling of the n‑port IMPC. Since the operating modes of the converter are decoupled, of the converter are
decoupled, the state-space average and small signal model are derived
the state‑space average and small signal model are derived for each of the operating modes. for each of the
operating
Section modes.the
5 describes Section 5 describes
results the results
of the multiport of the multiport
converter converter through
through simulations to verifysimu-
the
lations to verify
effectiveness of thethe effectiveness
proposed controlof the
andproposed controlin
its performance and its performance
managing the powerin managing
flow be‑
the power
tween flowduring
the ports between the ports
dynamic during dynamic
conditions. Sectionconditions.
6 discussesSection 6 discusses
the concluding the con-
remarks
cluding
and remarks
possible futureand possible future work.
work.
2. Model Predictive Control (MPrC)

2. Model Predictive Control (MPrC)
MPrC is an optimization problem that consists of minimizing a cost function J for a
MPrC is an optimization problem that consists of minimizing a cost function J for a
predefined
predefined horizon
horizon in in time
time N , subject
N, subject to model
to the the model and constraints
and constraints of theof the systems
systems [35].
[35]. The
The result is a sequence of optimal actuations as in (1), but the controller will adopt
result is a sequence of optimal actuations as in (1), but the controller will adopt only the only
theelement
first first element
of theofsequence.
the sequence.
*
() arg min J
u∗ (k)u= k 1= 01 .0. . ...0 0· ⋅argmin u uJ (1)(1)
where ) is
whereu(uk()kis thethe process
process input
input at at
thethe k-th
k‑th sampling
sampling instant.
instant.
Figure 3 represents the operating principle
Figure 3 represents the operating principle of MPrC. The of MPrC. Thefuture
futurevalues
valuesofofthe
thesystem
system
states
statesare predicted
are predicted until a predefined
until a predefined time horizon
time k+N
horizon k +using
N using
the model and the
the model andavailable
the avail-
information
able information from measurements until time k . The sequence of actuations isover
from measurements until time k. The sequence of actuations is optimized opti-
a mized
controlover
horizon M byhorizon
a control minimizing M by a cost function aover
minimizing costthe prediction
function over horizon N and hori-
the prediction the
first element of this sequence is applied. This whole process is repeated for
zon N and the first element of this sequence is applied. This whole process is repeated for each sampling
instant, using theinstant,
each sampling new measured
using thedata andmeasured
new obtainingdata
a new sequence
and of optimal
obtaining actuationsof
a new sequence
after each iteration. This is called a receding horizon strategy.
optimal actuations after each iteration. This is called a receding horizon strategy.
Past
u(k−j), j = 1,2,3 - past control
Future
y^ (k+i|k), i = 1,2,...,N
Prediction horizon u^ (k+i|k), i = 1,2,...,M where M ≤ N
u*(k) - optimized control
Control horizon
Setpoint
k k+1 k+M k+N
Receding horizon
Figure
Figure 3.3.Schematic
Schematicoverview
overviewofofMPrC,
MPrC,where
wherethe
theactuation inputµuis is
actuationinput iteratively
iteratively optimized
optimized over
over aa
receding horizon.
receding horizon.
There
Thereisisa amore
morephilosophical
philosophicalapproach
approach totounderstand
understand howhow MPrC
MPrC works.
works.TheTheauthor
author
inin[36]
[36]starts
startswith
withthe thehypothesis
hypothesis ofofcrossing
crossing a road.
a road.ItItisisnot
notenough
enoughtotoconsider
considerthat thatthere
there
arearenonocars
carsbetween
betweenthe thepedestrian
pedestrianand andthe theother
otherside;
side;one oneshould
shouldalsoalsocheck
checkif ifthere
thereareare
cars
carssome
somedistance
distanceaway awaythatthatwill
willsoon
soon cross
cross the
theroad.
road.InInother
otherwords,
words,it itisisnecessary
necessarytoto
predict
predictwhether
whetherone onemaymaybebehithitbybya acar
caratatany
anytime
timeduring
duringthe thecrossing.
crossing.IfIfthis
thisisisthethecase,
case,
oneoneshould
shouldwait wait atat the
thecurb.
curb.Also,
Also,every
everytimetimeone onecrosses
crossesthe thestreet,
street,one
oneshould
shouldtaketakea alook
look
around, i.e., update the predictions so that one can change the trajectory
around, i.e., update the predictions so that one can change the trajectory across the street across the street
if ifnecessary.
necessary.
The
Thebasic
basicmodel
modelfor forcomputing
computing thethepredictions
predictions isis
thethediscrete
discretestate
statemodel,
model,which
whichuses uses
the notation
the notation(·)( k
(⋅) ( k)) to denote a value at the k-th sampling instant according to (2)[35–38].
to denote a value at the k‑th sampling instant according to (2) [35–38].
x (k +x 1( k) +=1)A=· A
x (⋅kx)(+
k ) B+ ·Bu⋅ (uk()k ) (2)
y(k) = C · x (k) (2)
y ( k) = C ⋅ x( k)
where: x(k) is the state vector at an instant k, x (k ) ∈ Rn×1 ; u(k) are the process inputs at
an instant k, u(k ) ∈ R p×1 ; p is the dimension of the process inputs (u1 , u2 , . . . , up ); q is the
dimension of the process outputs (y1 , y2 , . . . , yq ); A is the discrete state matrix, A ∈ Rn×n ; B
is the discrete input matrix, B ∈ Rn× p ; C is the discrete output matrix; and n is the number
of state variables.
MPrC does not assume that the state variables can be measured. There is rather an
estimate x̂ (k|k) of the state x (k ), where the notation denotes that this estimate relies on
measurements up to instant k. In other words, there are measurements of the outputs up
to y(k) and knowledge of the inputs only up to u(k − 1), since the next input u(k) has not
yet been determined. û(k + i |k ) denotes a future value (at time k + 1) of the input u, which
is assumed at time k. x̂ (k + i |k) and ŷ(k + i |k) denote the predictions made at time k of
variables x and y for a time k + i. Therefore, using the predicted notation gives (3).
x̂ (k + 1|k) = A · x (k) + B · û(k |k)

(3)
ŷ(k + 1|k ) = C · x̂ (k + 1|k )
One can write (3) recursively to find the predictions, resulting in (4) for k + 2.
x̂ (k + 2|k) = A · x (k + 1) + B · û(k + 1|k)

(4)
ŷ(k + 2|k) = C · x̂ (k + 2|k)
More generally, one can repeat this process to obtain N step ahead predictions. Thus,
one can obtain a vector of future predictions up to N over a control horizon M as in (5)–(7).
       
ŷ(k + 1|k) CB 0 ··· 0 û(k |k) CA
 ŷ(k + 2|k)   CAB CB ··· 0   û(k + 1|k)   CA2 
       
 ..  = .. .. .. ..  · ..  + .  · x (k)n×1 (5)
 .   . . . .   .   .. 
ŷ(k + N |k) qN ×1
CA N −1 B CA N −2 B ... CB qN × pM
û(k + M − 1|k) pM ×1
CA N qN ×n
   
CB 0 ··· 0 CA
 CAB CB ··· 0   CA2 
   
H= .. .. .. ..  ϕu =  .  f u = ϕu · x (k) (6)
 . . . .   . 
.
CA N −1 B CA N −2 B ... CB qN × pM
CA N qN ×n
ŷ = H · û + f u (7)
One must always satisfy the condition M ≤ N. If M < N, it is sufficient to suppress
the last N − M columns of matrix H, since û(k + i |k) = 0 for all i ≥ M. Moreover, it is
easy to demonstrate that the terms of matrix H correspond to the impulse response of the
discrete‑time model [37]. Therefore, to obtain the step response and null steady‑state error,
it is necessary to expand the state space.
2.1. Augmented State‑Space Model with a Built‑in Integrator

There are several ways to include the integrator in a state‑space model of the MPrC
plant and obtain the step response. In either case, the state vector must be augmented [38].
One solution is to use an augmented state vector ξ ∈ R(n+ p)×1 with the last control action
applied to the plant. Therefore, the state vector is defined as in (8).

x ( k ) n ×1
ξ (k )(n+ p)×1 = (8)
u ( k − 1 ) p ×1
One can define the augmented state‑space model with a built‑in integrator according
to (9).
ξ ( k + 1) = A e · ξ (k) + B
e · ∆u(k )
e · ξ (k) (9)
y(k) = C
where:
One can define the augmented state-space model with a built-in integrator according
One can define the augmented state-space model with a built-in integrator according
to (9).
to (9).
ξξ((kk ++1)  ⋅ ξ (k) + B ⋅Δu(k)
1) == A A ⋅ ξ (k) + B ⋅Δu(k) (9)
 ⋅ ξ (k)
yy((kk)) == C (9)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4582
C ⋅ ξ (k) 7 of 33
where:
where:
A Bn × p   Bn × p 
A =  Ann××nn Bn× p  B =  Bn× p  C = C 0 q × p 
A =  0 p × n I  B =  I  C =C 0 q × p q × ( n + p ) (10)
(10)
 0 p × n IppA
×p   Ipp××pp ( n + p )× p Bn× p 
e = × pn×((nnn++B
p )×n(× q×( n + p )
 A n +pp )
p )× ( n + p )  B
e( n +=
p )× p Ce = C 0q × p (10)
0 p×n I p× p (n+ p)×(n+ p) I p× p q×(n+ p)
Repeating the previously described recursion(nfor + p)× p augmented state of ξ ( k ) instead
the
Repeating the previously described recursion for the augmented state of ξ ( k ) instead
of state x ( k ) , onepreviously
can obtain (11) and (12). recursion for the augmented state of ξ (k) instead
of state x ( k ) , the
Repeating one can obtain described (11) and (12).
of state x(k), one can obtain (11) and (12).
 CB  0  0   CA 
 CB   
0

 0   CA2   
 CAB e e CB  0  · · · CA 
 C B   0 
0 0
φ CA2  CA
G =  CAB  CAf 2=φφ ⋅⋅ξξ((kk))
=
CB =  f (11)
G =    Ce A eB e eB
C e   · · · 0 φ=    (11)
G =         
CA  NN−1  ..  N − 2  ..    . . ..   N  ϕ =  ..  f = ϕ · ξ (k) (11)
CA  −1B B CA
CA
.  N − 2B  CB
B . CB   qN× pM. .  CA N  ×( n+ p) . 
 e e − e e e − e
 qN× pM e e CA qN qN ×( n + p )
CA N 1 B CA N 2 B . . . CB CA N qN ×(n+ p)
qN × pM
yˆˆ = G ⋅ Δuˆˆ + f (12)
y = G ⋅ Δu + f (12)
ŷ = G · ∆û + f (12)
Figure 4 shows the controller generating the signal Δu , which is applied to a discrete-
Figure
Figure 4 shows
4 shows the
the controller
controller generating
generating thesignal
the Δuwhich
signal∆u, , whichis is applied
applied toto a discrete-
a discrete‑
time integrator and then to the plant. Although matrix G G corresponds to the step re-
time integrator and then to the plant. Although matrix corresponds
time integrator and then to the plant. Although matrix G corresponds to the step response, to the step re-
sponse, it cannot guarantee a null steady-state error in the presence of constant perturba-
sponse,guarantee
it cannot it cannot guarantee a null steady-state
a null steady‑state error in theerror in theofpresence
presence constantofperturbations.
constant perturba-
tions.
tions.
MPrC plant
MPrC plant
z
MP rC controller z · I Plant
MP rC controller z- 1 · I Plant
z- 1
Real Controller
Real Controller
Figure 4. Block diagram of the state-space with a built-in integrator.
Figure
Figure 4. 4. Block
Block diagram
diagram of of
thethe state-space
state‑space with
with a built-in
a built‑in integrator.
integrator.
2.2.Augmented
2.2. Augmented State-Space
State‑Space Model
Model with
with Constant
Constant Input
Input Disturbance
Disturbance
2.2. Augmented State-Space Model with Constant Input Disturbance
Let
Let usus assume
assume that
that thethe plant
plant dynamics
dynamics are are described
described by aby a model
model withwith constant
constant per-
pertur‑
Let us assume that the plant dynamics are described by a model with constant per-
turbations
bations d ininputs
d in the the inputs that cannot
that cannot be measured
be measured directly,
directly, as in as in Figure
Figure 5. 5.
turbations d in the inputs that cannot be measured directly, as in Figure 5.
dd
uu + yy
++
+ Plant
Plant
Figure 5. Input perturbation.

It should be noted that estimating constant perturbations in the inputs rather than
It should
It should be noted
be noted thatthat estimating
estimating constant
constant perturbations
perturbations in theininputs
the inputs
ratherrather than
than con‑
considering equivalent perturbations in the outputs is particularly useful when dealing
considering
sidering equivalent
equivalent perturbations
perturbations in the in the outputs
outputs is particularly
is particularly usefuldealing
useful when when dealing
with
with a first-order system, or even a higher-order one, since changes in the inputs are inte-
with a first-order
a first‑order system,system,
or evenor even a higher-order
a higher‑order one,
one, since since changes
changes in theare
in the inputs inputs are inte-
integrated
grated and lead to divergences in the outputs.
andgrated
lead and lead to divergences
to divergences in the outputs.
in the outputs.
The disturbance is modeled as d(k + 1) = d(k ). Thus, the augmented state‑space
model with constant input disturbance is defined in (13) and (14).
x (k + 1) = A · x (k) + B[u(k ) + d(k)]

(13)
y(k) = C · x (k)

x ( k ) n ×1
χ(k )(n+ p)×1 = (14)
d ( k ) p ×1
The overall process model should be augmented to include the disturbance dynamics
according to (15).
χ ( k + 1) = A · χ ( k ) + B · u ( k )
(15)
y(k) = C · χ(k)
where:

An×n Bn× p Bn× p
A= B= C= C 0q × p q×(n+ p)
(16)
0 p×n I p× p (n+ p)×(n+ p)
0 p× p (n+ p)× p
It is essential to use an observer based on A, B, and C under the usual assumption of

observability to form an estimate of the augmented state χ(k), since the disturbance d(k)
remains unknown at a time instant k. For this reason, the controller should include the
estimated disturbance vector while redefining (8) for this purpose, resulting in (17).
" #
χ(k)(n+ p)×1
ξ (k)(n+2· p)×1 = (17)
u ( k − 1 ) p ×1
It is worth mentioning that A, B, and C must replace A, B, and C in (10), respec‑

tively. This augmented state‑space (built‑in integrator in combination with the constant
disturbance) can obtain the step response and null steady‑state error compared with the
aforementioned model corresponding to (7).
2.3. Cost Function

The cost function to be minimized at each sampling period penalizes deviations from
the predicted output ŷ(k + i |k) of a reference trajectory r (k + i ), as well as variations of
the control vector ∆u(k) = u(k) − u(k − 1). The quadratic cost function is adopted in this
work considering the generic form shown in (18) and (19).
J (ŷ, ∆û) = [ŷ − r ] T · Q · [ŷ − r ] + ∆û T · R · ∆û (18)
ŷ = G · ∆û + f (19)
From (18), one can demonstrate that the cost function depends on the increment con‑
trol vector ∆û(k). For this reason, substituting (19) in (18) yields (20).
J (∆û) = ∆û T · ( G T · Q · G + R) · ∆û + 2 · ( f − r ) T · Q · G · ∆û + ( f − r ) T · Q · ( f − r ) (20)

| {z } | {z } | {z }
H cT a
The optimal control law can be obtained by minimizing J (∆û). Therefore, by consid‑
ering the gradient of J with respect to ∆û, one can write (21).
∇ J∆û = H · ∆û + c (21)
The minimum of J occurs when ∇ J∆û = 0. Therefore, the resulting optimal solution
corresponds to (22) and (23).
∆û∗ (k|k ) = − H −1 · c (22)
−1
∆û∗ (k |k) = ( G T · Q · G + R) · G T · Q · (r − f ) (23)
The control variation to be applied at a given instant k corresponds to the first p rows
of vector ∆û(k ), resulting in (24) and (25).
h i −1
K MPC = I p× p 0 p× p·( M−1) · ( G T · Q · G + R) · G T · Q (24)
∆û∗ (k ) p×1 = K MPC · (r − f ) (25)

This said, the control applied to the system corresponds to (26).
u(k ) = u(k − 1) + ∆û∗ (k) (26)

The prediction N, the control horizons M, the weights Q and R, and the reference
trajectory r (k + i |k ) affect the closed‑loop behavior of the system associated with the pre‑
dictive controller. Some of these parameters, particularly the weights, may be constrained
by the economic objectives of the control system, but these are often tuning parameters
that are adjusted to provide a satisfactory dynamic performance [38,39].
Furthermore, no specific requirements were applied to the design of the predictive
controllers. The design criteria were based on observing the closed‑loop behavior and,
if necessary, adjusting its parameters (N, M, Q, and R). However, the prediction horizon
is based on the settling time of the open‑loop system to set the minimum value. As for
the control horizon, it is determined by the necessary control actions associated with the
open‑loop system, but without control effort. Moreover, one can use heuristic methods as
y 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 34
proposed by [40].
3. Analysis of the Proposed IMPC

supply energy to one,The proposed converter
two, or three portsshown in Figure 6 relies
simultaneously, on diodes
two ports mayconnected in series with
supply energy
the active switches to achieve a desired current source behavior. The diode also prevents
to one or to its remaining counterparts, or three ports may supply energy to a single one.
the current from flowing through windings that receive energy, while windings supplying
This topology energy
has a modular characteristic because it allows the incorporation of 𝑛 wind-
charge the magnetizing inductance. The voltage gain depends on the number of
ings and ports.turns
However, the efficiency
of each winding. limits must
The topology also be
hasconsidered because the that
a modular characteristic higher the for the
allows
number of switches and windings,
incorporation the higher
of more ports, the
each one losses and
composed overall
of one dimensions
winding associatedof thea set of
with
converter. four active switches and four diodes.
Port 1 Port 3
S1 S9
S2 S10
V1 V3
S3 S1 1
S4 S12
Port 2 Port 4
S5 S 13
S6 S14
V2 V4
S7 S15
S8 S16
Figure 6. Multi-winding multidirectional flyback converter operating as an IMPC.

Figure 6. Multi‑winding multidirectional flyback converter operating as an IMPC.
3.1. Operation Modes

The following rule should be observed for the proper operation of the proposed con‑
There areverter: top or bottom
two operation modesswitches
for theofsix
different legsconfigurations
possible cannot be turned of off
thesimultaneously
converter: be‑
cause there isof
charging and discharging nothe
current path. Therefore,
magnetizing in practice,, which
inductance an overlapping time must
are described be consid‑
as fol-
Lm
ered in the control signals for the top or bottom switches of distinct legs.
lows.
3.1.1. Charging of the Coupled Inductor

If two or more ports supply energy simultaneously, it is necessary to control the duty
According to Figure 6, the pairs of odd‑numbered switches in pink and even‑

numbered switches in green allows supplying and absorbing power, respectively. Ad‑
ditionally, the pair of even‑numbered switches associated with the port that receives the
highest amount energy will remain off during the whole process. In contrast, the duty ra‑
tios of other ports that receive energy are shifted with respect to the port that supplies the
highest amount of energy. Owing to its multidirectional operation, a port can be respon‑
sible for supplying or absorbing energy while controlling the duty cycle or the phase‑shift
angle, respectively.
At this point, it is worth mentioning that the number of possible operating modes of
the converter depends on the number of ports or windings. Therefore, the four‑winding
converter shown in Figure 6 can assume six possible configurations; that is, one port may
supply energy to one, two, or three ports simultaneously, two ports may supply energy
to one or to its remaining counterparts, or three ports may supply energy to a single one.
This topology has a modular characteristic because it allows the incorporation of n wind‑
ings and ports. However, the efficiency limits must be considered because the higher the
number of switches and windings, the higher the losses and overall dimensions of the
converter.
3.1. Operation Modes

There are two operation modes for the six possible configurations of the converter:
charging and discharging of the magnetizing inductance Lm , which are described
as follows.
3.1.1. Charging of the Coupled Inductor

If two or more ports supply energy simultaneously, it is necessary to control the duty
cycle of their respective odd‑numbered switches, which depends on the amount of energy
each port supplies. In this way, based on the assumption that ports one and two supply
energy to ports three and four, there are three possible switching patterns based 11
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW onofthe
34
currents flowing through the ports: Iref1 > Iref2 , Iref1 = Iref2 , or Iref1 < Iref2 according to Figure 7.
Iref 1 > I ref 2 I ref 1 = I ref 2 Iref 1 < Iref 2
d2 Port 2 (S5 and S7) d2 Port 2 (S5 and S7) d2 Port 2 (S5 and S7)
t t t
t t t
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7. Possible switching patterns for the odd-numbered switches of ports 1 and 2 when supply-
Figure 7. Possible switching patterns for the odd‑numbered switches of ports 1 and 2 when supply‑
ing power:
ing power: (a) > IIref 2 ,, (b)
(a) IIref 1 > Iref 1 ==IrefI 2 , (c) I I 1 < I< .
re f 1 re f 2 (b) Ire f1 re f 2 , (c) refre f 1 ref 2Ire f 2 .
d3 The
Port most
3 (S9 complex
and S11) case during the charging process is assessed in detail, in which
ports3d · Tone, two, and three simultaneously supply power to port four, whereas Ire f 1 >
Ire f 2 > Ire f 3 . Thus, the odd‑numbered switches S1 , S3 , S5 , S7 , S9 , and S11 will be turned
t
on,
d 2 each pair
Port 2 (S5 andwith
S7) a respective duty ratio that depends on the amount of energy each port
supplies.
d ·T
2
In addition, the drive signals are in phase with each other, i.e., the core is mag‑
netized by all three ports simultaneously. The pulse width modulation (PWM) signals for
the switches are shown in Figure 8. t
d 1 Port 1 (S1 and S3)
Table 1 shows the driving sequence of the switches during period d1 · T—that is, when
storingd ·energy.
T
1
In addition, this process can be further divided into three stages. All ports
are referred toT one of the windings so that t the applied voltage is equal to V as in (27).
Figure 8. Possible switching patterns
N for the odd-numbered
N N switches of ports 1, 2, and 3.
V1 = 1 · V2 = 1 · V3 = 1 · V4 = V (27)
N2 N3 N4
Table 1 shows the driving sequence of the switches during period d 1 ⋅ T —that is,
when storing energy. In addition, this process can be further divided into three stages. All
ports are referred to one of the windings so that the applied voltage is equal to V as in (27).
Table 1. Driving sequence for the odd-numbered switches of ports 1, 2, and 3.

t t

t t
(a) (b) (c)
Figure
where N17.. .Possible
. N4 andswitching
V 1 . . . V 4patterns for the odd-numbered
are the numbers switchesassociated
of turns and voltages of ports 1 and
with2the
when supp
ing power: (a) Iref 1 > Iref 2 , (b) Iref 1 = Iref 2 , (c) Iref 1 < Iref 2 .
windings.
d3 Port 3 (S9 and S11)
d3 · T
t
d2 · T
t
d1 · T
T t
Figure 8. Possible switching patterns for the odd-numbered switches of ports 1, 2, and 3.
Figure 8. Possible switching patterns for the odd‑numbered switches of ports 1, 2, and 3.
Table 1. Table
Driving1sequence
shows for
thethedriving sequence
odd‑numbered of the
switches switches
of ports period d 1 ⋅ T —that
1, 2, andduring
3.
when storing energy. In addition, this process can be further divided into three stages. A
Interval Driving Sequence of the Switches
ports are referred to one of the windings so that the applied voltage is equal to V as in (2
(I) 0 < t < d3 T S1 , S3 , S5 , S7 , S9 , and S11
(II) d3 T < t < d2 T S , S3 , S5 , and S7
Table 1. Driving sequence for the odd-numbered switches of1 ports 1, 2, and 3.
(III) d2 T < t < d1 T S1 and S3
Interval Driving Sequence of the Switches
The < t < d 3 Tports one, two, and three S
(I)currents flowing0 through during
1, S3, Sstages
5, S7, S(I) to (III)
9, and S11are
shown in Figure 9. During the magnetizing
d 3T < t < d 2T inductance charging, the sum of the currents
(II) S1, S3, S5, and S7
in the ports is always equal to i L . Therefore, the sum of i1 , i2 , and i3 result in the waveform
(III)
that represents d
the behavior
2
T < t < d T
of a conventional
1 flyback converter as inS(28). 1 andIn S3addition, it
is observed that all currents start with the same amplitude in mode I.
Z
+ i2=(tN
i L ( t ) = i1 ( t ) V N1
1 i3 ( t ) = 1
N1 Vt
1
)+ ⋅ V2 = Lm⋅ V3 v=(t) =⋅V
Lm4 = V
(28) (2
N2 N3 N4
where i1 (t), i2 (t), and i3 (t) are the instantaneous currents through ports one, two, and12three,
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 34
where N1…N
respectively, and4vand V1…V4 are the numbers of turns and voltages associated with the win
Lm (t) is the instantaneous voltage across Lm .
ings.
The dcurrents flowing through ports one,d two,
Port 2 (S5 and S7)
and three during stages (I) to (III) a
Port 1 (S1 and S3)
2 1
I
shown in Figure
I II
9. During the magnetizing inductance
I II III
charging, the sum of the curren
in the ports is always equal to i L . Therefore, the sum of i 1 , i 2 , and i 3 result in the wav
t t t
iL(t )
i3(t ) form thati represents the behavior of ia conventional
2(t ) i flyback converter as in (28). In add 1
(t )
L(t )
tion,
i it is
L(t )
observed that all currents start with the same amplitude in mode I. 2
t t t
(a) (b) (c)
1 Vt
Figure 9. Currents and PWM signals Lof (a) port
1 3, (b)
2 port 2,
i (t) = i (t ) + i (t) + i (t) =
3 and (c) port 3.
Lmport 3.
Figure 9. Currents and PWM signals of (a) port 3, (b) port 2, and (c)
 v(t) = L m
(2
Considering
where
Considering that
i1(t), i2(t),
that the
thei3switches
and (t) represented
are the
switches in
in green
instantaneous
represented and
and purple
currents
green in
through
purple in Figure
ports10
Figure and
one,
10 the
two,
and the and thre
remainder of
respectively,
remainder this
of thisandwork denote
vLmdenote
work energy
(t) is the absorbed
instantaneous
energy from and
voltage
absorbed from supplied
andacross to the magnetizing
Lm. to the magnetizing
supplied
inductance, respectively
inductance, respectively oneone can
can describe
describe the
the operating
operating stages
stages as
as follows.
follows.
I. In the first stage, the odd-numbered switches of ports one, two, and three (S1, S3, S5,
I. In the first stage, the odd‑numbered switches of ports one, two, and three (S1 , S3 , S5 ,
S7, S9, and S11) are on. Thus, there are three sources (V) in parallel with the magnetiz-
S7 , S9 , and S11 ) are on. Thus, there are three sources (V) in parallel with the magnetiz‑
ing inductance. As a result, the currents are equally shared to keep the current slope
ing inductance. As a result, the currents are equally shared to keep the current slope
equal to V/Lm, resulting in i1 ( t ) = i 2 ( t ) = i 3 ( t ) = V 3 L m , as in Figure 10a.
equal to V/Lm , resulting in i1 (t) = i2 (t) = i3 (t) = V/3Lm , as in Figure 10a.
i1( t ) i3(t ) i1( t ) S9

S1 S9 S1
S2 S10 S2 S10
V1 V3 V1 V3
I I II I II III

t t t
iL(t )
i3(t ) i2(t ) i1(t )
iL(t )
2
iL(t )
3
II. In this stage, the odd‑numbered switches of port three (S9 and S11 ) are off, while the
t t t
(a) odd‑numbered switches (b) of ports one and two remain on. Thus, there (c) are two sources
(V) in parallel with the magnetizing inductance. As a result, the currents are equally
Figure 9. Currents
shared, and PWM
resulting signals
in i1 (t) = i2 (t)of=(a) port 3,
V/2L (b) port 2, and (c) port 3.
m , as in Figure 10b.
III. In this stage, the odd‑numbered switches of port two (S5 and S7 ) are off, while the
Considering that
odd‑numbered the switches
switches of port represented
one remaininon. green
Thus,and purple
the in through
current Figure 10port
andonethe
remainder
becomes of equal
this work denote
to the energy flowing
total current absorbedthrough
from and the supplied to the
magnetizing magnetizing
inductance, re‑
inductance, respectively one can describe
sulting in i1 (t) = V/Lm , as in Figure 10c. the operating stages as follows.
I. In the 10d
Figure firstrepresents
stage, the odd-numbered
the discharging switches of ports one,
of the magnetizing two, andItthree
inductance. (S1, S3, S5,
is noteworthy
S 7, S9, and S11) are on. Thus, there are three sources (V) in parallel with the magnetiz-
that no power is supplied to the output during the charging process, even when one pair of
ing inductance.switches
the even‑numbered As a result,
is onthe currents
because theare equally
diodes are shared
reverseto keep to
biased theensure
current slope
energy
equal to V/L m, resulting in i ( t ) = i ( t ) = i ( t ) = V 3 L m , as in Figure 10a.
storage. This behavior is similar to 1 that2 of a conventional
3 flyback converter.
i1( t ) i3(t ) i1( t ) S9

S1 S9 S1
S2 S10 S2 S10
V1 V3 V1 V3
S3 S 11 S3 S 11
S4 S12 S4 S12
i2(t ) S S13
i2(t ) S S13
5 5
S6 S14 S6 S14
V2 V4 V2 V4
S7 S15 S7 S15
S8 S16 S8 S16
(a) (b)
i1( t ) S9 S9
S1 S1
S2 S10 S2 S10
V1 V3 V1 V3
S3 S 11 S3 S 11
S4 S12 S4 S12
S5 S13 S5 S13 i4(t )
S6 S14 S6 S14
V2 V4 V2 V4
S7 S15 S7 S15
S8 S16 S8 S16
(c) (d)
Figure 10. Operating stages of the IMPC for the driving scheme proposed in Figure 8.
3.1.2. Discharging of the Coupled Inductor

Similarly to the previous section, the discharge can also occur in one or more ports
with different current ratings. In such a case, the magnetic energy is stored and then trans‑
ferred to port four. Thus, the pair of even‑numbered switches of port four (S14 and S16 )
to be forward biased. Then, since the even-numbered switches of port four (S14 and
S16) were previously turned on, the discharging occurs through port four as in Fig-
ures 10d and 11.
Based on the assumption that ports three and four absorb energy from ports one and
two, there are three possible conditions for the currents in the ports—that is, Iref4>Iref3,
Iref4=Iref3, or Iref4<Iref3—which will phase shift the driving signal, or lead one or even both
pairs of even-numbered switches to remain on during the whole period as shown in Fig-
ure 12.
must be on during the entire period T according to Figure 10. Besides, no energy flows
Let us consider the most complex case during the discharge mode, in which port four
through port four because the diodes are reverse biased in Figure 10.
supplies power to ports one, two, and three, while the ports absorb different amounts of
The operating stage is described as follows.
energy—that
IV. At the is, > IrefIII,
endIrefof1 step 2
>the
I ref 3odd‑numbered
. In this case, port one receives
switches of port the
onehighest
(S andamount
S ) areofoff 1 3
energy,and
whichthe is
voltage
why theacross the coupled inductor
even-numbered switches changes its polarity,
always remain causing
off. As the two
for ports series
diodes
and three, theretoisbe forward
a PWM biased.
signal Then, with
associated sincea the even‑numbered
given phase shift. In switches
turn, the of port
duty four
ratio
of the port that provides the highest amount of energy corresponding to d4 is shifted byas
(S14 and S 16 ) were previously turned on, the discharging occurs through port four
in θFigures
an angle . The PWM10d and 11. of the switches are shown in Figure 13.
signals
i4 (t )
t
d4 Port 4 (S14 and S16) IV

IV t
t
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Currents and PWM signals: (a) comparison between d1 and d4, (b) i4(t).
Figure 11. Currents and PWM signals: (a) comparison between d1 and d4 , (b) i4 (t).
Based on the assumption that ports three and four absorb energy from ports one and
two, there are three possible conditions for the currents in the ports—that is, Iref4 > Iref3 ,
Iref4 = Iref3 , or Iref4 < Iref3 —which will phase shift the driving signal, or lead one or even
both pairs of even‑numbered switches to remain on during the whole period as shown
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of in
34
Figure 12.
Iref 4 > Iref 3 Iref 4 = Iref 3 Iref 4 < I ref 3
θ4· T
t t t
θ3· T
t t t
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 12. Possible switching patterns for the even-number switches of ports 3 and 4 when absorb-
Figure 12. Possible switching patterns for the even‑number switches of ports 3 and 4 when absorbing
ing energy: (a) Iref 4 > Iref 3 , (b) Iref 4 = Iref 3 , (c) Iref 4 < Iref 3 .
energy: (a) Iref4 > Iref3 , (b) Iref4 = Iref3 , (c) Iref4 < Iref3 .
d4 Let
Port us and
4 (S13 consider
the most complex case during the discharge mode, in which port four
S15)
suppliesd power
·T to ports one, two, and three, while the ports absorb different amounts of
4
energy—that is, Ire f 1 > Ire f 2 > Ire f 3 . In this case, port one receives the highest amount
t
of energy, which is why the even‑numbered switches always remain off. As for ports two
and three, there is a PWM signal associated with a given phase shift. In turn, the duty ratio
of the port that provides the highest amount of energy corresponding to d4 is shifted by an
d 2 Portθ.
t
angle The
2 (S6 andPWMS8) signals of the switches are shown in Figure 13.
One can θ · T
write the phase‑shift angles in pu as according to (29).
2
d4· T
θ [◦] θ [rad]
d3 Port 3 (S10 and S12) θ [put] = = (29)
360 2π
θ3 ·T d4· T higher the amount of energy received, the greater the
Figure 13 evidences that the
phase‑shift angle. Thus, if three ports receivet the same amount of energy, the pair of even‑
numbered
Figure switches
13. Possible will always
switching remain
patterns for theon.
even-numbered switches of ports 1, 2, and 3 compared
with the driving sequence for the odd-numbered switches of port 4.
One can write the phase-shift angles in pu as according to (29).
θ   θ  rad 
θ3· T
t t
(a) (b) (c)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4582 Figure 12. Possible switching patterns for the even-number switches of ports 3 and 4 when
14 of 33 abso
ing energy: (a) Iref 4 > Iref 3 , (b) Iref 4 = Iref 3 , (c) Iref 4 < Iref 3 .
d4· T
t
t
θ2· T
d4· T
t
θ3· T d4· T
Figure 13. Possible switching patterns for the even-numbered switches of ports 1, 2, and 3 compar
Figure 13. Possible switching patterns for the even‑numbered switches of ports 1, 2, and 3 compared
with the driving sequence for the odd-numbered switches of port 4.
with the driving sequence for the odd‑numbered switches of port 4.
One14a
Figure canshows
writethe
theport
phase-shift angles in
currents resulting pu the
from as according
applicationtoof (29).
the PWM signals
represented in Figure 14b. The intervals corresponding to xn T are determined as a function
θ   phase
θ  rad  angle θ, and the duty
of the pulse width p of the ports receiving energy,
θ  pu  = the =  shift (2
cycle of the port that supplies the most energy dmost360 . However, 2πfor an optimal control, the
pulse width will always be equal to the duty cycle of the port that supplies the most energy
stainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15
(p = dmostFigure 13way,
). In this evidences
variablethat
p (is the higher from
eliminated the amount of energy
the phase‑shift received,
control, whereasthe
onegreater t
canphase-shift
calculate the angle. Thus,
interval fromif(30),
three portsisreceive
which valid forthe
portssame
thatamount of energy,
are phase‑shift the pair of eve
controlled.
In the given example, port one receives the most energy, resulting in x1 T = (1−d4 )T.
numbered switches will always remain on.
Figure 14a
14b, respectively. Inshows
turn, the port 15a
Figure currents resulting
represents thefrom the application
discharging, of the PWM
whereas Figuresign
15
( p−dmost )· T
represented x T = + θ [ pu ] T
correspond to theindischarging
Figure 14b. The
n intervals
of the magnetizing
2 corresponding
n to x n T are determined
inductance. (30) as a fun
xn T = θn [pu] T
tion of the pulse width p of the ports receiving energy, the phase shift angle θ , and t
duty cycle of the port that supplies the most energy dmost . However, for an optimal contr
i4 (t )
4 Port 4 (S13 and S15) d
the pulse width will always be equal to the duty cycle of the port that supplies the m
I II energy
III ( p = dmost ). In this way, variable p is eliminated from the phase-shift contr
t t
i1 (t ) d1 Portfrom
whereas one can calculate the interval 1 (S2 and(30),
S4) which is valid for ports that are pha
shift
(1- d ) T·
controlled. In the given example, port one
I II receives
III the most energy, resulting
4
x1T = (1− d4 )T . t t
i2 (t ) d2 Port 2 (S6 and S8)
θ2· T
xnT =
( p − d ) ⋅T + θ
most
 pu  T
n
i3 (t )
t 2
t (3
xnT = θ n  pu  T
θ3· T
The operation
t can be divided into three intervals for the coupled
t inductor dischar
(a)according to Table 2. The port currents and PWM (b)
signals are presented in Figure 14a a
Figure 14. 14.
Figure (a)(a)
Port
Portcurrents and(b)
currents and (b)PWM
PWM signals.
signals.
i1(t ) S1 The operation Scan be divided into three

S 9 intervals for the coupled inductor discharge
1
S 9
S2
accordingSto Table 2. The port currents and PWMS signals are presented inS Figure 14a,b,
10 10
2
respectively. In turn, Figure 15a represents the discharging, whereas Figure 15b–d corre‑
V1 spond to the discharging ofVthe
3 magnetizing
V1 − inductance. V3
S3 S 11 S3 S 11
S4 S12 S4 S12
i1( t ) S5 S13 S5 S13 i4(t )

i4 (t ) d4 Port 4 (S13 and S15)
I II III
t t
(1- d4 ) · T
I II III
t t
Table
·T
2. Driving sequence for the even‑numbered switches of ports 1, 2, and 3.
θ2
t t
i3 (t ) Interval d3 Port 3 (S10 and S12) Driving Sequence of the Switches
θ3· T (I) 0 < t < θ3 T S2 , S4 , S6 , S8 , S10 , and S12
(II) t θ3 T < t < θ2 T S2 , S4 , St 6 , and S8
(a) (III) θ2 T < t < (1 − d4 ) T (b) S2 and S4
Figure 14. (a) Port currents and (b) PWM signals.
i1(t ) S1 S9 S1 S9
S2 S10 S2 S10
V1 V3 V1 −
V3
S3 S 11 S3 S 11
S4 S12 S4 S12
i1( t ) S5 S13 S5 S13 i4(t )
S6 S14 S6 S14
V2 V4 V2 V4
S7 S15 S7 S15
S8 S16 S8 S16
(a) (b)
i1(t ) S1 S9 i1(t ) S1 S9
S2 S10 S2 S10
V1 V3 V1 V3
S3 S 11 S3 S 11
S4 S12 S4 S12
S5 S13 i1( t ) S5 S13
S6 S14 S6 S14
V2 V4 V2 V4
S7 S15 S7 S15
S8 S16 S8 S16
(c) (d)
I. In this stage, the even‑numbered switches of ports one, two, and three are on and the
currents are equally shared to keep the slope of iL (t) equal to −V/Lm , resulting in i1 (t)
= i2 (t) = i3 (t) = −V/3Lm in Figures 14a and 15b.
II. In this stage, the even‑numbered switches of port three are off and, consequently,
ports one and two continue to absorb power. Thus, the current slope becomes equal
to −V/2Lm in Figures 14a and 15c.
III. In this stage, the even‑numbered switches of port two are off and, consequently, port
one continues to receive power. Thus, the current slope becomes equal to −V/Lm in
Figures 14a and 15d.
3.2. Proposed Control Strategy

If Irefn is greater than zero, the port supplies energy, while it absorbs power other‑
wise. In this work, the operating modes of the converter are decoupled. For this reason, a
Figures 14a and 15d.
3.2. Proposed Control Strategy

If Irefn is greater than zero, the port supplies energy, while it absorbs power otherwise.
In this work, the operating modes of the converter are decoupled. For this reason, a pre-
dictive controller was implemented for each operating mode. When the port supplies
power, the switchespredictive
are controlled inwas
controller terms of the duty
implemented forcycle. However,
each operating mode.phase-shift
When the control
port supplies
is used when the port absorbs
power, energy.
the switches areBesides,
controlledthe pair of
in terms even-numbered
of the switches
duty cycle. However, asso- con‑
phase‑shift
ciated with the ports trolabsorbing
is used when thethe
mostport power
absorbs always
energy. Besides,
remainthe on.pair of even‑numbered switches
Figure 16 shows associated
that the with the ports absorbing
minimum allowable thenumber
most power always
of on remaincorresponds
switches on. to
Figure 16 shows that the minimum allowable number of on switches corresponds to
a single set of even- and odd-numbered switches, while the maximum amount is three
a single set of even‑ and odd‑numbered switches, while the maximum amount is three
sets of even-numbered sets ofswitches and one
even‑numbered set of
switches andodd-numbered switches.
one set of odd‑numbered Of course,
switches. the the
Of course,
opposite is true. Inopposite
turn, the dutyIncycle
is true. of the
turn, the dutyshifted
cycle of pulses assumes
the shifted the same
pulses assumes thevalue of of
same value
that associated with the port that
that associated with the port that supplies the most energy. supplies the most energy.
Predictive controller S1 S 3
S5 S7
R(k) < yref (k) u1(k) d Modulator S9 S11
S13 S15
χ(k)
The duty ratios of ports that
absorb energy are shifted
with respect to the port that
supplies the highest amount
χ(k) of energy.
y(k)
< y(k) u1(k)
ds1(k)
IMPC
(Plant)
Power supply mode - C1
Power absorption mode - C2
Predictive controller p S2 S4
yref (k) u2(k) Phase-shift S6 S8
θ S10 S12
modulator
S14 S16
χ(k)
χ(k)
y(k) u2(k) H(k)
Figure 16. Block diagram of the discrete control for the IMPC.
Figure 16. Block diagram of the discrete control for the IMPC.
According to Figure 16, theto

According selective
Figure 16,control determines
the selective which controller
control determines is assigned
which controller is assigned
to each port, as well as which reference signals R( k) and outputs y( k ) are associated with with
to each port, as well as which reference signals R ( k ) and outputs y ( k ) are associated
the appropriate controller. Signals u1 from the supply mode controller C1 go to the mod‑
the appropriate controller. Signals
ulator, which u1 the
drives from the supplyswitches.
odd‑numbered Signals u2Ccoming
mode controller 1
go tofrom
the mod-
the absorp‑
tion mode controller C2 provide the phase‑shift angle to the pulses of the even‑numbered
ulator, which drives the odd-numbered switches. Signals u2 coming from the absorption
switches. However, when a given port is controlled, either supplying or receiving energy,
the opposite switches (even‑ or odd‑numbered) are not turned on. It is worth mentioning
that the respective pairs of even‑numbered switches of the ports receiving the most energy
are always on.
3.3. Power Flow Analysis

Owing to the wide variety of sources, ESDs, and loads that can be connected to the
IMPC, the elements must be defined in such a way that the reference currents are dynami‑
cally set and fed back into the controller. The utility grid is connected to port one (311 V)
using an inverter for supplying or absorbing power from the AC grid. In addition, the PV
system is connected to port two (48 V), the high‑power DC loads are connected to port
three (24 V), and the energy storage system is connected to port four (12 V) as in Figure 17.
The use of ESDs stems from the need to provide systems with high autonomy in terms of
backup resources. The power flow in the proposed system characterizes different scenar‑
ios. Figure 17 also shows the possible power flow direction through each block, with the
arrows indicating unidirectionality and bidirectionality.
system is connected to port two (48 V), the high-power DC loads are connected to port
three (24 V), and the energy storage system is connected to port four (12 V) as in Figure
17. The use of ESDs stems from the need to provide systems with high autonomy in terms
of backup resources. The power flow in the proposed system characterizes different sce-
narios. Figure 17 also shows the possible power flow direction through each block, with
the arrows indicating unidirectionality and bidirectionality.
Port 1 Port 3
Utility grid
Port 2 Port 4
Photovoltaic (PV) modules

DC-DC IMPC
Figure 17. Microgrid architecture based on the proposed IMPC.
Figure 17. Microgrid architecture based on the proposed IMPC.
3.3.1. Power Balance

3.3.1. Power Balance
When carryingWhenout thecarrying
powerout the power
balance balance
analysis, oneanalysis, one has to
has to consider consider
that that regardless
regardless of
the generation of the generation
sources and load,sources and load, the
the generated generated
power powerequal
is always is always equal
to the to the consumed
consumed
power plus thepower
losses,plus
thustheensuring
losses, thus
theensuring the staticofstability
static stability of the Therefore,
the system. system. Therefore,
consid-consider‑
ing that the energy processing is lossless, one can obtain (31).
ering that the energy processing is lossless, one can obtain (31).
P ±P ±P − Pload = 0 (31)
PPV ± PutilityPV± Pbat utility
− Pload = bat
0 (31)
where PPV is the power generated by the PV system connected to port two, Putility is the
where PPV is the power
power generated
absorbed by the
or injected PVthesystem
into connected
utility grid to to
connected port two,
port one,PPutility is the
bat is the power ab‑
power absorbedsorbed
or injected into the utility grid connected to port one, P is the
or injected by the ESDs connected to port four, and Pload is the power consumption
bat power
absorbed or injected
of the by theconnected
loads ESDs connected to port four, and Pload is the power consump-
to port three.
Equationto(31)
tion of the loads connected represents
port three. the condition for the grid‑connected system. In this case,
the represents
Equation (31) PV system operates in maximum
the condition for thepower point tracking
grid-connected (MPPT)
system. mode
In this case,andthe
injects the
maximum power. If the PV system and ESDs cannot meet the demand when the power
PV system operates in maximum power point tracking (MPPT) mode and injects the max-
consumed by the loads increases, the utility grid will inject power for this purpose. Other‑
imum power. If the PV system and ESDs cannot meet the demand when the power con-
wise, the utility grid will not inject power—that is, Putility = 0. If the power absorbed by the
sumed by the loads
loadsincreases,
and the ESDsthe is
utility gridthat
less than willsupplied
inject powerby thefor
PVthis purpose.
system, Otherwise,
the utility grid absorbs the
the utility grid will not inject power—that is, Putility = 0. If the power absorbed
resulting amount. Otherwise, the utility grid will not absorb power—that by theis,loads
Putility = 0.
and the ESDs is less than that supplied by the PV system, the utility grid absorbs the re-
sulting amount.3.3.2. Grid‑Connected
Otherwise, Mode
the utility grid will not absorb power—that is, Putility = 0.
All possible combinations of generation and demand for the grid‑connected system
are shown in Figure 18, as well as a summary of the measures that must be applied for
the IMPC to meet the power balance. In addition, if one wishes to disconnect the IMPC
from the utility grid, it is necessary to carry out a new analysis. The flowchart includes the
control variables that enable decision‑making, which are related to the power generated
by the PV system (PPV ), the power consumed by the loads (Pload ), and the parameters of
the ESDs such as the maximum available power and state of charge (SOC).
The current reference values are set dynamically. Therefore, the perturb and observe
(P&O) algorithm sets the current reference in pu for port two, while a voltage control loop
determines the current reference in pu for port three (DC load) as in Figure 18a. Based on
the parameters obtained from ports two and three, as well as the conditions of the ESDs,
the power flow control defines the setpoints of ports one and four, which are fed back into
the predictive controller.
ESDs such as the maximum available power and state of charge (SOC).
The current reference values are set dynamically. Therefore, the perturb and observe
(P&O) algorithm sets the current reference in pu for port two, while a voltage control loop
determines the current reference in pu for port three (DC load) as in Figure 18a. Based on
the parameters obtained from ports two and three, as well as the conditions of the ESDs,
the power flow control defines the setpoints of ports one and four, which are fed back into
V port 2
t
P&O
I ref 2 Iref 1
I2
Power flow
control
t I ref 4
1 + PI
− I ref 3
V port 3 k
SOC
V port 4
Pbat (max )
(a)
(b)
Figure 18. (a) Block diagram of the power flow control, (b) power flow in the proposed architecture.
Figure 18. (a) Block diagram of the power flow control, (b) power flow in the proposed architecture.
4. Modeling of the Proposed n‑Port Converter

The input, output, and state vector arrangement are in a descending order for the
power supply mode. In this way, is1 represents the port that supplies the most energy.
In the power absorption mode, the vectors are in an ascending order, i.e., ir1 represents
the port that receives the most energy, also assuming a negative current when receiving
energy. For instance, one assumes that ports one and two supply power to ports three
and four, resulting in a matrix composed of is1 , is2 , ir2 , and ir2 . Parameter is1 represents
the current of the port that supplies the most energy (current from port one or two), while
ir1 corresponds to the current of the port that receives the most energy (current from port
three or four).
The proposed n‑port converter can be represented in the state space divided into
charging and discharging modes, which are decoupled. Moreover, all ports are referred
to one of the windings so that the applied voltage is equal to V as in (32).
In the power
energy. absorption
For instance, mode, thethat
one assumes vectors
portsare oneinand an ascending
two supplyorder, power i.e.,
to iports
r1
represents
three and
four,
the portresulting in a matrix
that receives composed
the most energy,ofalso , i s 2 , i r 1 , aand
i s 1 assuming i r 2 . Parameter
negative current when represents
i s 1 receiving
theenergy. Forofinstance,
current the portonethatassumes
suppliesthat
theports
mostone and two
energy supply
(current from power
porttooneports three while
or two), and
four, resulting in a matrix composed
i r 1 corresponds to the current of the portithat of , ,
s 1 ireceives
, and
s 2 i r 1 the most
. Parameter
i r 2 energy (current i s1 represents
from port
Sustainability 2023, 15, 4582 the current
three or four). of the port that supplies the most energy (current from port one or two), while
19 of 33
corresponds
i r 1 The to the current of the port that receives the most
proposed n -port converter can be represented in the state space divided into energy (current from port
three or four).
charging and discharging modes, which are decoupled. Moreover, all ports are referred
to oneTheof the proposed
windings n -port
so that converter can be
the applied represented
voltage is equalintothe state
V as space divided into
in (32).
   charging
 
and 
discharging  modes, which  decoupled.
are  Moreover,
 all ports  are referred

is1 us1 V ys1 ir1 ur1 V yr1
 is2   us2is1  to one
 uof  V

s 1 the


windings so
  the applied
y s1that
 ir2 ir 1voltage

isuuequal
r1
  Vto V as in (32).
   yr 1 
   
   i  V u   V   ys2  y   i   u r2  V   V  y  yr2 
xs =  . us =x = .. s 2   u= =.. s 2 =ys = y .. =  s 2  xr = x =..  r 2ur u== ..r 2  = = y.. =   yrr2 =  .  (32)
s .  is 1 
 ..      s . us1   V   s.  
  
y s1 
  
r . ir1 r ur.1  V  .r 
     
yr 1   ..
  
 (32)
isn   is2  Vus 2  V ysn  y s 2  i  u 2  V  V  yr 2  
rn ir 2  u = uurrn
xsu=sn
 isn  us = u sn  = V  y s =  y sn  x r i=  rn  r  rn =  V  y r =  yrn 
yrn (32)
                 
               
 isn4.1.
 Power   V Mode
 usnSupply  y sn   irn   urn   V   yrn 
4.1. In
Power
the Supply Mode
most complex case, n − 1 ports supply power simultaneously. The odd‑
numbered In the most
switchescomplex
are case,
turned n − each
on, 1 ports supply
pair power
with its simultaneously.
respective duty ratio,The odd-num-
which depends
4.1. Power Supply Mode
onbered switchesof
the amount are turned on,
supplied each pair
energy. with
There − 1 steps to
areitsn respective duty ratio,
store which depends
magnetic onthe
energy in
In the most complex case, n − 1 ports supply power simultaneously. The odd-num-
the amount of
magnetizing supplied energy.
inductance, as There
shown in are n − 1 19
Figures steps
andto20.
store magnetic energy in the mag-
bered switches are turned on, each pair with its respective duty ratio, which depends on
netizing inductance, as shown in Figures 19 and 20.
the amount of supplied energy. There are n − 1 steps to store magnetic energy in the mag-
netizing inductance, as shown in Figures 19 and 20.
is1
(t ) (t ) is(n-3) is(n-2)(t ) is(n-1)(t )
is1(t ) is(n-3)(t ) is(n-2)(t ) is(n-1)(t )
t1 t2 t3 t n- 2 tn - 1 t1 t2 t3 t1 t2 t1
t t t t
t1 t2 t3 t n- 2 tn - 1 t1 t2 t3 t1 t2 t1
Figure 19. Currents through
t the ports in a descending
t order in the n-port tconverter. t
Figure 19. Currents through the ports in a descending order in the n‑port converter.
Figure 19. Currents through the ports in a descending order in the n-port converter.
is1( t ) is(n-1)(t ) is1( t )
is1( t ) is(n-1)(t ) is1( t )
Ld Ld Ld
V1 Lm Vn-1 V1 Lm Vn-1
Ld Ld Ld
V1 Lm Vn-1 V1 Lm Vn-1
is2( t ) is2( t )
is2( t ) is2( t )
Ld Ld
V2 Vn V2 Vn
Ld Ld
V2 Vn V2 Vn
S7 S7
S7 S7

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
is1(t )
Ld
V1 Lm Vn-1
V2 Vn
S7
(c)
Figure 20. Operating stages of the proposed n-port converter.
Figure 20. Operating stages of the proposed n‑port converter.
4.1.1. First Stage [0, t1]
Because of the symmetrical ports, iS1 = iS2 = … = iS(n−1). Thus, the first stage shown in
Figure 20a can be represented by (33).
4.1.1. First Stage [0, t1 ]

Because of the symmetrical ports, iS1 = iS2 = . . . = iS(n−1) . Thus, the first stage shown
in Figure 20a can be represented by (33).
(V−2Vd ) (V−2Vd )
dis(n−1) (V−2Vd )
dis1
= dis2
= ··· dt = Ld

(33)
dt (n−1)·
Ld
+ Lm dt (n−1)·
Ld
+ Lm (n−1)· ( n −1)
+ Lm
( n −1) ( n −1)
where Vd is the forward voltage drop across a diode and Ld is the leakage inductance.
One can write (33) in the form of a matrix representation, resulting in (34).
 ·
  
i 1
 s1   1 
 ·   
 is2    (V − 2Vd )
  = 1 · (34)
 ..  . 
 .  .  (n − 1) · (nL−d1) + Lm
  . ·
i s ( n −1) 1
B1
4.1.2. (n − 2)th Stage [tn− 3 , tn− 2 ]

Because of the symmetrical ports, iS1 = iS2 . Thus, the (n − 2)th operating stage shown
in Figure 20b can be represented by (35).
dis1 (V −2Vd ) dis2 (V −2Vd ) dis3 dis(n−1)

dt =
2·
Ld dt =
2·
Ld
dt = 0 ··· dt =0 (35)
2 + Lm 2 + Lm
One can write (35) in a matrix form, resulting in (36).

 ·
  
i 1
 s1   1 
 ·    (V − 2V )
 is2   
  = 0 ·
d
(36)
 ..  .  Ld
 .  .  2 2 + Lm
 ·  .
i s ( n −1) 0
| {z }
Bn−2
4.1.3. (n − 1)th Stage [tn −2 , tn −1 ]

The (n − 1)th operating stage shown in Figure 20c can be represented by (37).
dis1 (V −2Vd ) dis2 dis3 dis(n−1)

dt = ( Ld + Lm ) dt =0
dt = 0 ··· dt =0 (37)
One can write (37) in a matrix form, resulting in (38).

 ·
  
i 1
 s1   0 
 ·    (V − 2V )
 is2   
  = 0 ·
d
(38)
 ..  .  ( Ld + Lm )
 .  . 
  . ·
i s ( n −1) 0
| {z }
Bn−1
4.1.4. Converting the Averaged Model to a Small‑Signal Model

Special techniques such as state‑space averaging (SSA) are often used to model DC‑
DC converters. It consists of modeling each operating stage in the state space and lin‑
earizing it around an operating point. It is assumed that the variables to be controlled are
constant during each switching period, since changes in the variables of interest are of low
magnitude. Thus, a small‑signal model is obtained around the rated operating point.
One can sum the state‑space models of each stage corresponding to (34), (36), and (38)
over a period to obtain the average model that best represents the system in (39), where
t(n−1) = ds1 T, t(n−2) = ds2 T, t(n−3) = ds3 T, · · · , and t1 = ds(n−1) T.
.
x s1 = A1 · xs1 + B1 · us1 f or [0, t1 ]
..
. h i
.
x s(n−2) = A(n−2) · xs(n−2) + B(n−2) · us(n−2) f or t(n−3) , t(n−2)
.
h i
x s(n−1) = A(n−1) · xs(n−1) + B(n−1) · us(n−1) f or t(n−2) , t(n−1)
h i (39)
.
x s = T1 A1 · t1 + · · · + A(n−2) · t(n−2) − t(n−3) + A(n−3) · t(n−1) − t(n−2) · xs
h i
+ T1 B1 · t1 + · · · + B(n−2) · t(n−2) − t(n−3) + B3 · t(n−1) − t(n−2) · us
and h i
ys = 1
T C1 · t1 + · · · + C(n−2) · t(n−2) − t(n−3) + C(n−1) · t(n−1) − t(n−2) · xs
The input, output, duty cycle, and state vectors are the sum of the average values
(variables in capital letters) and small perturbations (variables associated with the opera‑
tor “∼”) as in (40). Therefore, the state‑space average model can be linearized around an
operating point accordingly [41].
u = U + ue y = Y + ye
(40)
d = D + de x = X + xe
The small‑signal perturbations in the input vector u are neglected, resulting in only
constant values of the vector. Thus, substituting (40) in (39) and manipulating the equation
algebraically gives (41). Also, let us assume that the product of two perturbations is zero,
as well as Ld 2 ≃ 0 and Ld Lm ≃ 0.
 ·
  
− 2!1 − 3!1 · · · − ((nn− 3)!  
 is1  
1 −1)!  des1
 ·   ( n −3)!   e 
 is2  0
1
− 3!1 ··· − (n−1)!   ds2 
 ·  (V − 2Vd ) · Lm n−2  2!
  
  −3)!   des3
 is3 = ·
0 0 1
··· − ((nn− ·
1)!   .

 (41)
  ( Ld + Lm ) · L2d + Lm · (· · · ) · (nL−d1) + Lm 
3!
 ..  0 ( n −3)! 

 . 
 .   0 0 ··· − ( n −1)!   . 
 · 
0 0 0 ··· 1 des(n−1)
i s ( n −1) ( n −1)
4.2. Power Absorption Mode

More generally, one can repeat the previously described process for the most com‑
plex case in which n − 1 ports receive power simultaneously to obtain (42). In this mode,
the even‑numbered switches are on. Each pair has a respective phase‑shift angle, which
depends on the amount of energy each port receives. It should also be noted that switches
associated with the port receiving the most energy are always on.
 ·
  
ir1 1 − 2!1 − 3!1 · · · − ((nn− 3)!  

 ·

  −1)!  (1 − Ds1 )
0 − ((nn− 3)!   
  − 3!1 ···  θe2
1
 ir2  n −2
 2! −1)!  
 ·  ( V + 2V ) · L   
( n −3)!   θ e3 
· 
d m
 ir3 =− 0 0 1
··· − ( n −1)!  ·   (42)
  L L
( Ld + Lm ) · 2d + Lm · (· · · ) · (n−d1) + Lm 
3!
  . 
 ..  0 −3)!   .. 
 .   0 0 ··· − ((nn− 1)! 
 ·  θen−1
i r ( n −1) 0 0 0 ··· 1
( n −1)
5. Results and Discussion

Figure 21 shows a four‑port IMPC rated at 800 W, which was simulated in PSIM
software. The port voltages are 311 V, 48 V, 24 V, and 12 V. The switching frequency is
y 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 34
fs = 20 kHz and the magnetizing inductance is Lm = 3.5 mH. The switches are metal‑oxide
semiconductor field‑effect transistors (MOSFETs) model FCP600N65S3R0 by ON Semicon‑
ductor, whereas the diodes are model RFN5TF6S by ROHM Semiconductor for port one.
As for22),
(circuit C in Figure ports two, three,
filtered withand four, MOSFETs
a second-order model are
low-pass IRFI3205PbF
filter, and fed by Infineon
back Technolo‑
into the
control system. gies, whereas the diodes are model DPG60I300HA by Littelfuse.
Is_1 Is_3
S1b S3b
S1 S2 S9
S1a
S10
S3a
311
24
S1b 3.5m S3b

S3 S11
S4 S12
S1a S3a
Is_2 Is_4
S2b S4b
S5 S6 S13
S2a S14
S4a
48
12
S2b S4b
S7 S15
S2a
S8 S16
S4a
Figure 21. Four-port IMPC.

Figure 21. Four‑port IMPC.
Currents referred to port 1.

Second-order low-pass filter.
As previously mentioned, the power supply mode is controlled by changing the duty
D1B
cycle of the odd‑numbered switches. Thus, when a given port S1B supplies power, its respec‑
1 2k
Is_1 K I1 tive even‑numbered switches must remain1koff. The power absorption mode is controlled
Is_2
48/311
K
2k
I2 by shifting the pulses Iref_1 of even‑numbered switches. 20k Therefore, when receiving power, the
24/311 2k respective odd‑numbered switches must remain off. Circuit A

Is_3 K I3
There is a circuit identical to the one shown in the upper right corner (circuit A)
12/311 2k
Is_4 K I4 of Figure 22 for each pair of odd‑numbered switches. Likewise, for each pair of even‑
Circuit C numbered switches, there is a circuit analogous to the one shown in the lower right corner
Iref_1 K 800/311 Model Predictive Control Block Pulse width modulation S1B S1b S1 S3
800/311
(circuit
IR1 B) of Figure 22.
Predictive Control
D1B Furthermore,
D1B the pulse width of the even‑numbered switches is
Iref_2 K
800/311
IR2 yref
identical to that
uk(k)
D2B
associated
D2B
with the port that
S2B S2b S5 S7
e
S3b S9 S11 most energy (d s1 ). At the same
provides the
Iref_3 K IR3 D3B D3B S3B
Iref_4 K 800/311 time, the
IR4 pair of even‑numbered
chi(k)
D4B D4B switches of the S4B port that
S4b S13 S15 receives the most energy is al‑
Observer d Ts
I1 ways on. For this reason, the logic circuit must detect the highest reference current and
I1
chi(k)
y(k)
uk(k)
I2 whether another port

I2 has the Dmax
Dmax same value. In addition, the currents are referred to port one
I3 I3
I4
(circuit C in Figure 22), filtered with Phase a second‑order
shift low‑pass filter, and fed back into the
S1a S2 S4
I4 D1A D1A S1A
control system. D2A D2A S2A S2a S6 S8
D3A D3A S3A S3a S10 S12
d Ts
Signal
Duty cycle
1 pwm shifted
20k
Phase Shift p.u
S2b S4b
S7 S15
S2a
S8 S16
S4a
Figure 21. Four-port IMPC.
Currents referred to port 1.

Second-order low-pass filter.
D1B
S1B
1 2k 1k
Is_1 K I1
48/311 2k
Iref_1
Is_2 K I2 20k
24/311 2k
Circuit A
Is_3 K I3
12/311 2k
Is_4 K I4
Circuit C
Iref_1 K 800/311 Model Predictive Control Block Pulse width modulation S1B S1b S1 S3
IR1 D1B D1B
800/311 Predictive Control
Iref_2 K IR2 D2B D2B S2B S2b S5 S7
yref uk(k)
Iref_3 K 800/311 IR3 D3B D3B S3B S3b S9 S11
Iref_4 K 800/311 chi(k) S4b S13 S15
IR4 D4B D4B S4B
Observer d Ts
chi(k)
I1 I1 y(k)
uk(k)
I2 I2 Dmax Dmax
I3 I3
Phase shift
I4 I4 D1A D1A S1A S1a S2 S4
d Ts
Signal
Duty cycle
1 pwm shifted
20k
Phase Shift p.u
Enable Circuit B
Figure 22. Control circuit of the IMPC.
Figure 22. Control circuit of the IMPC.
5.1.
5.1.Closed‑Loop
Closed-LoopAnalysis
Analysisofofthe
theIMPC
IMPC
This
Thissection
sectionpresents
presentssome
someresults
resultsobtained
obtainedfrom
fromsteps
stepsininthe
thereference
referencecurrents.
currents.
5.1.1.
5.1.1.TwoTwoor orThree
ThreePorts
PortsSupplying
SupplyingEnergy EnergyConcurrently
Concurrently
Figure
Figure 23 shows the behavior of the currentsininthe
23 shows the behavior of the currents theIMPC
IMPCfor forcurrent
currentreferences
referencesininpu pu
definedatatt t =
defined = 00 ss as follows: Iref1
as follows: Iref1 = 0.7,
= 0.7, Iref2I=ref2
0.3,= I0.3, −0.65,
Iref3 = and
ref3 = −0.65, Iref4and
= −0.35. = −0.35.
Iref4Then, at t =Then,
0.1 s
at, at step s, a step
= 0.1occurs, occurs,the
in which in current
which the current references
references are set to Iref1are= 0.5,
set toIref2Iref1 = 0.5,
= 0.35, Iref3Iref2 = 0.35,
= 0.15, and
Iref3 = 0.15, and Iref4 = − 1. It should also be noted that the controller
Iref4 = −1. It should also be noted that the controller responds accurately, resulting in responds accurately,
resulting
changes in in changes
the behaviorin theofbehavior
port three. of port three.
i1(t) (pu) i2(t) (pu) i3(t) (pu) i4(t) (pu)
0.5
-0 .5
-1
-1 .5
0 0.05 0 .1 0.15 0 .2
Ti me (s)
Figure23.
Figure 23.Port
Portcurrents
currentsininpu.
pu.
Figure24
Figure 24represents
representsthe theduty
dutycycle
cyclebehavior
behaviorfor
forthetheodd‑numbered
odd-numberedswitchesswitchesofofportsports
one,two,
one, two,and
andthree.
three.ItItisisobserved
observedthat
thatduring
duringthe
thefirst
first (0 (≤
interval
interval 0 ≤t t<< 0.1
0.1 ss),), the
the odd‑
odd-
numberedswitches
numbered switchesofofport
portthree
threeare
arenot
noton,
on,because
becauseportportthree
threereceives
receivescurrent
currentinstead
insteadofof
supplying it. During the second interval ( 0.1 ≤ t < 0.2 s ), all odd-numbered switches of
port three remain on.
d (t) (S1, S3) d (t) (S5 , S7) d(t ) (S9, S11 )
0.6
-1 .5
0 0.05 0 .1 0.15 0 .2
Ti me (s)
Figure 23. Port currents in pu.

Figure 24 represents the duty cycle behavior for the odd-numbered switches of ports
one, two, and three. It is observed that during the first interval ( 0 ≤ t < 0.1 s ), the odd-
numbered switches of port three are not on, because port three receives current instead of
supplying
supplyingit.it.During
Duringthe
thesecond
secondinterval ( 0.1 ≤
interval (0.1 t < 0.2 s), all odd‑numbered switches of
≤ t < 0.2 s ), all odd-numbered switches of
d (t) (S1, S3) d (t) (S5 , S7) d(t ) (S9, S11 )
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0.05 0.1 0 .1 5 0.2

T im e (s)
Figure 24. Duty cycle of the odd-numbered switches of ports 1, 2 and 3.

Figure 24. Duty cycle of the odd‑numbered switches of ports 1, 2 and 3.
Figure25
Figure 25shows
shows thethe duty
duty ratios
ratios ofof the
the even-numbered
even‑numberedswitchesswitchesofofports
ports three
three andand
four. Thus, it is observed that the pair of even-numbered switches
four. Thus, it is observed that the pair of even‑numbered switches of port three, named of port three, named
S10and
S10 andSS1212,, must
must always
always remain
remain on onduring
duringthethefirst
firstinterval,
interval,since
sinceport
portthree
three receives
receives thethe
most energy. At the same time, the drive signals of the even-numbered
most energy. At the same time, the drive signals of the even‑numbered switches of port switches of port
four,named
namedSS1414 and and S 16, are shifted by approximately 101 ° ◦
S16
four, , are shifted by approximately 101 with withrespect
respect totoport
portone.
one. Dur-
Dur‑
ing the second interval, the even-numbered switches of port three are
ing the second interval, the even‑numbered switches of port three are off, while the even‑ off, while the even-
numberedswitches
numbered switchesof ofport
port four
four are
are always
always on onsince
sincethis
thisport
portnow
nowreceives
receives allall
the supplied
the supplied
energy.Figure
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER energy.
REVIEW Figure26 26 shows
shows part
part of
of the
the switching
switchingpattern
patternassociated
associatedwith
withthetheswitches
switches 25before
ofbefore
34
and after the reference step at t = 0.1 s .
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEERand after the reference step at t = 0.1 s.
REVIEW 25 of 34
d( t) (S10, S12)
1
0.8 d( t) (S10, S12)
0.6 1
0.40.8
0.20.6
00.4
0.2
0d( t) (S14, S16)
1
d( t) (S14, S16)
0.8
0.6 1
0.40.8
0.20.6
00.4
0.2
0Δd (t) (S4) (pu)
0.3
Δd (t) (S4) (pu)
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0
0.1
0 0 .05 0 .1 0 .1 5 0.2
0
T ime (s )
0 0 .05 0 .1 0 .1 5 0.2
T ime (s )
Figure 25. PWM signals of the even-numbered switches of ports 3 and 4 and phase-shifted PWM
Figure 25. PWM signals of the even‑numbered switches of ports 3 and 4 and phase‑shifted PWM
Figure
signal of25. PWM
port 4. signals of the even-numbered switches of ports 3 and 4 and phase-shifted PWM
signal ofof
signal port
port4.4.
vgs(t) (S1, S3) vgs (t) (S5, S7) vgs (t) (S9, S11 ) vgs(t) (S1, S3) vgs (t) (S5, S7) vgs (t) (S9, S11 )
1
vgs(t) (S1, S3) vgs (t) (S5, S7) vgs (t) (S9, S11 ) vgs(t) (S1, S3) vgs (t) (S5, S7) vgs (t) (S9, S11 )
1
1
1
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0
0
0
0.0795 0.07955 0. 0796 0.07965 0.0797 0.1526
0 0.15265 0.1527 0.15275 0. 1528
Time (s) Time (s)
0.0795 0.07955 0. 0796 0.07965 0.0797 0.1526 0.15265 0.1527 0.15275 0. 1528
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 26. PWM signals of the odd-numbered switches of ports 1, 2, and 3: (a) first interval (b) sec-
ond interval.
Figure 26. PWM signals of the odd‑numbered switches of ports 1, 2, and 3: (a) first interval (b)
ond interval.
second interval.
5.1.2. One Port Supplying Energy to Another below the Minimum Capacity
5.1.2. One Port Supplying Energy to Another below the Minimum Capacity
Figure 27 shows the behavior of the currents in the IMPC for current references in pu
Figure 27 shows the behavior of the currents in the IMPC for current references in pu
defined at t = 0 s as follows: Iref1 = 0.2, Iref2 = 0, Iref3 = 0, and Iref4 = −0.2. Then, at t = 0.1 s , a step
defined at t = 0 s as follows: Iref1 = 0.2, Iref2 = 0, Iref3 = 0, and Iref4 = −0.2. Then, at t = 0.1 s , a step
occurs so that the current references are set to Iref1 = 0.3 and Iref4 = −0.3. Another step occurs
occurs so that the current references are set to Iref1 = 0.3 and Iref4 = −0.3. Another step occurs
0.2
0.2
0
0
0.0795 0.07955 0. 0796 0.07965 0.0797 0.1526 0.15265 0.1527 0.15275 0. 1528
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
ond interval.
5.1.2.
5.1.2.One
OnePort
PortSupplying
SupplyingEnergy
EnergytotoAnother
Anotherbelow belowthe theMinimum
MinimumCapacity Capacity
Figure
Figure2727shows
showsthe thebehavior
behaviorofofthe thecurrents
currentsininthe theIMPC
IMPCfor forcurrent
currentreferences
referencesininpu pu
definedatatt =
defined t =00s sasas
follows:
follows:Iref1
Iref1==0.2,
0.2,IIref2 =0,
ref2 = 0,IIref3
ref3= =0,0,andandIref4
Iref4 = −0.2.
= −0.2. Then,Then,
at t at t =s0.1
= 0.1 , a s, a
step
step occurs
occurs so that
so that the the current
current references
references areare set set
to Ito ref1 I=ref1
0.3=and
0.3 and
Iref4 =I−0.3. −0.3. Another
ref4 = Another step
step occurs
occurs at ts=
at t = 0.2 , in0.2 s, in the
which which the current
current references references
are set to areIref1
set= −0.15
to Iref1and= −I0.15 and Iresulting
ref4 = 0.15, ref4 = 0.15, in
resulting in the inversion of power flow
the inversion of power flow direction in each port. direction in each port.
i1(t) (pu) i4(t) (pu)
0.4
0.2
−0. 2
−0.4
0 0.05 0. 1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0. 3

Ti me (s)
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 27. Currents through ports 1 and 4 in pu for three reference steps. 26 of 34
Figure 27. Currents through ports 1 and 4 in pu for three reference steps.
Whenthe
When the IMPCIMPC operates
operates at aatlow‑power
a low-power condition
condition (Ptotal(P 200<W)
<total 200itW) it results
results in the
in the oper‑
operation
ation
conduction in mode
discontinuous
in discontinuous conduction
(CCM) conduction
when mode mode
Ptotal ≥(DCM).
200 W. (DCM).
InThe In
turn,power turn,flow
it operates it operates
inincontinuousin continuous
the first conduc‑ (
interval
tion mode (CCM)
0 ≤ t < 0.1 s ) is lesswhen
than P the
total ≥ 200
critical W.
powerThe power
level offlow
200 in
W, the first
resulting interval
in the (0
DCM ≤ t < 0.1 s)
operation.
isDuring
less than the critical power level of 200 W, resulting in the DCM
the second interval ( 0.1 ≤ t < 0.2 s ), the transition between DCM and CCM occurs. operation. During the
second (0.1 ≤ t < 0.2 s),
It is reasonable to state that the controller can respond appropriately regardless of is
interval the transition between DCM and CCM occurs. It the
reasonable
behavior of to the
state that the
current controller
through can respond inductance.
the magnetizing appropriately regardless
Finally, during of the
the third
behav‑ in-
ior of the
terval ( 0current
.2 ≤ t < 0through
.3 s ), thethe magnetizing
transition betweeninductance.
CCM andFinally,
DCM occurs duringsimultaneously
the third interval with
the≤transition
(0.2 t < 0.3 s), the transition
between the power between
supplyCCM and DCM occurs
and absorption modes.simultaneously
Overall, the control with strat-
the
transition between the power supply and absorption modes. Overall,
egy meets the design requirements properly, provides robustness to the system, and per- the control strategy
meets
formsthethedesign
smooth requirements properly,
transition between theprovides
operating robustness
modes of to thethe system,
IMPC, and performs
as shown in Figure
the
28.smooth transition between the operating modes of the IMPC, as shown in Figure 28.
iS1(t)+iS2(t) (A)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Time (s)
Figure
Figure 28.28.Current
Currentthrough
throughthe
themagnetizing
magnetizing inductance
inductance LmL.m.
5.1.3.
5.1.3.Control
ControlSystem
SystemPerformance
Performance
It It
should bebe
should noted thatthat
noted the the
operating modes
operating of the
modes ofconverter can becan
the converter decoupled because
be decoupled be-
the power
cause thesupply
powermode
supplyoccurs
modeduring
occursthe charging
during the of the coupled
charging of theinductor
coupledand does not
inductor and
overlap
does not with the power
overlap absorption
with the mode thatmode
power absorption occurs during
that occursdischarging. Therefore,
during discharging. if
There-
there
fore,are two orare
if there more
twoports
or moreassociated with the power
ports associated supply
with the mode,
power theymode,
supply will influence
they will
influence each other. In other words, the operating modes are decoupled, but not the
ports. Therefore, the ports in the power absorption mode will not influence the ports in
the power supply mode, and vice versa. Therefore, the MPrC and proportional-integral
(PI) controllers are compared with each other to illustrate the interaction between the
ports, the performance of the proposed converter, and the efficiency analysis. The PI con-
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2734
of 34
each other. In other words, the operating modes are decoupled, but not the ports. There‑
fore, the ports in the power absorption mode will not influence the ports in the power
supply mode, and vice versa.
Overall, Therefore, the MPrC and proportional‑integral (PI) con‑
Overall,ititisisreasonable
reasonabletotostate state that
thatthetheMPrCMPrC controller
controller provides
provides a highly
a highlyefficient
efficient
trollers
operation, are compared with each other to illustrate the interaction between the ports, the
operation,low lowsteady-state
steady-stateerror, error,smallsmallcurrent
current ripples,
ripples, and andcentralized
centralized control.
control.It also
It also
performance
avoids of the proposed converter, and the efficiency analysis. The PI controller was
avoidsthe theuseuseofofcommunication
communication busbus requirements,
requirements, while
while providing
providing high
high robustness andand
◦ androbustness
designed
aafast to provide
response. In the compensated
addition, it can be system with
designed to a phase
operate in margin
both DCM of 65and a bandwidth
CCM. OnOn thethe
fast response. In addition, it can be designed to operate in both DCM and CCM.
between
other 100 · fg and fs /10, where fg = 60 Hz is the AC grid frequency.
otherhand,
hand,the thePIPIcontroller
controller cancan bebedesigned
designed to tooperate
operate in in
a single
a single mode
mode (DCM(DCM or CCM).
or CCM).
The steps
Otherwise, it may applied
not in Section
provide the 5.1.1.
system forwith
the reference
a proper currentsmargin.
stability are used here to compare
Otherwise,
the MPrC and
it mayPi
not provide
controllers and
thethe
system with
resultthe
a proper
is shown in
stability
Figures
margin.30. In the first
29onand
This
This isis
duedue totothe
the following
following advantages:
advantages: thesystem
system model
model relies
relies anticipatory
on anticipatory con-con-
interval
trol (0 ≤thet integration
actions, ≤ 0.10 s), the of MPrC
a controller
disturbance model meetsfor the setpointsrejection,
disturbance of all ports,
as unlike
well as thethe
trol
PI actions,
controller, the
which integration
meets of
only a disturbance
the setpoint model
of port for
one. disturbance
Thus, a rejection,
steady‑state as well
error as
occursthe
use
use ofofa acost
costfunction
function totooptimize
optimize control
control action.
action. InIn summary,
summary, it isit aismultivariable
a multivariable control-
control-
for that
ler portsmonitors
two, three, the and four,simultaneously
leading to a decrease in efficiency as shown in Figure 31b.
ler PI
The that monitors
controller theoutputs
does outputs
not take simultaneously
into account the
byby taking
taking
interaction
into account
into
betweenaccount all all
the
thethe
ports
interactions
asinteractions
the MPrC
among
among the
thesystem
system variables.
variables. In Incontrast,
contrast, thethePI controller
PI controller onlyonlyreacts
reactswhen
when there is ais
there dif-
a dif-
controller does.
ference between the current point and the setpoint.
ference between the current point and the setpoint.
i1(t) - MPrC (pu) i 1(t) - PI (pu) i 2(t) - MPrC (pu) i2(t) - PI (pu)
i1(t) - MPrC (pu) i 1(t) - PI (pu) i 2(t) - MPrC (pu) i2(t) - PI (pu)
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
T ime (s ) Time (s)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
(a)T ime (s )
(b) Time (s)
i3(t) - MPrC (pu) i3(t) - PI (pu) (a) i4(t) - MPrC (pu) i4(t) - PI (pu) (b)
i3(t) - MPrC (pu) i3(t) - PI (pu) i4(t) - MPrC (pu) i4(t) - PI (pu)
0.2 0.5
0.2 0.5
0
0
0
0
−0.2
−0.2 −0.5
−0.4 −0.5
−0.4
−1
−0.6
−1
−0.6
−0.8 −1.5
−0.8 −1.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time (s) Time (s )
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
(c) Time (s) (d) Time (s )
(c) (d)
Figure 29. Port currents in pu when using the MPrC and PI controllers: (a) port 1, (b) port 2, (c) port
Figure 29. Port currents in pu when using the MPrC and PI controllers: (a) port 1, (b) port 2, (c) port
3,Figure
and (d)29. Port
port 4. currents in pu when using the MPrC and PI controllers: (a) port 1, (b) port 2, (c) port
3, and (d) port 4.
3, and (d) port 4.
i1(t) - MPrC (pu) i2(t) - MPrC (pu) i3(t) - MPrC (pu) i4(t) - MPrC (pu) i 1(t) - PI (pu) i2(t) - PI (pu) i3(t) - PI (pu) i 4(t) - PI (pu)
i1(t) - MPrC (pu) i2(t) - MPrC (pu) i3(t) - MPrC (pu) i4(t) - MPrC (pu) i 1(t) - PI (pu) i2(t) - PI (pu) i3(t) - PI (pu) i 4(t) - PI (pu)
1
0.5
0.5
−0.5
−0.5
−1
−1
−1.5
−1.50 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

T ime (s)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

Figure 30. Port currents in pu and comparison between MPrC and PI controllers. T ime (s)
Figure30.
Figure 30.Port
Portcurrents
currentsininpu
puand
andcomparison
comparisonbetween
betweenMPrC
MPrCand
andPIPIcontrollers.
controllers.
During load changes, transient oscillations occur due to the magnetizing inductance
of the During
coupledload
inductor and the
changes, controller
transient actuation.
oscillations However,
occur due to they do not affect inductance
the magnetizing the load
of the coupled inductor and the controller actuation. However, they do not affect the load
energy to another two simultaneously, whereas the efficiency is 86.3% and 80%, respec-
tively (Figure 31b); three ports supply energy to a single port, whereas the efficiency is
85.5% and 70.4%, respectively (Figure 31c). It is worth noting that the efficiency obtained
with the MPrC controller is essentially constant in all cases, while the one associated with
the PI controller decreases more and more as the number of ports in a given operating
mode increases. Moreover, as expected, the efficiency for the conventional case hardly
changes, regardless of the controller type as demonstrated in Figure 31a.
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 31. Theoretical efficiency of the MPC based on MPrC and PI controllers: (a) one port supplies
Figure
energy31. Theoretical
to another, efficiency
(b) two of the MPC
ports supply based
energy on MPrC
to another twoand PI controllers:(c)(a)
simultaneously, one ports
three port supplies
supply
energy to another, (b)
energy to a single one.two ports supply energy to another two simultaneously, (c) three ports supply
energy to a single one.
The performance of distinct DC-DC topologies analysed in [43] is compared with that
of theInproposed
the second MPC interval (0.10
in terms ≤ t ≤ 0.3 aspects
of qualitative s), the operating
accordingmode of 3.
to Table port
It isthree changes
evident that
from power absorption to power supply. At the same time, the power
the circuit configuration and controller design for the MPC are more complex. However, demanded by the
load connectedlosses,
the switching to port four content,
ripple increases, andthestresses
poweron supplied by port
the switches aretwo increases
lower, slightly,
resulting in a
while the power supplied by port one decreases. Figure 29 shows that the
higher efficiency as demonstrated in Figure 31. Moreover, stability is ensured at all oper- MPrC controller
provides
ating pointsa smooth
and the transition
introduced between the is
approach operating modes
best suited of the converter,
for integrating hybridwhile the PI
systems.
controller does not. Similarly to the first interval, the MPrC controller meets the setpoints
of all ports
Table unlike the
3. Performance PI controller.
analysis of distinctHowever, in this case, the steady‑state error is higher
DC-DC converters.
because there are more ports interacting with each other, thus resulting in a greater drop
Conventional
in efficiency as seen in Figure 31c. Interleaved Multiport
Parameters
Converter
Overall, it is reasonable to state Converter DC-DC Converter
that the MPrC controller provides a highly efficient
Switching losses High Lower than usual
operation, low steady‑state error, small current ripples, and centralized control. Lower than usual It also
avoids the use of communication bus requirements, whileHigher than high
providing that of interleaved
robustness and
Efficiency Low Higher than conventional
a fast response. In addition, it can be designed to operate in both DCM converters
and CCM. On the
otherIndividual
hand, the PI controller can be designed to operate in a single mode (DCM or CCM).
Otherwise,
converters are it may
fullynot provide the system with a proper stability margin. hybrid system
The multi-input
Input source This is due to the following Single inputthe system model relies on anticipatory con‑
advantages:
integrated into a is the most suitable solution
trolhybrid
actions, the integration of a disturbance model for disturbance rejection, as well as the
system
Stresses on the use of a cost function to optimize control action. In summary, it is a multivariable controller
Higher the outputs simultaneously
that monitors Normal by taking into account all the Normal
interactions among
switches
the system variables. In contrast, the PI controller only Less reactsthan
when there
that of the is interleaved
a difference
Ripple content betweenHigh the current point and the Lower than usual
setpoint.
converter
During load changes, transient oscillations occur due to the magnetizing inductance
of the coupled inductor and the controller actuation. However, they do not affect the
load or the battery significantly, as they typically occur during the operation switch‑mode
power supplies (SMPSs) based on linear controllers. Overall, large overshoots are likely to
occur during extreme load variations.
The converter efficiency was estimated considering the semiconductors mentioned
in Section 5 and the well‑known expressions presented in [41], whereas the magnetics
were designed according to the guidelines provided in [42]. Figure 31 compares the per‑
formances of the MPrC and PI controllers. The efficiency is assessed for the following
conditions: one port supplying energy to another (similarly to the conventional flyback
converter), whereas the efficiency for both controllers is 88.4% (Figure 31a); two ports sup‑
ply energy to another two simultaneously, whereas the efficiency is 86.3% and 80%, re‑
spectively (Figure 31b); three ports supply energy to a single port, whereas the efficiency
is 85.5% and 70.4%, respectively (Figure 31c). It is worth noting that the efficiency obtained
with the MPrC controller is essentially constant in all cases, while the one associated with
the PI controller decreases more and more as the number of ports in a given operating
mode increases. Moreover, as expected, the efficiency for the conventional case hardly
changes, regardless of the controller type as demonstrated in Figure 31a.
The performance of distinct DC‑DC topologies analysed in [43] is compared with that
of the proposed MPC in terms of qualitative aspects according to Table 3. It is evident that
the circuit configuration and controller design for the MPC are more complex. However,
the switching losses, ripple content, and stresses on the switches are lower, resulting in a
higher efficiency as demonstrated in Figure 31. Moreover, stability is ensured at all oper‑
ating points and the introduced approach is best suited for integrating hybrid systems.
Table 3. Performance analysis of distinct DC‑DC converters.
Conventional Interleaved Multiport

Parameters
Converter Converter DC‑DC Converter
Switching losses High Lower than usual Lower than usual
Higher than that of
Efficiency Low Higher than conventional
interleaved converters
Individual
The multi‑input hybrid
converters are fully
Input source Single input system is the most suitable
integrated into a
solution
hybrid system
Stresses on the
Higher Normal Normal
switches
Less than that of the
Ripple content High Lower than usual
interleaved converter
Controller Simpler than that of multiport
Simple More complex
design configurations
Not ensured for all operating Not ensured for all operating Ensured for all
Stability
points points operating points
The most common arrangement Complex topology;
Circuit More accessible topology; no
relies on bidirectional ports and bidirectional ports and
Topology bidirectional ports and backup
backup backup are available
Generally speaking, MPrC‑based controllers outperform their proportional‑integral‑

derivative (PID) counterparts when (1) the system model is reasonably accurate [44], (2)
there is a large time delay [45], and (3) there are complex interactions in MIMO systems [46].
In the present work, the models adopted for the MPrC design are reasonably accurate,
there is no time delay, and the control mode is MIMO. Given the above, the proposed
control approach will present an improved performance compared with a well‑tuned PI
controller. This is due to the prediction horizon and future knowledge of the converter be‑
havior. In addition, it considers the interaction among the ports since it is a MIMO system.
5.2. IMPC Connected to the Utility Grid

In contrast to the previous section, the current reference values are set dynamically.
Therefore, the P&O algorithm sets the current reference in pu for port two, while a voltage
control loop determines the current reference in pu for port three (DC load). Based on the
parameters obtained from ports two and three, as well as the conditions of the ESDs, the
power flow controller defines the setpoints for ports one and four, which are fed back into
The PV system has a generation capacity of 480 W. Figure 32a shows the representa‑
tive block of the PV system used in the simulation and the respective parameters. More‑
over, the battery model shown in Figure 32b is described in detail in [47]. Figure 33b also
shows the simulated circuit, which manages the power flow between the ports for the
configuration proposed in Section 3.2 and follows the control actions represented in the
flowchart of Figure 18b.
( a)
Utility grid Is_1 Is_3 DC Loads
S1b S3b
S1 S2 S9
S1a
S10
S3a
311 Vport1 360uF R
S1b 3.5m S3b
S4 S3
S1a S3a
Is_2 Is_4
PV system ESDs
S2b S4b
POWERPV 0.08
S5 S6 S13
V S2a S14
S4a
S
STORAGE
Ir 47uF SOC SOC
T T
S2b S4b
S7 S15
S2a
S8 S16
S4a
(b)
Figure 32. (a) Representative block of the PV system used in the simulation and its respective pa-
Figure 32. (a) Representative block of the PV system used in the simulation and its respective param‑
rameters, (b) IMPC associated with the proposed architecture.
eters, (b) IMPC associated with the proposed architecture.
To
To analyze
analyze the the power
power flow
flow control
control proposed
proposed in in Figure
Figure 18b,
18b, thethe irradiance
irradiance pattern
pattern
shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 33 33 was
was applied.
applied. The
The power
power output
output isis 253
253 WW and
and 480
480 WW when
when the
the solar
solar
W / m22 and 2 forfor a temperature
2
irradiance
irradiance is is 500
500 W/m and1000
1000W/m
W /m a temperature ofof
2525 °C,
◦ C, respectively.InInaddi‑
respectively. ad-
dition,
tion, the DC loads consume 1 pu (800 W) during the interval corresponding to t < 0.15tos.
the DC loads consume 1 pu (800 W) during the interval corresponding
t < t0.15
At ≥ 0.15
s . At t ≥ 0.15
s, the powers , the powerby
absorbed absorbed
the loadby the load
drops drops
to 0.25 to 0.25
pu (200 W).pu (200 W).
700
600
500
Sustainability
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2023, 4582
x FOR PEER REVIEW
0 0.05 0 .1 0.15 0 .2 0 .25 0.3
3031ofof
3334
T i me (s )
Figure 33. Solar irradiance pattern applied to the PV system.

2
S (W/m )
In the first interval ( 0 < t < 0.15 s ), the PV system is not capable of meeting the load
1000
demand. Then, the battery injects power, but the system will not yet supply all the power
demanded900
by the load, since the maximum available power of the battery bank is only320
W. Therefore, the utility grid supplies the required amount as shown in Figures 34 and
35.800
In the second interval ( 0.15 s ≤ t < 0.3 s ), the power delivered by the PV generation
700
increases owing to the irradiance. At the same time, the load demand drops to 0.25 pu. In
this600case, there are two possibilities. In the first one, the exceeding amount is stored in the
battery as shown in Figure 34b, since the ESD has the top priority. However, if the battery
is fully500
charged, the energy surplus is injected into the utility grid as shown in Figure 34a.
It0 is noteworthy 0.05 that the0 .1 priorities of the sources
0.15 0 .2 for power0 .25 supply and/or
0.3 absorption
T i me (s )
are shown in Figure 18b. If the PV system cannot meet the demand, the battery bank starts
Figure33.
operating
Figure 33.Solar
toSolar
supplyirradiance
irradiance patternapplied
the required
pattern appliedtoamount.
energy tothe thePV PVsystem.system.
If necessary, the utility grid will supple-
ment the demand. In a scenario where the PV system produces more energy than the de-
mand, InIn thefirst
the
priority first interval
isinterval
given (<0 <tbattery
to(0the t<< 0.15bank s ),the
s), the toPV PVsystem
store system isisnot
notcapable
it, considering capable ofofmeeting
meetingthe
a partially-charged theload
load
bat-
tery. demand.
demand. Then,the
Then,
If necessary, the
the battery
battery injects
utilityinjects
grid power,
power,
will laterbut butthe
absorb thesystem system
the willnot
will
exceeding not yetsupply
yet
amount. supply allthe
all
In other the power
power
words,
demanded
demanded by
by the
the load,
load, since
since the maximum
priority is given to injecting energy into and extracting energy from the battery bank, available
available power
power ofof the
the battery
battery bank
bank is only320
is only
320 W. Therefore,
W. Therefore, the utility
the grid
utility suppliesgrid the
supplies
while the utility grid only takes place when the battery bank is unavailable (fully dis- required the amount
required as shown
amount in Figures
as shown 34 and
in
35.
Figures 34 and 35.
charged) or unable to supply the whole load demand.
In the second interval ( 0.15 s ≤ t < 0.3 s ), the power delivered by the PV generation
1i (t) (pu) i (t) (pu) i (t) (pu) i (t) (pu)
2 3 4 increases owing to the irradiance. At the same time, the load demand drops to 0.25 pu. In
i (t) (pu) i (t) (pu) i (t) (pu) i (t) (pu)
1 2 3 4
1 this case, there are two possibilities. In the first one, the exceeding amount is stored in the
1
battery as shown in Figure 34b, since the ESD has the top priority. However, if the battery
0.5 0.5
is fully charged, the energy surplus is injected into the utility grid as shown in Figure 34a.
0
It is noteworthy that the priorities 0
of the sources for power supply and/or absorption
are shown in Figure 18b. If the PV system cannot meet the demand, the battery bank starts
−0.5 operating to supply the required −0.5 energy amount. If necessary, the utility grid will supple-
ment the demand. In a scenario where the PV system produces more energy than the de-
Sustainability
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2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW −1
32 of 34
mand, priority is given to the battery bank to store it, considering a partially-charged bat-
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
T imetery.
(s) If necessary, the utility grid will later absorb the exceeding Time (s) amount. In other words,
(a) priority is given to injecting energy into and extracting(b)energy from the battery bank,
FigurewhileOverall,
34.the
Port
it is reasonable
utility
currents grid only
in pu when
to state
takes changes place that the introduced
when
occur in the the solar battery control
bankstrategy
irradiance is
and
ensures (a)
unavailable
load power:(fully
a smooth dis-
fully-
Figure
transition 34. Port currentsthe
between in pu when changes
operating modes occur
of the in the IMPC. solarMoreover,
irradiance and the load
power power:
flow (a)control
fully‑
charged)
charged or unable
battery, to supply thebattery.
(b) partially-charged whole load demand.
charged battery, (b)architecture
of the proposed partially‑charged occurs battery.
in accordance with the flowchart shown in Figure 18b.
i1(t) (pu) i2(t) (pu) i3(t) (pu) i4(t) (pu) i1(t) (pu) i2(t) (pu) i3(t) (pu) i4(t) (pu)
In the second interval ( 0.15 ≤ t < 0.3 s ) of Figure 35, the load demand decreases to 0.14
i1(t) (pu) i 2(t) (pu) i3(t) (pu) i4(t) (pu)
1 1
pu instead of 0.25 pu. Thus, the exceeding energy is injected into the battery, but there is
1
0.5
still a surplus. Therefore, the utility
0.5
will absorb it to maintain the balance between the
generated and demanded power.
0.5
0 0
−0.5 −0.5
−0.5
−1 −1
0 0.05 0.1 −1
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
T ime (s) Time (s)
(a) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

Tim e (s )
0.2 0.25 0.3
(b)
Figure35.
Figure
Figure 34.Port
35. Portcurrents
Port currentsinin
currents in pu
pu
pu when
when
when changes
changes
changes occur
occur
occur ininin the
the
the solar irradiance
irradiance
irradiance andload
and and
load load power:
considering
considering (a) fully-
aapartially‑
partially-
charged
charged battery,
battery.
charged battery. (b) partially-charged battery.
InInthe
thesecond
6. Conclusionssecondinterval ( 0.15s ≤≤t <t 0.3
interval(0.15 s ) of
< 0.3 s),Figure 35, the
the power load demand
delivered by thedecreases to 0.14
PV generation
pu instead
increases of
Thisowing 0.25
work to pu.
hasthe Thus, the
irradiance.
introduced exceeding
At the same
a multiport energy is
time, the
DC-DC injected into
load demand
topology the
arranged battery,
drops to 0.25 pu. Inis
but there
as a multi-winding
still
this a surplus. Therefore,
case, there areflyback
multidirectional the utility
two possibilities.
converter, In will
as the absorb
wellfirst
as aone,it to maintain
the exceeding
simple the balance between
amount is stored
and straightforward the
in the
approach for
generated
battery as and
shown demanded
in Figure power.
34b, since the ESD has the top priority. However,
controlling the power flow efficiently. Moreover, the structure can be scaled to an arbi- if the battery
istrary
fullynumber
charged,ofthe energy
ports surplus is injected
(inputs/outputs), into the
whereas the utility gridassume
ports can as shown in Figure
different 34a.
voltage
ratings and be regulated individually. However, the efficiency limits must be considered
because the higher the number of switches and windings, that is, ports, the higher the
losses and overall dimensions of the converter.
Since the operating modes of the converter are decoupled, a predictive controller can
manage the power flow among the ports independently. Thus, it is reasonable to state that
It is noteworthy that the priorities of the sources for power supply and/or absorption
are shown in Figure 18b. If the PV system cannot meet the demand, the battery bank
starts operating to supply the required energy amount. If necessary, the utility grid will
supplement the demand. In a scenario where the PV system produces more energy than
the demand, priority is given to the battery bank to store it, considering a partially‑charged
battery. If necessary, the utility grid will later absorb the exceeding amount. In other
words, priority is given to injecting energy into and extracting energy from the battery
bank, while the utility grid only takes place when the battery bank is unavailable (fully
discharged) or unable to supply the whole load demand.
In the second interval (0.15 ≤ t < 0.3 s) of Figure 35, the load demand decreases to
0.14 pu instead of 0.25 pu. Thus, the exceeding energy is injected into the battery, but there
is still a surplus. Therefore, the utility will absorb it to maintain the balance between the
generated and demanded power.
Overall, it is reasonable to state that the introduced control strategy ensures a smooth
transition between the operating modes of the IMPC. Moreover, the power flow control of
the proposed architecture occurs in accordance with the flowchart shown in Figure 18b.
6. Conclusions
This work has introduced a multiport DC‑DC topology arranged as a multi‑winding
multidirectional flyback converter, as well as a simple and straightforward approach for
controlling the power flow efficiently. Moreover, the structure can be scaled to an arbitrary
number of ports (inputs/outputs), whereas the ports can assume different voltage ratings
and be regulated individually. However, the efficiency limits must be considered because
the higher the number of switches and windings, that is, ports, the higher the losses and
overall dimensions of the converter.
Since the operating modes of the converter are decoupled, a predictive controller can
manage the power flow among the ports independently. Thus, it is reasonable to state that
the introduced control strategy ensures a smooth transition between the operating modes
of the IMPC. Furthermore, no specific requirements were applied in the design of intro‑
duced approach. The design criteria were based on observing the closed‑loop behavior
and, if necessary, adjusting its parameters (N, M, Q, and R).
It is noteworthy that the proposed topology is a suitable choice for power levels below
1 kW, which often is the case for DC nanogrids. Since the arrangement is derived from the
conventional flyback converter, it suffers from efficiency limits and increased dimensions
of magnetics.
Future work includes the experimental implementation of a microgrid and an assess‑
ment of the proposed converter associated with the predictive controller, which involve a
costly infrastructure that is not readily available to authors.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization and methodology, A.S.d.M.; formal analysis and investi‑
gation, R.C.d.O.; writing—original draft preparation, R.C.d.O.; writing—review and editing, A.S.d.M.,
F.L.T., and R.C.d.O.; supervision, A.S.d.M. and F.L.T. All authors have read and agreed to the pub‑
lished version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education
Personnel (CAPES), the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development
(CNPq), the Minas Gerais Research Funding Foundation (FAPEMIG), and the National Institute of
Science and Technology in Electric Energy (INERGE).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data available upon request from the authors.
Acknowledgments: This research was funded by the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development (CNPq). The authors would also like to acknowledge the Coordination
for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), the Minas Gerais Research Funding
Foundation (FAPEMIG), and the National Institute of Science and Technology in Electric Energy
(INERGE) for supporting this work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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sustainability

1 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia 38400‑902, Brazil

Citation: Carrijo de Oliveira, R.;

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4582. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15054582 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Figure 1. Classification of MPCs.

cade, series, or other combinations to implement a three‑port non‑isolated converter topol‑

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4582 4 of 33

Solar Panels Wind Turbine Utility Grid

Solar Panels Wind Turbine Utility Grid

2. Model Predictive Control (MPrC)

k k+1 k+M k+N

x̂ (k + 1|k) = A · x (k) + B · û(k |k)

x̂ (k + 2|k) = A · x (k + 1) + B · û(k + 1|k)

2.1. Augmented State‑Space Model with a Built‑in Integrator

Figure 5. Input perturbation.

x (k + 1) = A · x (k) + B[u(k ) + d(k)]

It is essential to use an observer based on A, B, and C under the usual assumption of

It is worth mentioning that A, B, and C must replace A, B, and C in (10), respec‑

2.3. Cost Function

J (ŷ, ∆û) = [ŷ − r ] T · Q · [ŷ − r ] + ∆û T · R · ∆û (18)

J (∆û) = ∆û T · ( G T · Q · G + R) · ∆û + 2 · ( f − r ) T · Q · G · ∆û + ( f − r ) T · Q · ( f − r ) (20)

∇ J∆û = H · ∆û + c (21)

∆û∗ (k ) p×1 = K MPC · (r − f ) (25)

u(k ) = u(k − 1) + ∆û∗ (k) (26)

3. Analysis of the Proposed IMPC

Figure 6. Multi-winding multidirectional flyback converter operating as an IMPC.

3.1. Operation Modes

3.1.1. Charging of the Coupled Inductor

According to Figure 6, the pairs of odd‑numbered switches in pink and even‑

3.1. Operation Modes

3.1.1. Charging of the Coupled Inductor

Iref 1 > I ref 2 I ref 1 = I ref 2 Iref 1 < Iref 2

Table 1. Driving sequence for the odd-numbered switches of ports 1, 2, and 3.

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4582 11 of 33

d3 Port 3 (S9 and S11)

i1( t ) i3(t ) i1( t ) S9

Sustainability 2023, 15, 4582 12 of 33

i1( t ) i3(t ) i1( t ) S9

S5 S13 S5 S13 i4(t )

3.1.2. Discharging of the Coupled Inductor

d1 Port 1 (S1 and S3)

d4 Port 4 (S14 and S16) IV

Iref 4 > Iref 3 Iref 4 = Iref 3 Iref 4 < I ref 3

One can write the phase-shift angles in pu as according to (29).

d4 Port 4 (S13 and S15)

i1(t ) S1 The operation Scan be divided into three

i1( t ) S5 S13 S5 S13 i4(t )

Figure 14. (a) Port currents and (b) PWM signals.

i1( t ) S5 S13 S5 S13 i4(t )

S5 S13 i1( t ) S5 S13

3.2. Proposed Control Strategy

3.2. Proposed Control Strategy

According to Figure 16, theto

3.3. Power Flow Analysis

Photovoltaic (PV) modules

3.3.1. Power Balance

4. Modeling of the Proposed n‑Port Converter

is1(t ) is(n-3)(t ) is(n-2)(t ) is(n-1)(t )

is1( t ) is(n-1)(t ) is1( t )

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 34

4.1.1. First Stage [0, t1 ]

4.1.2. (n − 2)th Stage [tn− 3 , tn− 2 ]

dis1 (V −2Vd )  dis2 (V −2Vd )  dis3 dis(n−1)

dis1 (V −2Vd ) dis2 (V −2Vd ) dis3 dis(n−1)