Module1:

The Nature of Mathematics

Introduction
M athematics has been part of human’s everyday life. It is everywhere. It is on the things
we create and admire, in the activities we do, in the decisions we make. Mathematics is
present in everything that surrounds us. It could be seen on the patterns and sequences
exhibited by nature from its landscapes, plants and animals, including humans to series of
events and phenomena.
Recognizing these patterns gives us understanding on how nature works and helps
create things that human may benefit from. Through this, advancement of science and
technology could be done. Mathematics could help predict the behavior of nature especially
the naturally-occurring phenomena and create intervention to safeguard the lives of human.
This could provide necessary answers to the questions that puzzles humankind that may
create a much better world.
In this chapter, we shall look at mathematics as a science of pattern and order to
encourage you to go beyond the typical understanding of mathematics as merely as science
of calculations but as a source of aesthetics in patterns of nature and a rich language in itself
governed by logic and reasoning.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

 Identify the different types of patterns in mathematics.

 Use inductive and deductive reasoning to predict patterns.
 Write expressions and statements in mathematical symbols.
 Explore on the different patterns found in objects, plants, and animals that
can be modelled mathematically.

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 LESSON 1:
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
MATHEMATICS

What is Mathematics?

Traditionally, mathematics is presented deductively at school. And is often perceived

as well structured and problems are algorithmically approached. Mathematics is derived from
the ancient word manthnein meaning “to learn”. The Greek root mathesis means “knowledge”
or its form mathema meaning science, knowledge, or learning, and mathematikos or
mathemata means “fond of learning”. These might have been the notion of the early
mathematicians and philosophers that is why they continue to seek for knowledge and the
truth.

Hence, what is really mathematics? What is it exactly that mathematicians do when

they are doing mathematics?

Encyclopedia Britannica defines mathematics as the “science of structure, order, and

relations that has evolved from the elemental practices of counting, measuring, and describing
the shapes and characteristics of objects.” This definition is one of the closest to mathematics
that is evident in the modern world today.

Characteristics of Mathematics

What are the characteristics of mathematics? Among the characteristics of

mathematics are:

Classification

Logical
Generalization
Sequence

Characteristcs
Applicability Structure
of Mathematics

Mathematical
Precision and
language and
Accuracy
symbilism

Abstractness 2
Classification

Within logical-mathematical knowledge is the process of classification which represents

the first step towards learning more complex mathematical concepts. Classification brings
about a series of mental relations through which objects are grouped according to similarities
and differences depending on specific criteria such as size, color, shape, etc.

Logical Sequence

Ideas in mathematics need to flow in order that makes sense. Logic patterns are related
to geometric and number patterns. It helps us classify objects or figures. One kind of logic
sequence deal with characteristics of various objects. Another kind deals with orders: there
is a sequence of objects and a pattern in the attributes the objects possess.

Structure

A structure on a set is an additional mathematical object that is related to that given set in
some particular characteristic or manner, and attaches (or relates) to that set to endow it with
some additional meaning or significance. The structure on a particular mathematical set will
allow mathematicians to study the set further and find its relationship with objects.

Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy is how close a measured value is equal to the actual value. It is the degree to
which a given quantity is correct and free from error. Precision, on the other hand, is how close
the measured values are to each other.

Abstractness

Abstractness can be anything from strings of numbers or letters to geometric figures to

measurements to set of equations. Inquiries such as “Does the interval between composite
numbers from a pattern?” “Is there an expression for the change in the surface area of any
regular solid as its volume approaches zero?”; needs investigatory approaches of patterns.

Symbolism

The language of mathematics is the system used by the mathematicians to communicate

mathematical ideas using symbols instead of words. This language is uniquely constructed in
such a way that all mathematicians understand symbiotic notations and mathematical
formulas.

Applicability

The applicability of mathematics can lie anywhere on a spectrum from the

completely simple to utterly complex. Mathematics can be used in all fields of
human endeavour. According to Kant, “in any special doctrine of nature, there can
be only as much proper science as there is mathematics therein.” Many agree that the

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problem of understanding the significant link between mathematics and modern science
is an interesting and significant challenge for the philosopher of mathematics.

Generalizations

Making generalizations is fundamental to mathematics. It is a skill that must be

developed among students. It is of vital importance in a functioning society. The
Webster Dictionary defines generalization as the process of “finding and singling out [of
properties] in a whole class of similar objects.”

LESSON 2
MATHEMATICS AS A SCIENCE OF PATTERNS

A pattern is a visible regularity in the universe or in a man-made design. As such, the

elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner. Patterns, in a mathematical sense, refer
to the study of “tilings” “and wall-paper symmetries.” This connotes order, regularity, and
lawfulness. In the modern world, the patterns of counting, measuring, reasoning, motion,
shape, position, and prediction, reveal the powerful influence mathematics has over people’s
perception of reality.

Pattern recognition is a key determinant of logical, verbal, mathematical, and spatial

abilities. The most commonly used patterns today: the logic patterns, symbol patterns, number
patterns, and word patterns.

Logic Patterns

Logic patterns deal with the characteristics of various objects, order, sequence and
some possess similar attributes. These types of pattern are common in aptitude tests. To
construct or solve a pattern: 1) find the rule for the pattern, 2) understand the nature of the
sequence, and 3) analyze the difference between two successive terms.

Example 1:

Answer: The lines rotate in a counter-

clockwise manner from the uppermost box
down to the fourth box. The fourth box in the
preceding object is the first box in the next
object. The pattern continues so the answer
is B.

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Example 2:

Answer: The second figure is just the double of

the first figure, so it has two circles. The third figure
is the double of the second figure, thus it has four
circles. The fourth must be the double of the third
so it should have eight. Answer is D.

Example 3:

Answer: Look at the movements

of the arrows inside the triangles.
The arrow starts from a vertex and
the arrowhead points towards the
opposite side. So, the missing
figure should be B.

Example 4:

If the word MODERN can be encrypted as OQFGTP, how can you code the
word WORLD?

a. YQSNF c. YQUNF

b. YQTNF d. YQPNF

Answer: The correct answer is b. Each letter in the original word MODERN is
forwarded two places (+2) in the alphabetical order to get the encrypted word.

Example 5:

In some code language, the word PATTERNS can be written TRTRTRTR, how
would you write ALGEBRA in the same code language?

a. RGGRRRG c. GRGRGRG

b. GRRGGR d. RRGGRR

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 Answer: The correct answer is c. Each letter in the third, sixth, ninth, etc. (multiples of
3) positions is reported according to the length of the given word.

Number Patterns

A number oattern is a list or set of numbers that follow a certain arrangement. It is

where the numbers are arranged in either increasing or decreasing order, and have with it
basic operations of mathematics or a certain series of arithmetical operation like addition or
subtraction repeatedly done. The first step in determining the rule that defines the pattern is to
look for differences between the two consecutive numbers. The number pattern helps make a
generalization of how the numbers are arranged in a sequence. If there is no logic (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, squares, cubes, primes, etc) in the differences, find other
operations used in the pattern.

Try these examples; guess what the next number in the sequence.

Example 6:

11, 13, 17, 19, 23, ?

Answer: Notice that the differences between two consecutive numbers are 2, 4, 2, 4.
However, this is not a pattern. Look upon the numbers again and guess what? They
are all consecutive prime numbers. So the next number must be 29.

Example 7:

5, 7, 10, 15, 22, ?

Answer: The differences between each pair of consecutive terms in the sequence are
as follows: 2, 3, 5, 7. These primes are added to the previous number to get the next
number. 5+2=7, 7+3=10, 10+5=15, 15+7=22. So you know that the next prime is 11.
Hence, the next number in the pattern is 22+11=33.

Example 8:

5, 6, 10, 19, 35, ?

Answer: The differences between each number is 1, 4, 9, 16. These numbers are
squares of 1, 2, 3, and 4. So, the difference between 35 and the next number should
be the square of 5, which is 25. Thus, 35+25=60.

Word Patterns

Patterns can also be found in language. The metrical patterns of poems and the
syntactic patterns of how nouns are made plural or how verbs are changed to past tense are
both word patterns. Word patterns are used in decoding like: consonant blends (words with
a group of two or three consonants that each make its own sound: grow, blend, sleeve, stair,

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sweet, free, blood, clothes), consonant digraphs (words with two or three letters that come
together to create a single sound, e.g. chest, shop, sheep, brush, shirt, shade), vowel
diphthongs (vowels that glide in the middle: boil, now, soil, brown, cloud, rain, meat, bout,
cow), and vowel digraphs (a spelling pattern in which two or more adjoining letters represent
a single vowel sound: school, clean, each, feet, moon, cheese)

LESSON 3
THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

The Finonacci Sequence

Leonardo of Pisa is also known as

Fibonacci (1170 – 1250). He is one of the best –
known mathematicians of medieval Europe. In
1202, after a trip that took him to several Aran and
Eastern countries, Fibonacci wrote the book Liber
Abaci. In this book Fibonacci explained why Hindu
– Arabic numeration system that he had learned
about the his travels was a more sophisticated and
Source: artifacts.com
efficient system than the Roman numeration
system.This book also contains a problem created by Fibonacci that concerns the birth of
rabbits. Here is the statement of Fibonacci’s rabbit problem.

At the beginning of a month, you are given a pair of newborn rabbits. After a month the
rabbits have produced no offspring; however, every month thereafter the pair of rabbits
produces another pair of rabbits. The offspring reproduce in exactly the same manner. If none
of the rabbits dies, how many pairs of rabbits will be there be at the start of each succeeding
month?

Source: eniscuola.net
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 The solution of this problem is a sequence of numbers that we now call the Fibonacci
sequence.

The Fibonacci sequence is the series of numbers:

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34….

The next number is found by adding up the two numbers before it:

The 2 is found by adding the two numbers before it (1+1),

The 3 is found by adding the two numbers before it (2+1),

And so on!

Remember!
The Fibonacci sequence can be written as a rule as:

𝑋𝑛 = 𝑋𝑛 − 1 + 𝑋𝑛 − 2
where:
𝑋𝑛 is term number “n” in the Fibonacci sequence

Example 9: Find the seventh and eighth Fibonacci numbers.

Solution:

For seventh Fibonacci number:

𝑋𝑛 = 𝑋𝑛 − 1 + 𝑋𝑛 − 2

𝑋7 = 𝑋7 − 1 + 𝑋7 − 2

𝑋7 = 𝑋6 + 𝑋5

𝑋7 = 8 + 5

𝑋7 = 13

For eighth Fibonacci number:

𝑋𝑛 = 𝑋𝑛 − 1 + 𝑋𝑛 − 2

𝑋8 = 𝑋8 − 1 + 𝑋8 − 2

𝑋8 = 𝑋7 + 𝑋6

𝑋8 = 13 + 8

𝑋8 = 21

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 When we take any two successive Fibonacci numbers, their ratio is very close to the
Golden Ratio “φ” which is approximately 1.618034… In fact, the bigger the pair of Fibonacci
numbers, the closer the approximation. For example,

A B B/A

2 3 1.5

3 5 1.66666…

5 8 1.6

… … …

144 233 1.618055556…

233 377 1.618025751

It is even more surprising that we can calculate any Fibonacci number using the Golden
Ratio:

Remember!
Fibonacci number using the Golden Ratio:

𝝋𝒏 − (𝟏 − 𝝋)𝒏
𝒙𝒏 = 𝒐𝒓 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 × 𝝋
√𝟓

Example 10. Find the sixth Fibonacci number.

Solution:

𝝋𝒏 − (𝟏 − 𝝋)𝒏
𝒙𝒏 =
√𝟓

1.618034 …6 − (1 − 1.618034 … )6
𝑥6 =
√5

𝑥6 = 8.00000033 ≈ 8

or

𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 × 𝝋

𝑥6 = 𝑥6−1 × 1.618034 …

𝑥6 = 5 × 1.618034 …

𝑥6 = 8.09017 ≈ 8

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 LESSON 4
MATHEMATICS FOR OUR WORLD

Millions of patterns can be found in the environment. These patterns occur in various
forms and in different contexts which can be modelled mathematically. Some examples are
symmetries, trees, spirals, waves, tessellations, stripes, meanders, cracks, and many more.

The German biologist Ernst Haeckel painted marine organisms to show their
symmetry. Scottish biologist D’Archy Thompson studied the growth patterns in plants and
animals. Beehives are one of the examples of patterns in nature that can be modelled
mathematically. They are made of walls of the same size, enclosing small hexagonal cells
where honey and pollen are stored and bees are raised. Honeycombs are examples of
wallpaper symmetry.

Scientists theorize that sunflowers can pack in the maximum number of seeds if each
seed is separated by an irrational-numbered angle. In mathematics, the most irrational-number
is known as the Golden Ratio, or Phi. It is a mathematical ratio that’s commonly found in
nature. It can be used to create visually-pleasing, organic-looking compositions in your design
projects or artwork.

Here are some examples of patterns in nature.

Source: curiodyssey.org Source: blog.csiro.au

Honeycomb Animal Skin

Source: viewbug.com Source: kidsdiscover.com

Plant Trees

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 Source: panachallenge.com Source: thescienceexplorer.com

Fruit Flower

Source: pinterest.com
Sand
Source: iphone6papers.com

Water

It could be noted that mathematics exists in the natural world. It is specifically on how
nature behaves and the patterns it follows through logical and mathematical structures. It is
important that these concepts and ideas be used to further advance what we know and
provides substantial and effective solutions to some underlying problems we faced nowadays.

Mathematics is an important tool in generating models, analysis and interpretations

that could be used in predicting the possible outcomes of a certain event. Like for examples,
to predict the probability of a storm to occur, the possible return period of an event having the
same magnitude, determine the trend of social media users, predict the increase of the world’s
population after 10 years, and others. This may give a clearer picture to innovators, scientists,
engineers and other professionals, even common people, on the possible scenarios that may
happen. This may lead to creating strategies to lessen the impact and several interventions to
addressed the possible outcomes.

In recent years, global warming and climate change, are hot topics that leads to
several debates, protests and legislations. Scientists warns that if man will not change his
behavior towards the environment, the effects of climate change is inevitable. Through the use
of mathematics, man is able to exert control over himself and possibly reverses the effects of
climate change on nature.

We have identified some of the applications of mathematics and that it plays a bigger
role in the societal context. We know that mathematics is with us in everything we do. Although

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we may not notice it. Knowledge of mathematics is helpful in every endeavor. So, it is better
to embrace it to have a better understanding of the world we live in and be part of the crusade
in protecting and conserving our one and only natural world.

Module Exercises
NAME: _______________________________ Course/Year/Section: ____________
Student Number: _______________________

Test I: Write the letter of the correct answer. Justify your answer.

1. What figure should come next in this sequence?

2. Which figure is next in the sequence?

3. Which figure can be used to continue the series?

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 4. What figure should come next in this sequence?

5. Which figure is next in the sequence?

Test II. Identify the next number in the pattern.

1. 100, 98, 96, 94, ___

2. 12, 13, 15, 18, 22, ___

3. 7, 20, 47, 94, 167, ___

4. 1, 4, 2, 8, 6, 24, 22, ___

5. 11, 23, 48, 99, ___

6. 6, 13, 27, 55, 111, ___

7. 8, -24, 72, -216, 648, -1994, ___

8. 5, 27, 137, 687, 3437, ___

9. 34, 7, 37, 14, 40, 28, ___

10. 16384, 8192, 2048, 256, 16, ___

TEST III. Find the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence. Round off to whole numbers (φ =
1.618034)

1. 𝑋6 3. 𝑋33

2. 𝑋9 4. 𝑋12

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 5. 𝑋25 8. 𝑋23

6. 𝑋11 9. 𝑋27

7. x20 10. x18

TEST IV. Find the ratio of the two consecutive Fibonacci numbers. . Round off to 7 decimal
places

1. 𝑋6 and 𝑋7

2. 𝑋10 and 𝑋11

3. 𝑋17 and 𝑋18

4. 𝑋4 and 𝑋5

5. 𝑋12 and 𝑋13

Test V. Reflection Paper

Direction: Explore and take photos of different patterns found in objects, plants, and animals
are present in your surroundings that can be modelled mathematically. After such,
make a reflection paper on the nature of mathematics. You may include your
photos in your reflection paper. You will be graded with your reflection paper using
the rubrics below.

Category Description Point Value

Mechanics Well-written and well-
2
Well written, clear organization, organized
uses standard English grammar, Inadequate due to lack of
contains minor, if any, spelling organization, grammar,
1
errors and/or major spelling
errors
Mechanics – Highest Possible Score 2
Evidence of Critical Thinking Demonstrates critical
Critical thinking includes thinking and the ability to 3
analysis, application, synthesis apply concepts.
and evaluation. Arguments show Demonstrates some critical
clear and depth of insight into thinking and application of 2
theoretical issues, originality of concepts
treatment, and relevance. May Shows minor or incorrect
include unusual insights. application of concepts 1
Arguments are well supported.
Evidence of Critical Thinking– Highest Possible Score 3

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 Development of Ideas
Well-developed thoughts, ideas, and/or metacognition; new
and details, which shows
evidence of reflection, new
ideas, and grasp of concepts.
Development of Ideas– Highest Possible Score
Well developed; shows
evidence of reflection
3
ideas introduced and
reflects a good grasp of
concepts presented.
Shows some evidence of
reflection, but not well-
developed; few new ideas
2
introduced but reflects a
grasp of concepts
presented.
Not much thought or detail;
shows little evidence of
reflection or grasp of 1
concepts; no new ideas
introduced.
3
Total Possible Score 8

Source: Grading Rubrics for Reflection Journal Entries retrieved from

https://people.richland.edu/fbrenner/syllabus/reflectrubric.html

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 Module 2:
Speaking Mathematically

Introduction
M athematics can be thought of as a language filled with vocabulary, symbols, and
sentence structures. Learning both mathematics and the language of mathematics is a
challenge for all. These can make things difficult for all who wish to relate math to their
everyday language and experiences. And like any language, we have to speak math
proficiently in order to use it efficiently. With these, this chapter is designed to introduce you
to the language of sets and relations and functions. As you work through this module, you will
be introduced to different notations and concepts on sets, relations, and functions that will help
building and deepen your knowledge in learning mathematics.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

 Describe sets.
 Solve problems involving operation of sets.
 Differentiate function and relation.
 Recognize relation that are not function.
 Determine the domain and range of a relation.

LESSON 1:
THE LANGUAGE OF SETS

Set

The concept of set is basic and it is impossible for us to define what set is. Set is simply
described in terms of the properties of those objects that belong to the set. Hence, set is
described as any group or collection of objects whose properties are well defined. This means
two things: the objects in the set, called elements must be distinguishable from each other
and description of the elements must be clear and unambiguous.
Set can be identified or named with the use of any capital letter or symbols. Elements
of sets are written with small letters or even the name of object itself, separated by commas,
within its braces. The symbol ∈ is utilized to indicate the membership of an obejct in a set
(element) and the symbol for not being a member or does not belong in a set (not an
element).

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Example 1: Determine whether each statement is set or not. If set, list down the
elements.

1. The set of all positive numbers less than 8.

2. The set of months with 30 days.
3. The set of even numbers divisible by 3 and less than 50.
4. The set of tall people.
5. The set of nice cars.

Solution:

1. The statement is a set.

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

2. The statement is a set.

M = { September, November, April, June}

3. The statement is a set.

S = {6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48}

4. The statement is not a set because people tend to disagree what “tall” means. The
word “tall” is not precise.
5. Same with number 4, the statement is not a set because people would not have
the same perception of what “nice” car is. The word “nice” is not precise.

Example 2: Determine whether each statement is true or false.

1. 6 is an element of all positive numbers less than 8.

2. 8 ∈ { 4, 5, 6, 7}
3. –6∈N
4. ½ Z

Solution:

1. Since 6 is an element of positive numbers less than 8, then the statement is true.
2. 8 is not an element of the given set, so the statement is false.
3. There is no negative natural number or counting number, so the statement is false.
4. Since ½ is not an element of integer, then the statement is true.

Basic Number Sets

The following sets of numbers are commonly used in mathematics.

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 Remember!

Natural Number or Counting Numbers N = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}

Whole Numbers W = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}
Integers Z = { ..., -4, -3, -2, -1, 0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...}
Rational Numbers Q = the set of all terminating or repeating decimals
Irrational Numbers Q’ = the set of all nonterminating, nonrepeating decimals
Real Numbers R = the set of all rational and irrational numbers

Set Description

In mathematics several ways the elements of a set can be described but for simplicity
of our discussion, we will be using the two methods: Roster and Rule Method.

1. Roster Method. Indicate a set by listing the elements separated by commas and
enclosing them in braces.

2. Rule Method. Describing the the set using words and enclosing them in braces.

Example 3: Use the roster and rule methods to represent the following sets:

1. The set of the days in a week.

2. The set of numbers divisible by 5 less than 50

Solution:

1. Roster Method: A = { Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday,

Saturday, Sunday}
Rule Method: A = {x | x is a day in a week}

2. Roster Method: B = { 5, 10, 15, 20,25, 30, 35, 40, 45}

Rule Method: B = { x | x is a number divisible by 5 less than 50}

Note: The vertical bar is read “such that” and the statement 2 is read as,
B is the set of all x such that x is a number divisible by 5 less than 50.

Types of Sets

1. Finite set. A set is said to be a finite set if all possible elements can be enumerated
or listed down.

Example 4: The set of vowel letters in the English alphabet.

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 A = {a, e, i, o, u}

2. Infinite set. A set is said to be an infinite set if all possible elements are uncountable
or unlimited and cannot be listed down. Since not all elements can be enumerated,
ellipses (...) is used to indicate the continuity of the elements.
Example 5: The set of counting numbers greater than 20.
A = {21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, ...}

3. Empty set. Also known as null set. A set that contains no elements. The symbol Ø or
{ } is used to represent the empty set.

Example 6: The set of counting numbers between 5 and 6.

A=Ø

4. Unit set. A set that contain only one element.

Example 7: A set of counting number less than 2.

A = {1}

5. Equivalent sets. Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent , denoted by A ~ B, if and
only if A and B have the same number of elements.

Example 8: A = { 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {a , b, c, d, e}. Since sets A and b have the

same number of elements, then A ~ B.

6. Equal sets. Two sets A and B are said to be equal, denoted by A = B, if and only if A
and B have exactly the same elements.

Example 9: A = {l, o, v, e} and B = {e, l, o, v}. Since sets A and b have the same
elements, then A = B.

7. Joint sets. Two sets A and B are said to be joint set if they contain at least one element
in common.

Example 10: If A = {1, 4, 5, 6} and B = { 2, 4, 8, 9}, then the sets are joints sets since
they contain one common element, 4.

8. Disjoint sets. Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint set if they do not contain
common element.

Example 11: A = { 1, 2, 3, 7} and B = {4, 5, 9}. Set A and set B are disjoint sets since
there is no common element.
9. Subset. Given two sets A and B, if every element of set A is also an element of set B,
then A is called a subset of B and we write it as A ⊆ B.

Example 12. Let A = {2, 4, 8} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Since, all the elements of set A
are contained in set B, then A ⊆ B.

10. Super set. Whenever a set A is a subset of set B, we say that B is a superset of A and
we write, B ⊇ A.

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 Example 13. Let A = {2, 4, 8} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Here, A ⊆ B but B ⊇ A.

11. Proper subset. If A and B are two sets, then A is called the proper subset of B, denoted
by A ⊂ B, if A ⊆ B and B ⊇ A but A ≠ B.

Example 14. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, we observe that, all the elements
of A are present in B but the element ‘5’ of B is not present in A. So, we
say that A is a proper subset of B. Symbolically, we write it as A ⊂ B.

12. Power set. The collection of all subsets of set A is called the power set of A. It is
denoted by P(A). In P(A), every element is a set including an empty set of A. The
number of subsets can be determined by using the formula 2 n, where n refers to the
number of elements in a given set.

Example 15: If A = {a, b, c} then the number of subsets of A is

23 = 8. Then all subsets of a will be
P(A) = {Ø,{a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}

13. Universal Set. If the set has all the possible elements under consideration, then the
set is know as universal set. It is denoted by U.

Example 16. If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = { 3, 4, 5} and C = { 6, 7, 8}, then the

U = {1 , 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

Operation of Sets

Sets can be combined in a number of different ways to produce another set. There are
operations that involved in a set. The following operations are union, intersection,
complementation, set difference, and cartesian product.

1. Union of Two Sets

The symbol U is employed to denote the union of two sets. Let us have two
sets A and B in symbol 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 read “A union B” or “the union of set A and Set B” – is
defined as the set that consist of all elements belonging to either set A or set B (or
both).

A U B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Example 17: Find the union of the following sets:

1. A = {2, 3, 4} and B = { 3, 4, 5}
2. D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and E = {5, 10, 15}

Solution:
1. A U B = {2, 3, 4, 5}
2. D U E = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15}

20
 Note: The elements of the union that are elements of both sets are listed
only once.

2. Intersection of two Sets

The intersection of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, read “A intersection B”

or “the intersection of set A and set B” is defined as the set of elements belongs to both
A and B, i.e. set of the common elements in A and B.

A Ո B = { x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Example 18: Find the intersection of the following sets:

1. A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}
2. C = {1, 3, 5} and D = {2, 4, 6}

Solution:
1. A Ո B = {1, 2}
2. C Ո D = Ø

Note: What happened in example 2? Since there are no common elements

to both two sets, then the intersection of the sets would be a null or empty
set.

3. Complement of a set

Let us consider set A. The complement of set A denoted by A’ read as “A

prime” is defined as the set whose elements are not in set A but elements of the
universal set U. In symbols,

A' = { x | x A but x ∈ U}

Example 19: Find the complement of set A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,

9, 10}

Solution:
A’ = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10}

Example 20: Let us consider the following sets:

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {2, 4, 5, 8, 9}

Give the elements of:

a. A’
b. (A Ո B)´

21
Solution:
a. A’ = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
b. (A Ո B)´ = (A Ո B) = {5, 9}
(A Ո B)´ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10}
4. Set difference

Given set A and set B, the set difference of set B from set A is the set of all
elements in A, but not in B. In symbols:

A - B = { x | x ∈ A but x B}

Example 21: Find the difference.

1. Given set A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g} and B = {a, c, f, h, k, u}, find 𝐴 − 𝐵.

2. Find 𝐵 − 𝐴 from the given sets below.
A = {x | x is a number greater than 6 and less than 10}
B = { x | x is a number less than 15}

Solution:
1. A – B = { b, d, e, g}
2. First write the sets in roster method to view the elements
A = { 7, 8, 9}
B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}
B – A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}

5. Cartesian Product

The cartesian product of sets A and B, denoted A × B, is the set of all possible
ordered pairs where the elements of A are first and the elements of B are second.

In set-builder notation, A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

Example 22. Find A x B, whose set 𝐴 = {𝐻, 𝑇} and 𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4, }

Solution:

𝐴 x B = {(H, 1), (H, 2), (H, 3), (H, 4), (T, 1), (T, 2), (T, 3), (T, 4)}

Example 23. A couple is planning their wedding. They have three nieces (Ann, Betty,
and Deanne) and two nephews (Ed, Fred). How many different pairings
are possible to have one boy and one girl as a ring bearer and flower girl?

Solution:
This problem can be considered as cartesian product.

Let A be the set of nieces A = {Ann, Betty, Deanne}

22
 Let B be the set of nephews B = {Ed, Fred}
A x B = { (Ann, Ed), (Ann, Fred), (Betty, Ed), (Betty, Fred), (Deanne, Ed),
(Deanne, Fred)}

Thus, the number of pairs is 6.

Venn Diagram

A Venn Diagram is a pictorial representation of the relationships between two or more

sets. We can represent sets using Venn diagrams. In a Venn diagram, the sets are
represented by shapes; usually circles or ovals. The elements of a set are labeled within the
circle.
The following diagrams show some set operations and Venn diagrams for complement
of a set, disjoint sets, subsets, intersection and union of sets.

Set A A’ complement of A

A and B are disjoint sets B is a proper subset of A

U U

A intersect B A union B
The set of all elements being considered, the universal set is represented by a
rectangle.

Example 24. In a class of 80 students, each of the students passed either in Mathematics or
in English or in both. 50 students passed in both and 20 passed in English. Find
how many students passed in Mathematics?

23
Solution: Let "x" be the number of students passed in Mathematics. By representing the
given details in Venn diagram, we get

x 50 20

M E

From the Venn diagram:

x + 50 + 20 = 80
x = 80 - 70 = 10
x = 10

Number of students who passed in Mathematics

= x + 50 = 10 + 50 = 60

Therefore, 60 students passed in Mathematics.

Example 25. The population of a town is 5000. Out of these, 1500 individuals read newspaper
A and 2700 read newspaper B. 1000 individuals read both newspapers. Find
the number of individuals who do not read neither of the two papers.

Solution: Let: A = The set of individuals who read newspaper A

B = The set of individuals who read newspaper B

1500 2700
-1000 1000 -1000
500 1700
A B

Number of persons who read at least one newspaper

= 500 + 1000 + 1700

= 3200
To find the number of individuals who do not read neither of the two papers, we
have to subtract number of persons who read at least one from total population.

= 5000 - 3200
= 1800

So, the number of individuals who do not read neither of the two papers is 1800.

24
Example 26. In a school, all the students play either basketball or volleyball or both. 80
students play basketball, 75 students play volleyball and 60 students play both
games. Find
a. the number of students who play Basketball only.
b. the number of students who play Volleyball only.
c. the total number of students in the school.

Solution: Let B = The set of students who play basketball

V = The set of students who play volleyball

80 75
- 60 60 - 20
20 55
B V

a. The number of students who play basketball only is 20

b. The number of students who play volleyball only is 55

c. The total number of students in the school

= 20 + 55 + 60
= 135

Example 27. There are 100 students surveyed and asked which of the following subjects they
take this semester: Mathematics, English, or Biology. The result revealed that
35 responded English, 50 responded Mathematics, 29 responded Biology, 12
responded Mathematics and English, 8 responded English and Biology, 11
responded Biology and Math, and 5 responded all. Determine

a. How many students are not taking any of the three subjects?
b. How many students take Math, but not Biology or English?
c. How many students take Math and English, but not Biology?

Solution: In this problem, we have four regions which overlap. The easiest strategy is to start
at the center, the part where the three circles overlap. In short, we start from bottom
to the top in the result above.

1. Five students responded that they took all

the subjects, so we put 5 at the center.

25
 2. Eleven responded Biology and Math. So,
we should put it in the Biology-Math
overlap. However, of the 11 who takes
Biology and Math, 5 were also
taking English as shown in (1). So, there
are 11-5 = 6 students in the Math-Biology
overlap.

3. Eight responded Biology and English. But of

those 8 taking Biology and English, 5 are also
taking Math. So, there are 8 – 5 = 3 students
who are taking Biology and English.

Also, there are 12 students who are taking

Math and English, and of those 12, 5 are also
taking Biology, so there are 12 – 5 = 7 who
are taking Math and English. Now see the
next figure to see how the Venn diagram
should look like after this step.

4. Next, 29 students responded Biology. But

notice that 6, 5, and 3 are already in the
Biology circle. So, we subtract those students
from 29. That is, 29 – (6 + 5 + 3) = 29 – 14 =
15. So, there are 15 students who take only
Biology.

5. Lastly, there are 50 students who are taking

Math and 35 who are taking English. But in
the Math circle there are 6 + 5 + 7 students
who are also taking the other subjects and in
the English circle there
are 3 + 5 + 7 students who are also taking
the other subjects. Therefore, we can have
the following calculations:

Number of students who take only Math = 50

– (6 + 5 + 7) = 32

Number of Students who take only English =

35 – (3 + 5 + 7) = 20

a. To answer the first question, how many students did not take any of the three subjects,
recall that there are 100 students who were surveyed. If we add all the numbers in the

26
 diagram, 15 + 32 + 20 + 6 + 7 + 3 + 5, the sum is only 88. Therefore, 100 – 88 = 12
students did not take any of the three subjects.

b. The number of students taking Math, but not Biology nor English is 32.

c. The number of students who are taking Math and English is 7.

LESSON 2
THE LANGUAGE OF RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Relation

When you group two or more points in a set, it is referred to as a relation. When you
want to show that a set of points is a relation, you list the points in ordered pairs. A relation is
just a set of ordered pairs. There is absolutely nothing special at all about the numbers that
are in relation. In other words, any bunch of numbers is a relation so long as these numbers
come in pairs.

Example 28: {(2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 8), (6, 7) usually written in set notation.

where: Range or inputs (x – values) = {2, 3, 4, 6}

Domain or outputs (y – values) = {4, 5, 8, 7}

You will notice in the above example that, relation shows the relationship between
INPUT and OUTPUT, merely the range and domain. There are other ways to write the relation
aside from set notation such as through tables, plotting in XY coordinates and mapping
diagram as shown below;

27
 X Y y

2 1 2 1

2 -2 2 -2
x
0 -3 -3
0
1 4
1 4
3 1
3 1

Relation in table Relation in Graph Relation in mapping diagram

What is a Function?

Function relates an input to an output

Range or
Input
(independent variable)
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)
output
Name of function
Domain or
(dependent variable)

A function is a relation when each element of the domain is paired to exactly one
element in the range. In other words, there is one and only one output (y) with each input (x).

Function can be illustrated as of the following;

1. Set of Order pairs

{(3, 5), (6, 8), (2, 4), (7, 1)} Function

{(4, 2), (3, 2), (5, 2), (6, 2)} Function

{(1, 2), (0, 3), (1, 6), (5, 4)} Not a Function

The first two examples are functions since for every one output there is one
corresponding input unlike the third example that there is two or more output to a
single input, therefore it is not a function. Note that, the first element (x – domain) is
the independent variable, while the second element (y – range) is the dependent
variable.

28
2. Mapping or arrow diagram

Examples:

3 a 3
4 b 4
5 5 8
c 9
Function One to One Relation Function Many to One Relation

3 3 1
4 4 7
9
5 5

Not function, One to Many Relations Not function, not all elements are represented

3. Graphing

Vertical line test

y y

x x

Function Function Function

Vertical line passes only once in the graph; therefore, it is a function.

29
 Not Function Not Function

The vertical line passes through more than one point of the graph, therefore that
relation is not a function.

Evaluating a Function

When we have a function in formula form, it is usually a simple matter to evaluate the
function. For example, the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 − 3𝑥 2 can be evaluated by squaring the input
value, multiplying by 3, and then subtracting the product from 5.

How will you evaluate a function given its formula?

Follow this simple step:

1. Replace the input variable in the formula with the value provided.
2. Calculate the result.

Example 29: Evaluate the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 when x = 4

Solution:

𝑓(4) = (4)2 + 2(4) replacing the input in the formula

𝑓(4) = 16 + 8 calculating the result

𝑓(4) = 24 answer

30
 Module Exercises
Direction: Answer the following. Show all pertinent solutions.

1. If A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {3, 5, 6} and C = {1, 3, 7}

a. Verify that A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
b. Verify A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

2. Let A = {a, b, d, e}, B = {b, c, e, f} and C = {d, e, f, g}

a. Verify A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
b. Verify A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

3. If A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 3}, then

a. Find A x B
b. B x A
c. A x A
d. B x B
4. Let 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
𝑇 = {2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9}
𝐽 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10}

Find the elements of:

a. (𝐽 ∩ 𝑇)𝑥 𝐽
b. 𝐽′ ∩ 𝑇′

5. In a class of 60 students, it was found that 24 are taking Literature, 18 are taking
Algebra, 30 are taking up History, 8 are taking Algebra and Literature, 12 are taking
Algebra and History, 14 are taking Literature and History, while 5 are taking up all the
three subjects. How many students are taking up the following subject/s?
a. Algebra only
b. Literature only
c. History only
d. Algebra but not Literature
e. How many are not taking up any of the courses?

6. A group of 50 Filipino tourists went on a summer vacation to Europe last summer. Of

this number, 24 went to Germany, 21 went to Spain, 18 went to Italy, 12 went to
Germany and Spain, 8 went to Spain and Italy, 8 went to Germany and Italy, and 5
went to these three places.
a. How many of them visited Germany only?
b. How many of them visited Spain and Italy but not Germany?
c. How many of them visited Italy but not Spain?
d. How many of them did not go to any of these places?

31
7. What is the domain of the following ordered pairs? List your answer in an increasing
order.{(12, 5), (4, 10), (2, 6), (7, 9)}

8. What is the range of the following ordered pairs? List your answer in an increasing
order: {(4, −3), (12, −14), (11, 1), (−2, 4), (9, 7)}

9. Which of this could be a function? Why?

a) {(1, 4), (3, 2), (2, 7), (0, 6)}

b) {(2, 8), (−2, 9), (−2, 10), (−3, 11)}
c) {(3, 5), (3, 2), (−3, 4), (3, 3)}
d) {(1, 3), (3, 8), (3, 1), (−2, 2)}

10. Which of these mapping diagrams represent a function? Why?

a. b.

11 -2
3 9
-3 0
-1 12
1 14
8 15
5 -6

11. Which of these is a function? Why?

a. b.

12. Fill in the table base using the equation 𝑦 = −2𝑥

X 1 -1 -2 2

32
13. Evaluate 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 7 when x = 2.

14. Evaluate 𝑓(𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 8 when x = 2

15. People often buy different things from the supermarket. If one constructs a table with
the cost of the supermarket shopping and the time spent on shopping as variables, will
the ordered pairs from this data represent a function or a relation? Why?

33
 Module3:
Problem Solving

Introduction
M ost occupations require workers to have good problem-solving skills . For instance,
engineers and architects must solve many complicated problems as they design and construct
modern buildings that are aesthetically functional, pleasing, and that meet stringent safety
requirements. Two goals of this chapter are to help you become a better problem solver and
to demonstrate that problem solving can be an enjoyable experience.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to:

 Differentiate inductive reasoning from deductive reasoning.

 Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made
about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
 Solve problems using inductive and deductive reasoning.
 Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems.
 Solve problems employing Polya’s four steps.
 Increase awareness on the importance of reasoning and problem solving

LESSON 1:
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive and deductive reasoning are considered the two fundamental forms of
reasoning for mathematicians. Inductive reasoning is a process that makes use of our
knowledge in making a general inference about unfamiliar occurrences based on observation
and patterns. For example, students use this type of reasoning when they look at many
different quadrilaterals, and try to list the characteristics they have in common. The reasoning
process is enhanced by considering figures that are not quadrilaterals and discussing how
they are different.
An example of inductive reasoning is, for example, when you notice that all the dogs
you see around are black and white so you make the conclusion that all dogs in the world are
black and white. Can you say for certain that this conclusion is correct? No, because it is based

34
on just a few observations. However, it is the beginning of forming a correct conclusion, or a
correct proof.This observation has given you a starting hypothesis to test out.

Remember!
Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion
by examining specific examples.

By examinining a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list according to
some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning.

Example 1. Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following list.

a. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, _____ b. 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, _____

Solution:

a. Each successive number is 4 greater than the preceding number. Thus, we predict
that the next number in the list is 4 greater than 20, which is 24.
b. Each preceding number is doubled to get the succeeding number. The number 16
is obtained by multiplying 8 by 2. The number 32 is obtained by mutltiplying 16 by
2. Since the last number is 32, we predict that that next number is 64. It is obtained
by mutlpying 32 by 2.

Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list. In the
succeeding example, we use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about an arithmetic
procedure.

Example 2. Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add
15 to the product, divide the sum by 3, and subtract 5.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the
resulting number and the size of the original number.

Solution:
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the original number would
produce the following results:
Original number: 5
Multiply by 9: 9 x 5 = 45
Add 15: 45 + 15 = 60
Divide by 3: 60 ÷ 3 = 20
Subtract 3: 20 – 5 = 15

35
 We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 15. Starting with 6 as our
original number produces a final result of 18. Starting with 10 produces a final result of 30.
Starting with 100 produces a final result of 300. In each of these cases, the resulting number
is three times the original number. We conjecture that following the given procedure produces
a number that is three times the original number.

Counterexamples

A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one
case for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false
statement. In Example 3, we verify that each statement is a false statement by finding a
counterexample for each.

Example 3. Find a Counterexample

Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a

counterexample.

For all numbers x:

a. |x| > 0 b. x2 > x

Solution:

A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only to find one
counterexample to verify that the statement is false.

a. Let x = 0. Then /0/ = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a

counterexample. Thus, “for all numbers x, /x/ > 0” is a false statement.
b. For x = 1, we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a
counterexample. Thus, “for all numbers x, x2 > x” is a false statement.

QUESTION: How many counterexample is needed to prove that a statement is

false?

Deductive Reasoning

Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is

distinguished from inductive reasoning that it is the process if reaching a conclusion by
applying general principles and procedures. Deductive reasoning involves making a logical
argument, drawing conclusions, and applying generalizations to specific situations. For
example, once students have developed an understanding of “triangle”, they apply that
generalization of new figures to decide whether or not each is a triangle. The conclusions
reached by this type of reasoning are valid and can be relied on.

36
 Remember!
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by
applying general assumptions, procedures or principles.

Illustrative Examples
1. If a number is divisible by 2, then it must be even.
12 is divisible by 2.
Therefore, 12 is an even number.

2. All Mathematics teachers know how to play Sudoku.

Resty is a Math teacher.
Therefore, Resty knows how to play Sudoku.

3. If a student is a DOST scholar, he receives a monthly allowance.

If a student receives a monthly scholar, his parents will be happy.
Therefore, if a student is a DOST scholar, his parents will be happy.

4. If ∠A and ∠ B are supplementary angles, their sum is 180°.

If m⦞∠A = 100°, then m∠ B = 80°.

Example 4. Use Deductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure will a number that
is four times the original number.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide
the sum by 2, and subtract 3.

Solution:
Let n represents the original number.

Multiply the number by 8: 8n

Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2: (8n + 6) / 2 = 4n + 3
Subtract 3: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n

Inductive Reasoning vs Deductive Reasoning

In example 5, we will analyze arguments to determine whether they used inductive

reasoning or deductive reasoning.

37
Example 5. Determine Types of Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive

reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last
year, the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums
b. All home improvement cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated
that my home improvement will cost P70,000. Thus, my home improvement
will cost more than P70,000.

Solution:

a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is an

example of inductive reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this argument
is an example of deductive reasoning.

Logic Puzzles

Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that enables us
to display the given information in visual manner.

Example 6. Solve a Logic Puzzle

Each of four neighbors, Flor, Lyn, Erl, and Cha, has a different occupation
(teacher, banker, chef, or broker). From the following clues, determine the
occupation of each neighbor.

1. Lyn gets home from work after the banker but before the broker.
2. Erl, who is the last to get home from work, is not the teacher.
3. The broker and Erl leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Cha.

Solution:
From clue 1, Lyn is neither the banker nor the broker. In the following chart,
write X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue 1”) in the Banker and the Broker columns
of Flor’s row

Teacher Banker Chef Broker

Flor
Lyn X1 X1
Linda
Cha

38
 From clue 2, Erl is not the teacher. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in the teacher
column of Erl’s row. We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get home,
and we know from clue 2 that Linda is the last to get home; therefore, Lyn is not the
banker. Write X2 in the Banker column of Erl’s row.

Teacher Banker Chef Broker

Flor
Lyn X1 X1
Erl X2 X2
Cha

From clue 3, Erl is not the broker. Write X3 for this condition. There are now Xs
for three of the four occupations in Erl’s row; therefore Erl must be the Chef. Put a /
(check mark) in that box. Since Erl is the chef, none of the other three people can be
the chef. Write X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four
occupations in Lyn’s row; therefore, Lyn must be the teacher. Insert a / (check mark)
to indicate that Lyn is the teacher, and write X3 twice to indicate that neither Flor nor
Cha is the teacher.

Teacher Banker Chef Broker

Flor X3 X3
Lyn / X1 X3 X1
Erl X2 X2 / X3
Cha X3 X3

From clue 4, Cha is not the banker. Write X4 for this condition. See the following
table. Since there are three Xs in the Banker column, Flor must be the Banker. Put a /
in that box. Thus Flor cannot be the broker. Write X4 in that box. Since there are Xs in
the broker column, Cha must be the broker. Put a / in that box.

Teacher Banker Chef Broker

Flor X3 / X3 X4
Lyn / X1 X3 X1
Erl X2 X2 / X3
Cha X3 X4 X3 /

Flor is the banker, Lyn is the teacher, Erl is the chef, and Cha is the broker.

LESSON 2:
KENKEN PUZZLE

KenKen is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle invented by Tetsuya Miyamoto, a

Japanese mathematics teacher, in 2004. The noun “kenken” has “knowledge” and
“awareness” as their meanings. Hence, Kenken translates as knowledge squared, or
awareness squared.

39
 In the previous years, the KenKen’s popularity has increased at a dramatic rate. More
than a million of KenKen puzzle books have been sold, and KenKen puzzles now appear in
many famous nerwspapers, including the New York Times and the Boston Globe.
Similar to Sudoku puzzles, KenKen puzzles also require you to perform arithmetic to
solve the puzzle.

Remember!

Rules for Solving KenKen Puzzle

1) For a 3 by 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with one of the
numbers 1, 2, or 3.
2) For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1,
2, 3, or 4.
3) For a n by n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1,
2, 3, …, n.

Grids range in size from a 3 by 3 up to a 9 by 9.

 A number in any row or column must not be repeated
 The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares (cages), must
combine (in some order) to produce the target number in the top left
corner of the cage using the mathematical operation indicated.
 Cages with only one square should be filled in with the target number.
 A number may be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same
row or column.

Following is a is a 4 by 4 puzzle with its solution. Puzzles that are constructed properly
have a unique solution.

40
Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies

Single-Square Cages. Fill cages that consist of a single square with the target number for
that square.

Cages with Two Squares. Examine the cages with exactly two squares. Many cages that
cover two squares will just have two digits that can be used to fill the cage. For instance, in a
5 by 5 puzzle, a 10X cage with exactly two squares can only be filled with 2 and 5 or 5 and 2.

Large or Small Target Numbers. Search for cages that have an unusually large or small
target number. These cages generally have only a few combinations of numbers that can be
used to fill the cage.

Examples:
In a 6 by 6 puzzle, a 120x cage with exactly three squares can only be filled with 4, 5,
and 6.

A 3+ cage with exactly two squares can only be filled with 1 and 2.

Duplicate Digit in a Cage. Consider a 3x cage. The digits 1, 1, and 3 produce a product of 3;
however, we cannot place the two 1s in the same row or the same column. Thus the only way
to fill the squares is to place the 3 in the corner of the L-shaped caged as shown below.
Remember: A digit can occur more than once in a cage, provided that it does not appear in
the same row or in the same column.

Remember the Following Rules

In an n by n puzzle, each row and column must contain every digit from 1 to n.

In a 2-square cage involving subtraction or division, the order of the numbers in the
cage is not important. For instance, a 3- cage with two squares could be filled with 1 and 4 or
with 4 and 1. A 3÷ cage with two squares could be filled with 1 and 3 or with 3 and 1.

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 LESSON 3
POLYA’S PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) suggests that problem

solving plays an important role in mathematics and should have a popular role in the
mathematics of K-12 students. The term “problem solving” refers to mathematical tasks that
have potential to provide intellectual challenges for enhancing students’ mathematical
understanding and development.

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving was
George Polya (1887-1985). He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940.
The basic problem solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the following four steps.

Remember!
Polya’s Four-step Problem Solving Strategy
1. Understand the Problem
2. Devise a Plan
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.

Understand the Problem. Before anything else, you must understand the problem. Have a
full grasp of what are known and unknown. To help you understand the problem, consider the
following.
 Restate the problem using your own words
 List what is known about these types of problems
 Determine missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the problem
 Identify the goal

Devise a Plan. Apply strategies. To devise a plan requires skill and own judgment. Some
strategies are as follows .
 Make a list of the known information.
 Make a list of information that is needed.
 Draw a diagram.
 Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
 Make a table or a chart.
 Work backwards.
 Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
 Look for a pattern.
 Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
 Perform an experiment
 Guess at a solution and then check your result.

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Carry Out the Plan. After devising a plan, you must carry it out.
 Implement the stragegy in Step 2 and perform anh necessary actions or computations.
 Check each step of the plan as you proceed; this may be intuitive checking or a formal
proof of each step.
 Keep an accurate record of your steps as you implement your devised plan.

Look back. Once you have found a solution, look back at what you have done.
 Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
 Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
 Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply to other
problems.

Example 7. Apply Polya’s Strategy (Make an organized list)

A baseball team won two out of their fast four games. In how many different orders
could they have two wins and two losses in four games?

Solution.

Understand the Problem

There are many different orders. They team may have won two straight games and
lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the first two games and won the last two
(LLWW). Of course there are other possibilities, such as WLWL.

Devise a Plan

We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized list is a list that
is produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed
once and only once.

Carry Out the Plan

Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We will use a strategy that makes
sure each order is considered, with no duplications. Once such strategy is to always
write a W unless doing so will produce to many. Ws or a duplicate of one of the previous
orders. If it is not possible to write a W, then and only then do we write an L. This strategy
produces the six different orders shown below.
1. WWLL (Start with two wins)
2. WLWL (Start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (Start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (Start with two losses)

Look back

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 We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list considers all
possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a baseball
team can win exactly two out of four games

Module Exercises

NAME: __________________________________ Course/Year/Section:_________

Student Number: __________________________

In items 1 to 7, use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list.

1) 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, ________

2) 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, _________
3) 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, __________
4) 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, __________
5) 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, __________
6) 2, 7, -3, 2, -8, -3, -13, -8, -18, _________
7) 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, _________

In items 8 to 11, use inductive reasoning to decide whether each statement is Correct or
Wrong.
Note: The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … are called counting numbers or natural numbers. Any
counting number n divided by 2 produces a remainder of 0 or 1. If n ÷ 2 has a remainder of 0,
then n is an even counting number. If n ÷ 2 has a remainder of 1, then n is an odd counting
number.

8) The sum of any two even counting numbers is always an even counting number.
__________________
9) The product of an odd counting numbers is always an odd counting number.
___________________
10) The product of two odd counting numbers is always an odd counting numbers is
always an odd counting number.
11) The sum of two odd counting numbers is always an odd counting number.
___________________

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In items 12 to 17 find a number that provides a counterexample to show that the given
statement is false.

1
12 For all numbers x, x > Answer: ________________________
𝑥
𝑥
13) For all numbers x, 𝑥 + > 𝑥 Answer: ________________________
𝑥

14) For all numbers x, x3 ≥ x Answer: ________________________

15) For all numbers x, /x + 3/ = /x/ + 3 Answer: ________________________
16) For all numbers x, -x < x Answer: ________________________

17) Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure will always produce a
number that is equal to the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiple the number by 6 and add 8. Divide the sum by 2,
subtract twice the original number, and subtract 4.

18) Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure always produce the
number 5.
Procedure: Pick a number. Add 4 to the number and multiply the sum by 3. Subtract 7
and then decrease this difference by the triple of the original number.

In items 19 to 20, determine whether the argument is an example of inductive reasoning or

deductive reasoning.

19) All books written by J.K. Rowling make the best-seller list. The book Harry Potter and
the Deathly Hallows is a J.K. Rowling book. Therefore, Harry Potter and the Deathly
Hallows made the bestseller list.
20) We had rain each day for the last five days, so it will rain today.

Problem Solving:

Direction: Answer the following problems

1. Janet, Letty, Becky, and Rolly won as the new class officers (President, Vice president,
Secretary,Treasurer) of the sophomore class at Sunbeam Institute of Technology.

From the following clues, determine which position each holds:

a. Rolly is younger than the President but older than the Treasurer.
b. Janet and the secretary are of the same age, and they are the youngest
members of the group.
c. Becky and the secretary are close friends..

President Vice-Pres Secretary Treasurer

Janet
Letty
Becky
Rolly

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 Answer: President: ______________ Secretary: ________________
Vice-Pres.:________________ Treasurer: ________________

2. Solve each of the following puzzles.

3. Using Polya’s Strategy, solve the following problem. Show your step-by-step solution

Problem: A true-or-false quiz contains five questions. In how many ways can a student
answer the questions if the student answers three of the questions with “true”
and the other two with “false”?

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