sustainability
Communication
An Improved Understanding of Natural Hazards and
Disasters through the Use of Satellite Technologies:
Contributions from UN-SPIDER
Juan Carlos Villagran de Leon
Citation: Villagran de Leon, J.C. An
Improved Understanding of Natural
Hazards and Disasters through the
Use of Satellite Technologies:
Contributions from UN-SPIDER.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
su151310624
Academic Editors: Navneet Kumar,
Bikash Ranjan Parida and Antonio
Miguel Martínez-Graña
Received: 31 March 2023
Revised: 19 June 2023
Accepted: 28 June 2023
Published: 5 July 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the author.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310624
UN-SPIDER Programme, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), A-1400 Vienna, Austria;
juan-carlos.villagran@un.org; Tel.: +49-228-815-0682
Abstract: This communication informs on how the UN-SPIDER program of the United Nations
Office for Outer Space Affairs contributes to the efforts of the United Nations’ system to mobilize
international cooperation to mitigate the risks related to natural hazards, to coordinate disaster
relief efforts, and to facilitate the links between disaster response and recovery. This communication
presents information on how UN-SPIDER shapes its advisory support to developing countries to
contribute to the institutionalization of the use of space-based data, information, products, and
services by government agencies in charge of disaster management. It does so by providing examples
of step-by-step procedures developed using open software and open satellite imagery; information
regarding some of the efforts carried out by the program to facilitate access to space-based information
provided by mechanisms established by the space community to support disaster response efforts
worldwide; and information on its advisory support to developing countries, including training
efforts. Lastly, this paper shows that the approach implemented by UN-SPIDER is allowing national
disaster management agencies and other government agencies and ministries to institutionalize the
use of space-based data, information, products, and services.
Keywords: UN-SPIDER; space technologies for disaster management; disaster response; flood
hazard mapping; rapid flood mapping; burn severity mapping; storm surge hazard mapping; early
warning systems
1. Introduction
Disasters have triggered damages and losses around the world and claimed lives
throughout the centuries, and continue to do so. Population growth, migration to urban
areas, lack of experience, inadequate land use norms, poverty, and climate change are
among the stressors that are increasing those impacts and losses worldwide. While de-
veloping countries suffer the greatest impacts, history shows time and time again that
natural hazards also trigger disasters in developed countries. Between the years 2000 and
2019, the Center for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) reported that there
were 7348 events worldwide, claiming 1.23 million lives, and leading to nearly 3 trillion US
dollars in economic losses [1].
Institutionalized approaches to confront the impacts of disasters at the national level
began to take shape many decades ago through the establishment of national emergency
management agencies or national disaster management committees. The aim of these
institutions has been to facilitate the coordination of inter-institutional efforts to respond to
the impacts of disasters. Such efforts include the immediate response via search and rescue
operations, taking care of those injured or killed, setting up temporary shelters to host
those affected, rehabilitating lifelines, and subsequently enabling reconstruction efforts.
While efforts to minimize the impacts of natural hazards were implemented in devel-
oped nations several decades ago, efforts to promote such a goal at the international level of
the United Nations began with the launch of the International Decade for Natural Disaster
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624 2 of 15

Reduction by the United Nations General Assembly during its forty-second session in
December 1987 [2]. The General Assembly requested the organizations and agencies of the
United Nations to focus on this issue.
Since then, the United Nations established the Office for the Coordination of Humani-
tarian Affairs (UNOCHA) to coordinate response efforts on behalf of the United Nations
system when a country is impacted by a disaster. In addition, since 1994 the United Nations
has launched several international frameworks to advocate for efforts to reduce the risks
associated with disasters [3–5].
Several decades ago, the space community recognized the benefits of the use of space-
based data and information to contribute to disaster response and recovery efforts. It has
been facilitating the use of satellite imagery and information generated from that imagery
and advocating for an increased use of such space-based information worldwide. At the
end of the year 2000, several space agencies joined forces to establish the International
Charter Space and Major Disasters [6]. Since then, this emergency mechanism has been
activated more than 800 times to support disaster response efforts worldwide.
In April 2012, the Copernicus Program launched its Copernicus Emergency Manage-
ment Service that is contributing to disaster response efforts worldwide [7]. The usefulness
of space technologies has been recognized and explicitly included in the Hyogo and the
Sendai Frameworks for Action.
Convinced of the usefulness of space-based information in disaster management
efforts worldwide, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) launched the United
Nations Platform for Space-based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency
Response (UN-SPIDER) in December 2006 as a program under the United Nations Office
for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) [8].
In recent years, the Copernicus program launched three very useful services: the
Global Flood Awareness System (GLOFAS), the Global Drought Observatory (GDO), and
the Global Wildland Fire Information System (GWIS). These three services, under the
umbrella of the Copernicus Emergency Management Service, are contributing to an im-
proved understanding of these natural hazards and their impacts on urban and rural areas
worldwide. Much of the information provided through these services is generated using
space-based data. To show UN-SPIDER’s advisory role, this contribution is divided as
follows. First, it informs on the efforts carried out by the program and its Regional Support
Offices (RSOs) to develop step-by-step procedures to use space-based data to generate
maps and information that are tailored to the needs of the disaster management community.
Second, it illustrates the efforts carried out by the program to facilitate the link between
NDMAs and the International Charter Space and Major Disasters. Finally, it presents
information on the advisory support provided by the program to developing countries
through national and regional training courses.

2. Materials and Methods

As stated earlier, UN-SPIDER encourages the use of space-based applications and
information in developing countries. It works in coordination with UNDRR, UNOCHA,
and other UN agencies and organizations in the provision of advisory support to developing
countries, and in coordination with the national offices of the Resident Coordinators of the
United Nations in the countries it is supporting.
UN-SPIDER tailors its advisory support using the conceptual frameworks of disaster
risk management and the disaster management cycle that were developed by the disaster
management community a couple of decades ago [9]. Satellite imagery provides useful
information on surface features including built infrastructure, land use, and land cover,
which can be used to assess some hazards. In addition, it provides the most up-to-date
information on all elements exposed to hazards. In a complementary fashion, digital
elevation models developed by the space community provide geospatial information that
can be used in combination with in-situ data to assess hazards such as floods, tsunamis,
landslides, and storm surges.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624 3 of 15

The disaster management cycle has been structured in terms of several phases that
include prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. Disaster risk reduc-
tion efforts are implemented in the prevention, mitigation, and preparedness phases to
minimize the level or risk. In a complementary fashion, disaster risk reduction efforts are
implemented during the recovery phase to avoid the reconstruction of risks after a disaster.
Considering the recurrence of hazards, these phases have been structured as a cycle.
Since its establishment, and with the support of its RSOs and other Centers of Ex-
cellence, UN-SPIDER has advocated for the use of space-based information to address
those challenges posed by natural hazards and provides advisory support to developing
countries. As mandated by the UNGA, the program focuses on developing countries.
As part of its duty to provide advisory support, UN-SPIDER carries out technical
advisory missions and surveys to identify the constraints identified by the disaster man-
agement community regarding access to data, information, products, and services offered
by the space community. Some of the constraints identified by disaster managers in
developing countries include the difficulty to access scientific and technical articles in
peer-reviewed journals, the lack of step-by-step procedures to process satellite imagery to
generate geospatial information in the format used by the disaster management community,
and the incapacity to acquire specialized commercial software to process satellite imagery
to generate relevant space-based information in a timely manner. Additional challenges
identified by UN-SPIDER in these same countries include the lack of awareness of decision
makers regarding the wide variety of solutions developed by the space community that
can be used in disaster management applications and the lack of training opportunities for
technical staff engaged in the generation and use of geospatial information in applications
in all phases of the disaster management cycle.
To address these challenges, in 2014 UN-SPIDER began to work with experts from its
RSOs and from Centers of Excellence to develop step-by-step procedures to process satellite
imagery to generate specific types of space-based information, and to facilitate access to
websites that host data, products, and software that can be used to access or generate
geospatial information on natural hazards. The information has been incorporated in the
UN-SPIDER Knowledge Portal (https://www.un-spider.org/ accessed on 4 June 2023).
In addition, and as part of its advisory support, the program trains specialists and
professionals working in national disaster management agencies, other government agen-
cies, and ministries in developing countries on the use of these step-by-step procedures
developed by UN-SPIDER, called recommended practices. In a complementary fashion,
it presents to decision makers the benefits of the use of solutions developed by the space
community to encourage their use in disaster management and other government agencies.
The impact of these efforts is manifested through the requests for additional advisory
support solicited by developing countries. Between 2008 and 2022, UN-SPIDER carried out
advisory missions to 50 developing countries in Africa, Asia, Asia Pacific, Latin America,
and the Caribbean. Several of these were fact-finding missions, while others focused on
training activities or for institutional strengthening. Another way of tracking this impact
is through the statistics of visitors to the UN-SPIDER Knowledge Portal. The number of
visitors to the site has increased steadily since it was launched in 2009. The Knowledge
Portal offers an array of links to websites that host satellite imagery, products and services,
and the explicit pages that present the recommended practices are among the most visited
monthly. Such impacts serve as a reference for the program to continue facilitating the
discovery of space-based data, information, products, and services, and the development
of additional recommended practices and additional content than can be used to confront
the challenges posed by such hazards.
This process requires information regarding the data, products, procedures, and
services offered by the space community; regarding the conceptual frameworks employed
by the disaster management community; and an understanding regarding how the disaster
management community uses geospatial information.
 This process requires information regarding the data, products, procedures, and ser-
vices offered by the space community; regarding the conceptual frameworks employed
by the disaster management community; and an understanding regarding how the disas-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624 ter management community uses geospatial information. 4 of 15
Information regarding the data, products, procedures, and services provided by the
space community and the conceptual frameworks employed by the disaster management
community
Information can regarding
be extracted from products,
the data, the institutional
procedures,webpages of space
and services agencies
provided by and
the re-
gional
space and national
community and thedisaster management
conceptual frameworksagencies,
employedas well
by theas disaster
from themanagement
literature pub-
community
lished by manycan be institutions
extracted from andtheregional
institutional
and webpages
internationalof space agencies andInregional
organizations. a comple-
and national
mentary disaster
fashion, themanagement
understanding agencies,
regardingas well
howasthe from the literature
disaster management published by
community
many institutions and regional and international organizations.
uses space-based and geospatial information is derived from the findings that emerge In a complementary
fashion, the understanding
from technical regardingcarried
advisory missions how the disaster
out management
by UN-SPIDER to community
developinguses space-and
countries
based
from and geospatial
continuous information is derived
communication with thefrom staffthe of findings
NDMAsthat emerge Asia,
in Africa, from technical
Asia Pacific,
advisory missions carried
Latin America, and the Caribbean.out by UN-SPIDER to developing countries and from continuous
communication with the staff
This understanding of NDMAs
allows UN-SPIDER in Africa, Asia, what
to shape Asia Pacific,
the space Latin America, and
community is offer-
the Caribbean.
ing in a format that can be used more easily by the disaster management community.
This understanding allows UN-SPIDER to shape what the space community is offering
Most of the recommended practices are developed to be used with open software
in a format that can be used more easily by the disaster management community.
packages such as R Studio, ESA’s Sentinel Applications Platform (SNAP), Quantum GIS,
Most of the recommended practices are developed to be used with open software
or Python.
packages such The recommended
as R practicesApplications
Studio, ESA’s Sentinel are developed to be(SNAP),
Platform used with satellite
Quantum imagery
GIS, or
that is available
Python. free of charge.
The recommended In addition,
practices each recommended
are developed to be used with practice
satelliteincludes
imageryan exam-
that
isple of its use
available freeinof
a specific
charge. In region of a country.
addition, Currently, the
each recommended UN-SPIDER
practice includesKnowledge
an examplePor-
tal contains 17 recommended practices [10]. These can be used
of its use in a specific region of a country. Currently, the UN-SPIDER Knowledge Portal to assess hazards or expo-
sure of 17
contains elements to hazards
recommended in early
practices [10].warning
These cansystems
be used and disaster
to assess preparedness,
hazards or exposure and to
ofmap the geographical
elements to hazards in extent of floods,
early warning debrisand
systems flows, burn
disaster severity in case
preparedness, of map
and to forestthefires,
and damages
geographical to infrastructure
extent of floods, debris due to earthquakes.
flows, burn severityWith very
in case few exceptions,
of forest all of these
fires, and damages
torecommended
infrastructure practices make use of open software languages or tools, and facilitate the
due to earthquakes. With very few exceptions, all of these recommended
practices make use
use of satellite of open
imagery software
that languages
is available free oforcharge.
tools, and facilitate
Figure the use
1 presents of satellite
examples of rec-
imagery
ommended that practices
is available andfree of use
their charge. Figure phases
in different 1 presents examples
of the disasterof recommended
management cycle.
practices and their use in different phases of the disaster management cycle.

Figure1.1.Examples
Figure Examplesofof UN-SPIDER-recommended
UN-SPIDER-recommended practices
practices andand their
their useuse in different
in different phases
phases of the
of the
disastermanagement
disaster management cycle.
cycle. Source:
Source: UN-SPIDER.
UN-SPIDER.

InInrecent years,
recent efforts
years, havehave
efforts been been
carriedcarried
out to implement some of these
out to implement someusing Google
of these using
Earth
GoogleEngine
Earthto Engine
take advantage
to take of the faster of
advantage computer speed
the faster of cloud-based
computer processing
speed of cloud-based
and smaller internet bandwidth requirements. The following sections present information
on these recommended practices. The sections are structured to follow the sequence of the
disaster management cycle.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624 5 of 15

2.1. Assessing Hazards

Being aware of the procedures developed by hydrologists, geologists, and other experts
to elaborate hazard maps, and of the characteristics of satellite imagery and products
developed by the space community, UN-SPIDER has worked with its network of RSOs and
other partners to develop recommended practices that can be used to elaborate specific
types of hazard maps.
In the case of floods, hydrologists have developed hydraulic equations to model how
floods propagate along the channels of rivers and their banks over time [11]. Computer
programs have been developed to facilitate the processing of these equations [12].
Noting that floods are the more frequent type of hazard in many countries around
the world, the space community has developed sensors and procedures to differentiate
the presence of water from land [13–15]. In addition, the space community has developed
digital elevation models that contribute in determining how water may flow in the banks
of rivers during floods, or in case of storm surges and tsunamis.
In its role as one of the UN-SPIDER Regional Support Offices, the Space Application
Center for Response in Emergency and Disasters (SACRED) of Pakistan’s Space and Upper
Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) developed a recommended practice to
assess flood hazard. This recommended practice is available in the UN-SPIDER Knowledge
Portal [16]. It shows the use of digital elevation models such as the World DEMTM of Airbus
Defense and Space to elaborate flood hazard maps employing the Hydrologic Engineering
Center’s River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) which has been developed by the United States
Army Corps of Engineers [17]. The recommended practice presents an example of its use
in a segment of the Hindus River in the area of the Swat valley in Pakistan. Data from the
2010 flood were used in this example. More information on the 2010 floods is available
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16
in the report from the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the World Bank, and the United
Nations [18]. Figure 2 presents the modelled flood depth for this segment of the river.

Figure 2. Example of the modelled flood depth in case of a flood for a segment of the Hindus River
Figure 2. Example of the modelled flood depth in case of a flood for a segment of the Hindus River
in the area of the Swat valley using the UN-SPIDER recommended practice to elaborate flood hazard
inmaps.
the area of theUN-SPIDER.
Source: Swat valley using the UN-SPIDER recommended practice to elaborate flood hazard
maps. Source: UN-SPIDER.
Storm surge hazard mapping requires precise information on bathymetry and coastal
morphology, data on astronomical tides, information on the meteorological conditions of
storms triggering surges, and precise digital elevation models of coastal areas. Complex
models have been developed to predict storm surges. However, such data may not be
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624 6 of 15

Storm surge hazard mapping requires precise information on bathymetry and coastal
morphology, data on astronomical tides, information on the meteorological conditions of
storms triggering surges, and precise digital elevation models of coastal areas. Complex
models have been developed to predict storm surges. However, such data may not be
available in developing countries, nor experts who may have the skills to use such models
to develop storm surge hazard maps.
In the year 2018, UN-SPIDER requested Airbus Defense and Space to develop a
recommended practice to use the World DEMTM digital elevation model as an initial
approximation to estimate the geographical extent of storm surges in coastal areas [19]. The
procedure was developed using the Quantum GIS software, and a segment of the coastal
area of Ghana near Accra was selected for this demonstration. The selection of this coastal
area in Ghana stemmed from storm surges which impacted Ghana in recent years. Figure 3
presents a map of the coastal area of Ghana with the polygon showing the geographic areas
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16
which could be flooded in case a storm surge triggers a flood of an elevation up to one
meter above sea level.

Figure 3. Example of the result of the UN-SPIDER recommended practice for storm surge, depicting
Figure 3. Example of the result of the UN-SPIDER recommended practice for storm surge, depicting
the areas near Accra, in Ghana, which may be flooded when the elevation of the sea rises by one
the areasSource:
meter. near Accra, in Ghana,
UN-SPIDER, whichofmay
courtesy be flooded
Airbus Defensewhen the elevation of the sea rises by one
and Space.
meter. Source: UN-SPIDER, courtesy of Airbus Defense and Space.
2.2. Drought Early Warning
2.2. Drought Early Warning
Droughts are some of the worst natural phenomena in the world, affecting rural com-
Droughts
munities are some
engaged of the worst
in agricultural natural
activities, andphenomena in the
in some cases, the world,
supply affecting rural
of electricity in
communities engaged in agricultural activities, and in some cases, the supply of electricity
case of energy generated using hydroelectric plants. In extreme cases, droughts may lead
in case of energy generated using hydroelectric plants. In extreme cases, droughts may lead
to famine, displacement, and even conflict [20]. They are described as extended periods of
to famine, displacement, and even conflict [20]. They are described as extended periods of
time spanning from a season to several years with deficits in rainfall in comparison to a
time spanning from a season to several years with deficits in rainfall in comparison to a
statistical, multi-year average. In recent years, experts have defined three types of
statistical, multi-year average. In recent years, experts have defined three types of droughts:
droughts: meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural.
meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural.
Meteorological droughts are currently assessed using parameters such as the stand-
Meteorological droughts are currently assessed using parameters such as the standard
ard precipitation index, which compares the amount of current rainfall with historic data
precipitation index, which compares the amount of current rainfall with historic data on
on rainfall. In a similar fashion, hydrological drought can be monitored in rivers compar-
rainfall. In a similar fashion, hydrological drought can be monitored in rivers comparing
ing current and historic discharges in rivers, and well as levels of lakes and other bodies
current and historic discharges in rivers, and well as levels of lakes and other bodies
of water. In the case of agricultural droughts, several indices have been developed by the
of water. In the case of agricultural droughts, several indices have been developed by
space community that compare the reflection of vegetation in normal periods when the
the space community that compare the reflection of vegetation in normal periods when
vegetation is green, and in periods where droughts are present, when the vegetation be-
comes dry.
These indices can be used to monitor the effects of drought on vegetation [21]. For
example, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) compares the intensity of
reflected light in the red and near-infrared bands to determine the degree of dryness of
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624 7 of 15

the vegetation is green, and in periods where droughts are present, when the vegetation
becomes dry.
These indices can be used to monitor the effects of drought on vegetation [21]. For
example, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) compares the intensity of
reflected light in the red and near-infrared bands to determine the degree of dryness of
vegetation. Another index commonly used is the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) which
includes the blue band in addition to the red and near-infrared bands to better control the
effects of atmospheric noise.
In recent years, the Copernicus program of the European Commission introduced the
Global Drought Observatory (GDO) that provides useful information on the current state
of droughts worldwide. Its geoviewer displays information on the impact of droughts in
countries, and includes information on precipitation, temperature, soil moisture, hydrology,
and vegetation response [22]. The frequent updates included in the GDO make it a useful
tool to monitor the spatial and temporal evolution of droughts, which is essential in drought
early warning systems.
Being aware of the conceptual and operational frameworks developed by the disaster
management community regarding early warning systems, UN-SPIDER has requested
several of its RSOs to develop recommended practices which are useful in early warning
systems related to droughts.
In 2014, the Space Agency of the Islamic Republic of Iran developed a recommended
practice to elaborate a series of maps of the Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) that can be
used to assess how severe a current drought is with respect to historic droughts which may
have taken place in the last two decades. This recommended practice [23] compares the
values of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) over many years in the same
pixels for the same periods of time throughout the year. Through this comparison, one can
assess if a current drought is worse than historic droughts in the last two decades, or not as
severe as the worst drought in those two decades. UN-SPIDER updated this recommended
practice to be used with R Studio and introduced a similar recommended practice using
the Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI). The advantage of using the EVI is that it can better
handle the noise due to atmospheric contamination. The pilot area selected to demonstrate
this recommended practice is Guatemala, in Central America, which has been experiencing
frequent droughts in recent years. The 2009 droughts in the Eastern region of the country
led to the definition of the “Dry Corridor” as the region of the country characterized by
semi-arid lands, with low agricultural yields, experiencing frequent drought periods [24].
Experts at the Federal University of Santa Maria in Brazil, which is another of UN-
SPIDER’s RSOs, developed a similar procedure to assess the Standard Vegetation Index
(SVI). This recommended practice can be used to elaborate a similar set of maps of the
impacts of drought on vegetation, using as a basis the Enhance Vegetation Index (EVI)
that is calculated every 16 days [25]. The series of EVIs generated every 16 days in the
last 22 years can be used to generate the SVI. This index is similar to the Standard Precip-
itation Index (SPI) that is used by national and regional meteorological institutes. This
recommended practice was developed as part of the efforts by UN-SPIDER to implement a
project to strengthen drought early warning systems in Central America and the Dominican
Republic [26].
Figure 4 presents some of the maps extracted with this recommended practice for
Paraguay covering the period from 1 November to 31 December for the years 2001, 2010,
and 2018. An analysis of the entire data series from the year 2000 to the year 2022 suggests
that in the year 2010, the vegetation in the northern region of the country was extremely
dry when compared to other years. This dry condition is presented with pixels in red-to-
dark-red color. In contrast, at the end of the year 2018, the vegetation in the northern region
was much greener than the average. This situation is represented with pixels with green-to-
dark-green color. The maps for the year 2001 present results that may be representative of
vegetation that is neither too green, nor too dry.
Sustainability
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2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
15, 10624 8 of9 15
of 16

Figure 4.4. Example

Figure Exampleof ofthe
themaps
mapsofofthe
theStandard
Standard Vegetation
Vegetation Index
Index extracted
extracted withwith
the the UN-SPIDER
UN-SPIDER
recommendedpractice
recommended practicefor
forParaguay
Paraguayforfor three
three specific
specific years:
years: 2001,
2001, 2010,
2010, andand 2018.
2018. These
These maps
maps cover
cover
the period spanning Julian days 305 to 353, corresponding to the period from 1
the period spanning Julian days 305 to 353, corresponding to the period from 1 November to 31November to 31
December of every year. Source: UN-SPIDER.
December of every year. Source: UN-SPIDER.

Takinginto
Taking intoconsideration
consideration thethe
factfact
thatthat
NDVINDVI andcomposite
and EVI EVI composite products
products are up-
are updated
dated16
every every
days,16the
days,
mapstheof maps
the VCIof and
the the
VCISVI
andcanthebeSVI can be
updated updated
every every
16 days 16 days
to track the to
temporal and spatial
track the temporal effects
and of drought
spatial effects ofin any region
drought of region
in any any country
of anyofcountry
the world using
of the world
data
usingfrom
datathe MODIS
from sensors sensors
the MODIS on boardon the Aquathe
board andAqua
Terraand
satellites. These recommended
Terra satellites. These recom-
practices facilitate facilitate
mended practices the visualization of those of
the visualization regions in the countries
those regions most affected
in the countries by
most affected
droughts, and the severity of such droughts in comparison to historic droughts
by droughts, and the severity of such droughts in comparison to historic droughts in the in the
same
same region.
region.
2.3. Exposure and Disaster Preparedness
2.3. Exposure and Disaster Preparedness
Satellite images provide the most up-to-date information on elements exposed to
hazardsSatellite
and on images provide
the road network the which
most up-to-date
can be usedinformation
for evacuationon elements exposed
to safe areas. For to
example, in the case of a tsunami, information on the type of infrastructure exposed, the ex-
hazards and on the road network which can be used for evacuation to safe areas. For
ample,
type in the case
of people insideofbuildings
a tsunami, information
which on the type
may be exposed, of infrastructure
and the exposed, the
layout of the geographic
typewhere
area of people inside buildings
the infrastructure which is
is located may be exposed,
essential to assessand the layout
whether of the geographic
evacuations to safe
area where
areas far away thefrom
infrastructure
the coast areisfeasible,
located or is essential to assess
whether vertical whether alternatives
evacuation evacuationsneed to safe
areas far away from the coast are feasible, or whether vertical evacuation
to be identified. The information on the most up-to-date infrastructure allows for the alternatives need
to be identified.
determination of The information
evacuation routeson to the
safemost
areas.up-to-date infrastructure allows for the de-
Several years
termination ago, the routes
of evacuation space community
to safe areas.began developing geospatial information
on theSeveral
location of urban
years areas
ago, the spaceandcommunity
estimates ofbegan
the number of people
developing living ininformation
geospatial such areas. on
The Joint Research Center of the European Commission (EC-JRC)
the location of urban areas and estimates of the number of people living in such developed the areas.
GlobalThe
Human Settlement Layer [27]. Very recently, the German Aerospace
Joint Research Center of the European Commission (EC-JRC) developed the Global Hu- Center (DLR) launched
its
man World Settlement
Settlement LayerFootprint
[27]. Very 3D recently,
that already the includes
German information on average
Aerospace Center (DLR) building
launched
height, total area, and fraction of building in urban areas [28]. This
its World Settlement Footprint 3D that already includes information on average building novel geospatial tool
is a follow-up to the previous version launched by the German Aerospace
height, total area, and fraction of building in urban areas [28]. This novel geospatial tool Center (DLR)
called the Global Urban Footprint (GUF).
is a follow-up to the previous version launched by the German Aerospace Center (DLR)
Experts from UN-SPIDER developed a recommended practice that can be used in
called the Global Urban Footprint (GUF).
disaster preparedness to identify several types of exposed elements such as the estimated
Experts from UN-SPIDER developed a recommended practice that can be used in
disaster preparedness to identify several types of exposed elements such as the estimated
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624 9 of 15

number of people exposed, as well as different types of vegetation (cultivated land, forest,
grassland), bare land, and artificial surfaces which may be exposed to hazards such as
floods, tsunamis, or forest fires [29]. This recommended practice uses geospatial data
on population provided by WorldPop [30], and data on land cover from the Globe Land
30 tool developed by the National Geomatics Center of China (NGCC) [31]. Taking into
consideration the frequent floods that Malawi has been experiencing in recent years, this
recommended practice used the geographic area of the Shire River in Malawi including
areas of the Nsanje district around Chiromo as an example. The example addressed the
floods which impacted this area in January 2015 [32].

2.4. Disaster Response

Noting the usefulness of the detection and mapping of areas affected by hazards
such as floods, landslides, debris flows, oil spills, lava flows, forest fires, or tsunamis with
satellite imagery, UN-SPIDER has supported National Disaster Management Agencies
(NDMAs) in their request for the activation of the International Charter Space and Major
Disasters. In a complementary fashion, since 2014 UN-SPIDER has encouraged NDMAs to
become authorized users of this mechanism so that they can request the activation directly.
Through its efforts, the program has engaged 23 NDMAs in countries in Africa, Asia, Asia
Pacific, Latin America, and the Caribbean as authorized users. Many of these NDMAs have
directly activated the Charter as needed. Furthermore, since its establishment UN-SPIDER
has requested the activation of the International Charter on 69 occasions at the request of
NDMAs and organizations of the United Nations.
In the case of floods, a few decades ago the space community began to launch satellites
with Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensors that use specific bands of the microwave
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum [33]. SAR sensors emit signals to the ground and
receive the backscattered signals. The backscatter intensity depends on multiple factors [34].
To contribute to the mapping of the geographical extent of floods, the Space Research
Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and National Space Agency
of Ukraine (SRI-NASU-SSAU) developed a recommended practice on radar-based flood
mapping [35]. This recommended practice uses the Sentinel Application Platform (SNAP)
to process radar imagery such as the one acquired with the Sentinel 1 satellites to extract
the geographical extent of flooded areas. This recommended practice was updated by UN-
SPIDER to be used in the environment of Google Earth Engine to speed up the extraction
of flooded areas by taking advantage of processing in the cloud [36]. This recommended
practice uses as an example the floods which impacted the southern region of the Nsanje
district in Malawi in January 2015. Figure 5 presents a screenshot of the SNAP software
with the demarcation of the flooded areas in the region of Nsanje. Additional information
on these floods is available in the Copernicus Emergency Management Service on the Rapid
Mapping Service webpage [37].
Experts from the Agustin Codazzi Geographic Institute of Colombia (IGAC) developed
another recommended practice to map the burn severity of forest fires [38]. Burn severity
is assessed using the Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR), which is calculated employing a
similar formula to the one used to calculate the NDVI. The difference between the NBR
and NDVI is that in the NBR is based on the difference in the reflectance of the vegetation
in the near-infrared (NIR) and the shortwave infrared (SIR) bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum. In contrast, the NDVI compares the reflectance of the vegetation in the red and
the near-infrared bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. The burn severity is calculated by
comparing NBR values before and after the fire [39].
This recommended practice uses satellite imagery from the Sentinel 2 or the Landsat
satellites and Quantum GIS software or Google Earth Engine. The example used to present
this recommended practice is the forest fire which took place in the Atacazo mountain in
the Pichincha province in Ecuador in September and October 2018. The burn severity was
extracted using Sentinel 2 images before and after the forest fire. More information on
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624 10 of 15

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

this forest fire is available from the Risk Management Secretariat of Ecuador [40]. Figure 6
presents the map elaborated with this recommended practice.

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure Screenshot
5. 5.
Figure of the
Screenshot SNAP
of the software
SNAP displaying
software the extraction
displaying of a flooded
the extraction area inarea
of a flooded in the12
the southern of 16
south-
region of the of
ern region Nsanje districtdistrict
the Nsanje in Malawi from a Sentinel
in Malawi from a 1Sentinel
satellite1image related
satellite to the
image floods
related to which
the floods
which impacted
impacted this and
this and other other
regions of regions
Malawi of Malawi
in the in of
middle theJanuary
middle2015.
of January
Source:2015. Source: UN-SPI-
UN-SPIDER.
DER.

Experts from the Agustin Codazzi Geographic Institute of Colombia (IGAC) devel-
oped another recommended practice to map the burn severity of forest fires [38]. Burn
severity is assessed using the Normalized Burn Ratio (NBR), which is calculated employ-
ing a similar formula to the one used to calculate the NDVI. The difference between the
NBR and NDVI is that in the NBR is based on the difference in the reflectance of the veg-
etation in the near-infrared (NIR) and the shortwave infrared (SIR) bands of the electro-
magnetic spectrum. In contrast, the NDVI compares the reflectance of the vegetation in
the red and the near-infrared bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. The burn severity is
calculated by comparing NBR values before and after the fire [39].
This recommended practice uses satellite imagery from the Sentinel 2 or the Landsat
satellites and Quantum GIS software or Google Earth Engine. The example used to present
this recommended practice is the forest fire which took place in the Atacazo mountain in
the Pichincha province in Ecuador in September and October 2018. The burn severity was
extracted using Sentinel 2 images before and after the forest fire. More information on this
forest fire is available from the Risk Management Secretariat of Ecuador [40]. Figure 6
presents the map elaborated with this recommended practice.

Figure6.6.Example
Figure Exampleofofthe
theresult
result
ofof
thethe UN-SPIDER
UN-SPIDER recommended
recommended practice
practice for burn
for burn severity
severity mapping
mapping
thearea
the areaofofthe
theAtacazo
Atacazomountain
mountain in in
thethe Pichincha
Pichincha province
province in Ecuador,
in Ecuador, whichwhich experienced
experienced forestforest
firesatatthe
fires theend
endofofSeptember
September andand
thethe beginning
beginning of October
of October 2018.2018. Source:
Source: UN-SPIDER.
UN-SPIDER.

In recent years, the Copernicus program joined forces with the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States and the Group of Earth Observa-
tion (GEO) to launch the Global Wildfire Information System (GWIS) [41]. One interesting
feature of GWIS is the database of historical fires which is available for every country and
spans from 2002 to 2019 at the time this contribution was elaborated. This database allows
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624 11 of 15

In recent years, the Copernicus program joined forces with the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States and the Group of Earth Observation
(GEO) to launch the Global Wildfire Information System (GWIS) [41]. One interesting
feature of GWIS is the database of historical fires which is available for every country and
spans from 2002 to 2019 at the time this contribution was elaborated. This database allows
forest fire managers to compare historical and more recent information on forest fires at
national, provincial, or district levels. The database includes data on burnt areas extracted
using the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on board the Terra
and Aqua satellites.

2.5. Training Activities to Promote the Use of Recommended Practices

Responding to the needs manifested by NDMAs regarding training activities, UN-
SPIDER organizes national and regional training courses on the use of these recommended
practices and other solutions developed by the space community. Experts from the UN-
SPIDER RSOs contribute as instructors and participants including specialists and profes-
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16
sionals working in NDMAs and other government agencies. As shown in Figure 7, between
2011 and 2022 the program organized 43 national and regional training courses.

Number of national and regional training courses

organized between 2011 and 2022
8
Number of training courses

7
6
5
per year

4
3
2
1
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

Year

Figure
Figure 7. 7. Number
Number of of national
national andand regional
regional training
training courses
courses organized
organized by UN-SPIDER
by UN-SPIDER between
between 2011 2011
and2022.
and 2022. Source:
Source: UN-SPIDER.
UN-SPIDER.

The program
The program likewise raises
likewise awareness
raises about
awareness initiatives
about developed
initiatives by the
developed byspace com- com-
the space
munity through its advisory missions to developing countries and during the conferences
munity through its advisory missions to developing countries and during the conferences
and
andexpert
expertmeetings
meetings organized by the
organized program.
by the program.
3. Results and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
Through its efforts, the program has enhanced the use of data, products, and services
offeredThrough its efforts,
by the space the program
community has enhanced
in developing theinuse
countries of data,
Africa, products,
Asia, and services
Latin America,
offered by the space
and the Caribbean. community in developing countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America,
and the Caribbean.
3.1. Use of Recommended Practices
3.1.Using
Use of Google
Recommended Practices
Analytics, UN-SPIDER has been able to note that several of these
recommended practices
Using Google are among
Analytics, the most visited
UN-SPIDER pagesable
has been in itstoKnowledge Portal over
note that several the rec-
of these
years. These results encourage the program to continue developing and uploading
ommended practices are among the most visited pages in its Knowledge Portal over the new
recommended
years. These practices so that they
results encourage thecan be used to
program worldwide.
continue developing and uploading new
recommended practices so that they can be used worldwide.

3.2. Bridging the Space and the Disaster Management Communities

Efforts by UN-SPIDER to link the International Charter Space and Major Disasters
with NDMAs of developing countries have led to the activation of the International Char-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624 12 of 15

3.2. Bridging the Space and the Disaster Management Communities

Efforts by UN-SPIDER to link the International Charter Space and Major Disasters
with NDMAs of developing countries have led to the activation of the International Charter
by many NDMAs over the years and the incorporation of 23 NDMAs as authorized users
of this mechanism. Since 2007, the program has been requested to activate the International
Charter on 69 occasions to support disaster response efforts. Efforts are underway to
encourage NDMAs to also benefit from the space-based information provided by the
Copernicus Emergency Management Service.
Challenges faced by technical staff at the NDMAs and other government agencies and
ministries in developing countries include the lack of awareness of high-ranking authorities
on the benefits of the use of such tools, the lack of scientific and technical libraries to
become aware of procedures developed by the space and the geospatial communities,
the lack of access to training opportunities, and the lack of resources to acquire high-
resolution satellite imagery and commercial software. In addition, there are few procedures
using open software to elaborate space-based information for use in disaster management
applications. Furthermore, scientific and technical articles do not often really present the
step-by-step procedures, or refer to the use of expensive, commercial software programs or
packages used in such procedures.
Building on the efforts of the space community and with the support of its RSOs, UN-
SPIDER has been able to enhance the use of space-based data, information, and products by
NDMAs and other government agencies and ministries that must address the challenges
posed by disasters in developing countries. The approach taken by UN-SPIDER includes
the implementation of several efforts in parallel:
• The set-up of a webpage called the UN-SPIDER Knowledge Portal that serves as a gate-
way to the information, data, products, and services offered by the space community.
The Knowledge Portal also contains the recommended practices and other relevant
information on activities carried out by UN-SPIDER and the space community.
• The institutional strengthening of NDMAs and other government agencies in devel-
oping countries through the provision of advisory support on a continuous basis,
mobilizing experts for training courses, and for awareness-raising efforts targeting
decision makers.
One of the key issues that UN-SPIDER addresses is the continuous communication
and engagement of technical staff in the NDMAs and other government agencies and
ministries to institutionalize the use of the solutions developed by the space community.
As a result, more NDMAs and other government agencies are using the UN-SPIDER
recommended practices and are requesting additional advisory support from the program
to institutionalize the use of space-based information.
Based on the experience of UN-SPIDER, one can foresee several additional lines of
research to enhance the use of space-based data. For example, there is a need to carry out
research on:
• Procedures to facilitate the combination of archived and up-to-date information to
monitor geological and geomorphological hazards such as slow-moving landslides
and volcanic activity. Once developed and tested, these procedures could be used in
early warning systems addressing these hazards.
• The combined and complementary use of satellite imagery of different resolutions.
• The combined and complementary use of satellite imagery and data from Global
Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) to monitor hazards and for improved disaster
response efforts.
• The use of novel satellite imagery, data, and products to address the challenges posed
by climate change, which are exacerbating natural hazards.
UN-SPIDER transmits these needs to the space community and to its RSOs so that
such institutions can then carry out the proposed research and develop solutions that can
be promoted by the program.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 10624 13 of 15

4. Conclusions
As this communication has illustrated, UN-SPIDER has implemented a three-pronged
approach to encourage and facilitate the use of space-based information in developing
countries. The approach addresses the need to raise awareness of decision makers regarding
the benefits of the use of space-based solutions and the increasing cost-free solutions
developed by the space community; the need for step-by-step procedures using open
software programs and tools; and the need for training on the use of such procedures
so that they can generate and use space-based information to contribute to disaster risk
reduction, preparedness, response, and recovery efforts.
Through this approach, UN-SPIDER contributes to addressing the challenges posed
by natural hazards, to the implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015–2030, and is contributing to the mission of the United Nations Office for
Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) to bring the benefits of space to developing countries.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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