Name Sekar Arumningtyas Student Number: 20202241106 Making Summaries of Books and Journal Articles Chapter 4 & 5 on Principle of Language Leaming and Teaching by Brown (2014) CHAPTER 4 HUMAN LEARNING In this chapter we'll be focusing on how psychologists have defined learning, specifically within three broad perspectives: (1) Behavioral psychology, (2) Cognitive psychology and cognitive linguistics, and (3) Social-constructivism, BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVES The best-known classical behaviorist was the Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov, who at the turn of the twentieth century conducted numerous classical conditioning experiments. For Pavlov the learning process consisted of the formation of associations between stimuli and reflexive responses. Pavlov used the salivation response (an unconditioned response) to the sight or smell of food in his now famous experiments with dogs. Through repeated occurrences, the dog associated the sound of a bell with food until the dog acquired a conditioned response: salivation at the sound of the bell. A previously neutral stimulus (the sound of the bell) had acquired the power to elicit a response (salivation) that was originally elicited by another stimulus (the smell of meat) Later, E. L. Thorndike (1932) expanded on classical conditioning models by showing that stimuli that occurred after a behavior had an influence on future behaviors, known as his Law of Effect. Skinner contended that Pavlov’s respondent conditioning was inferior to operant conditioning in which one “operates” on the environment. Here, the importance of a (preceding) stimulus is deemphasized in favor of rewards that follow desired behavior. For example, we cannot identify a specific stimulus leading a baby to rise to a standing position or to take a first step; wwe therefore need not be concemed about that stimulus, but we should be concerned about the consequences—the stimuli (rewards) that follow the response. Linguistically, a child’s attempts to produce language are, in Skinner's model, operants that are in turn reinforced by a parent's responses, According to Skinner, the events or stimuli—the reinforcers—that follow a response both strengthen behavior and increase the probability of a recurrence of that response. Such reinforcers are far stronger aspects of learning than is mere association of a prior stimulus with a following response, as in the classical respondent conditioning model. We are governed by the consequences of our behavior, and therefore Skinner felt we ought, in analyzing human behavior, to center on the effect of those consequences, COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)Cognitive psychology was in many ways a reaction to the inadequacies of behavioral approaches to human learning. Conditioning paradigms were quite sufficient for animal training but mostly failed to account for the network of neurological processes involved in the acquisition of complex skills, the development of intelligence, the ability of humans to think logically and abstractly, and our enigmatic ability to be creative. Learning as Meaningful Storage and Retrieval David Ausubel (1968) was among the first educational cognitive psychologists to frame a theory of leaning that was understandable, practical, and applicable to classrooms and teachers Meaningful learning is best understood by contrasting it with rote learning. Ausubel described rote learning as the process of acquiring material as “discrete and relatively isolated entities” (1968, p. 108) that have little or no association with existing cognitive s Most of us, for example, can leam a few necessary phone numbers and postal codes by rote without reference to cognitive hierarchical organization. structure, Systematic Forgetting and Cognitive “Pruning” Once again, Ausubel (1965, 1968) provided a plausible explanation for the universal nature of forgetting. Since rotely learned material is not substantively merged into cognitive structure, its retention is influenced primarily by the interfering effects of similar rote material leamed immediately before or after the leaning task, The consequence of such effects is referred to as proactive and retroactive inhibition. In the case of meaningfully Ieamed material, retention is influenced primarily by the properties of “relevant and cumulatively established ideational systems in cognitive structure with which the leaming task interacts” (Ausubel, 1968 , p. 108). Compared to this kind of extended interaction, concurrent interfering effects have relatively little influence on meaningful leaming, and retention is quite efficient. Hence, in a face-to-face conversation, a person’s physical features are commonly retained as part of a meaningful set, while phone numbers, as isolated ‘unrelatable entities, are easily forgotten. Another way of conceptualizing this second stage of subsumption is in a horticultural metaphor: cognitive pruning (Brown, 1972). When you prune a tree, your aim is to eliminate unnecessary clutter and to clear the way for more growth, Mixing metaphors and switching to the building-block analogy, one might say that at the outset, a structure made of blocks is seen as a few individual blocks, but as the mind begins to give the structure a perceived shape, some of the single blocks achieve less and less identity in their own right and become subsumed into the larger structure. Finally, the single blocks are lost to perception, or “pruned” out, and the total structure is perceived as a single whole without clearly defined parts, Research on language attrition has focused on a variety of possible causes for the loss of second language skills (Lambert & Freed, 1982; Weltens, 1987; Weltens & Cohen, 1989; Tomiyama, 2000; Montrul, 2002 , 2008, 2011). Some studies have shown that lexical, phonological, or syntactic features may be more vulnerable than idioms, semantic factors, or discourse elements (Andersen, 1982; Nakuma, 1998). Obler (1982) suggested that Downloaded by Nawal Shokar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)\curolinguistic blocking” (left-/right-brain functioning) could contribute to forgetting. Other common reasons for language attrition include the following: (1) the strength and conditions of initial learning, (2) the kind of use that a second language has been put to, (3) motivational factors (Gardner, 1982), and (4) cultural identity (Priven, 2002), Cognitive Linguisties In the 1980s, the place of language in cognition, along with the development of linguistic abilities as an integral component of cognition, became a central focus for linguists and applied linguists. We have already referred to some of the issues surrounding language and thought, the place of language acquisition in intellectual development, and cognitive considerations in examining age and acquisition. Such mergers of psychology and linguistics gave rise not only to psycholinguistics as a field in its own right, but also to what has come to be called cognitive linguistics (Evans & Green, 2006; Verspoor & Tyler, 2009; Holme, 2012), with its standard-bearing journal, Cognitive Linguistics, leading the way in related research. Several themes characterize cognitive linguistic approaches (Croft & Cruse, 2004; Evans & Green, 2006; Robinson & Ellis, 2008): 1. Language is not an autonomous faculty. 2. Syntax is not simply an arbitrary set of rules but rather is interwoven with conceptualization and knowledge. 3. Language ability cannot be examined without concurrent consideration of language use SOCIAL-CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVES Carl Rogers Rogers's position has important implications for education (Curran, 1972; Rogers, 1983; O'Hara, 2003) by focusing away from “teaching” and toward “learning” ot, in O’Hara’s (2003) terms, “transformative pedagogy.” The goal of education is the facilitation of change and learning. Learning how to lear is more important than being taught something from the “superior” vantage point of a teacher who unilaterally decides what shall be taught. Paolo Freire Another giant in educational theory is Brazilian educator Paolo Freire (1970). Freire vigorously objected to traditional “banking” concepts of education in which teachers think of their task as one of “filling” students “by making deposits of information which [they] consider to constitute true knowledge—deposits which are detached from reality” (1970, p. 62). Instead, Freire argued, students should be allowed to negotiate learning outcomes, to cooperate with teachers and other leamers in a process of discovery, and to relate everything they do in school to their reality outside the classroom, Lee Vygotsky "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)For Vygotsky the key to understanding higher forms (beyond simply physical reflexes) of human mental activity lay in the mediation of symbols, signs, and language. We comprehend the world around us, perceived events, and systems of knowledge through symbolic tools of numbers, music, art, and, of course, language. In Vygotsky’s view, the task for psychology is “to understand how human social and mental activity is organized through culturally con- structed artifacts and social relationships” (Lantolf, 2000 , p. 80). Behavioral Cognitive Social + Conditioning * Language-cognition + Leamer autonomy © Rewards connection © Whole-person © Stimulus-response ‘+ Meaningful learning © Empowerment connections © Subsumption © Social interaction * Reinforcement ‘+ Systematic forgetting | * Language as + Emphasis: physical © Emphasis: mental mediation © Emphasis: socioaffective FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN HUMAN LEARNING Theories of learning do not capture all of the possible general principles of human learning, In addition to the three theoretical perspectives in the first part of the chapter, there are a number of concepts, categories, and types of human learning applicable to SLA. ‘Types of Learning Robert Gagné (1965, pp. 58 — 59) ably demonstrated the importance of identifying a number of universal types of human learning. Let’s take a look at how these concepts apply to Janguage acquisition research. Signal learning Stimulus-response learning Chaining Verbal association Multiple discrimination Concept leaning Principle learning Problem solving ‘Transfer and Interference Transfer usually refers to the cattyover of previous performance or knowledge to subsequent caring, (It can also apply to the effect of a current act of learning on previously leamed material, which is known as retroactive transfer, but we'll deal with that in a moment.) Downloaded by Nawal Shokar (nawalshakar@gmaicom)Positive transfer occurs when the prior knowledge benefits the learning task—that is, when a previous item is correctly applied to present subject matter. Negative transfer occurs when previous performance disrupts or inhibits the performance of a second task. The latter can be referred to as interference, in that previously leamed material conflicts with subsequent material—a previous item is incorrectly transferred or incorrectly associated with an item to be learned. Overgeneralization In the literature on SLA, interference is almost a frequent a term as overgeneralization, which is simply a form of negative transfer. Generalization involves inferring or deriving a law, rule, or conclusion from the observation of particular instances. In terms of the previously discussed meaningful learning, items are subsumed (generalized) under higher- order categories for meaningful retention, Concept learning for children is the generalization of a principle from experience with particulars. A child learns that ice cream is delicious from a few encounters with the cold, sweet taste, Usually very few encounters are required! The concept of future time, often mediated by language, is a generalization from particulars. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Inductive and deductive reasoning are two polar aspects of the generalization process. In the case of inductive reasoning, one stores a number of specific instances and induces a general law or rule or conclusion that governs or subsumes the specific instances. Deductive reasoning is a movement from a generalization to specific instances: A general principle allows a person to infer specific facts. LANGUAGE APTITUDE Historically, research on language aptitude has been a roller-coaster ride. John Carroll’s (Carroll & Sapon, 1959) pioneering work on aptitude, embodied in the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT), began the quest. The MLAT asserted the predictability of number learning, sound discrimination, pattern discernment, and memorization for future suc foreign language. This test, along with the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) (Pimsleur, 1966) and the Defense Language Aptitude Battery (DLAB) (Peterson & Al-Haik, 1976) were used for some time in such contexts as Peace Corps volunteer training programs and military communications courses to help predict successful language learners. INTELLIGENCE AND LANGUAGE LEARNING Howard Gardner (1983, 1999, 2006, 2011) was the first psychologist to help us to see why 1Q is too simplistic a concept to account for a whole host of skills and abilities. Gardner (1983) initially posited seven different intelligences that provided a comprehensive picture of intelligence. He later added one more intelligence, naturalist (Gardner, 199 , 2004), but has rejected adding spiritual or moral intelligence, as they fail, in his view, to meet established criteria, Following are Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences: 1, Linguistic "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)Logical-mathematical ‘Musical (the ability to perceive and create pitch and rhythmic patterns) Spatial (the ability to find one’s way around an environment, to form mental images of reality, and to transform them readily) Bodily-kinesthetic (fine motor movement, athletic prowess) [Naturalist (sensitivity to natural objects (plants, animals, clouds) 7. Interpersonal (the ability to understand others, how they feel, what motivates them, how they interact with one another) 8. Intrapersonal intelligence (the ability to see oneself, to develop a sense of s identity) THEORIES IN THE CLAS ‘The Audiolingual Method With widespread publication of textbooks and curricula, the ALM enjoyed a number of years of popularity. But the enthusiasm eventually waned, due in part to Wilga Rivers’s (1964) eloquent exposure of ALM’s ultimate failure to teach long-term communicative proficiency. We discovered that language was not effectively acquired through a process of habit formation and over-leaming, that errors were not necessarily to be avoided at all costs, and that structural linguistics did not dictate a course syllabus, While the ALM was a valiant attempt to reap the fruits of language teaching methodologies that had preceded it, in the end. it still fell short. Despite its shortcomings, however, we are left today with an important vestige of the ALM: the value of quick, fast-paced drilling routines, even in a communicative classroom. Community Language Learning cher) to independence. CLL was a valiant attempt to put Carl Rogers’s philosophy into action and to overcome some of the threatening affective factors in second language learning. But practical and theoretical problems emerged, The nondirective role of the counselor-teacher caused a good deal of “trial by error,” much of which was not productive. While inductive struggling can be an invigorating component of L2 learning, days and weeks of floundering can become frustrating. And, the almost exclusive reliance on translation often resulted in linguistic mysteries that could have been avoided. CHAPTER 5 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, SOME HISTORICAL BACKGROUND All the apparent individual differences among successful and unsuccessfl leamers led some linguists, most notably Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975), to ask: What would we discover if we described notable attributes of a group of “good” language leamers? That is, what distinguishing techniques and approaches are employed by successful language learners? Rubin and Thompson (1982) later summarized such characteristics, paraphrased and summarized here. Good language leamers: Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)1. Take charge of their own learning, seeking out opportunities to use the language. 2, Are unafraid to creatively experiment with the language and make intelligent guesses. 3, Leam chunks of language and conversational gambits to help them perform “beyond their competence.” Use various memory strategies, production tricks, and comprehension techniques. 5. Monitor themselves, allow errors to work for them, and leam from mistakes. LEARNING STYLES Styles are general characteristics of intellectual functioning (and personality type, as well) that pertain to you as an individual, and that differentiate you from someone else. They are consistent and rather enduring tendencies or preferences within an individual. For example, you might be more visually oriented, more tolerant of ambiguity, or more impulsive than someone else—these would be styles that characterize a general or dominant pattem in your thinking or feeling. So, styles vary across individuals, and as such are an important starting point for a teacher in ass ssing an approach to an individual learner that will be appropriate. Over the decades, educators and psychologists have identified a long list of just about every imaginable sensory, communicative, cultural, affective, cognitive, and intellectual factor among possible styles (Ausubel, 1968; Hill, 1972; Oxford & Anderson, 1995; Reid, 1995; Ehrman, 1996; Cohen, 1998; Wintergerst, DeCapua, & Itzen, 2001; Ehrman & Leaver, 2003). He xre a few of the more salient styles this research has defined: * Field independence vs. field dependence (sens + Random (nonlinear) vs. sequential (linear) * Global (big picture) vs. particular (attention to details) © Inductive vs, deductive tivity) Synthetic (integrative) vs. analytical (systematizing) * Concrete (attention to physical, literal) vs. abstract + Impulsive vs. reflective Other researchers (Stevick, 1982; Chapelle, 1983; Chapelle & Roberts, 1986; Danesi, 1988; Reid, 1995; Brown, 2002) added further factors: + Left-brain vs. right-brain dominance * Ambiguity tolerance vs. intolerance * Visual vs. auditory vs. kinesthetic modalities, Field Independence and Field Sensitivity In Sunday newspaper comic pages, you will sometimes find two almost identical drawings with the caption: “Find six differen serutiny of tiny details reveals very small differences—a smaller lamp, an arm that has moved. The speed and ability to find those differences hinge on field independence, the perception of a particular, relevant item or factor in a “field” of distracting items. In general psychological terms, that field may be perceptual, or it may be more abstract, pertaining to a s between the two pictures.” In a few minutes, careful "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)set of thoughts, ideas, or feelings within which you must distinguish specific relevant subsets. Field dependence is, conversely, the tendency to be “dependent” on the total field so that the parts embedded within the field are not distracting, as you perceive the total field as a unified whole. Field dependence is synonymous with field sensitivity, a term that carries a more positive connotation. Left-Brain and Right-Brain Dominance Table 5.1 Left-brain and right-brain characteristics { Left-Brain Dominance Relies strongly on the intellect | Right-Brain Dominance ‘Uses intuitive processes Remembers names Remembers faces Responds to verbal and | explanations [Experiments systematically and with control Makes objective judgments instructions Responds to demonstrated, illustrated, or | symbolic instructions | Experiments randomly and with less restraint Makes subjective judgments Is planned and structured Is fluid and spontaneous Prefers established, certain information Is comfortable with elusive, uncertain I | information [Reads analytically [Reads with synthesis Relies on language in thinking and|Relies on images in thinking and remembering remembering Is stronger in talking, writing, and verbal [Is stronger in drawing, images, and | communication Prefers multiple-choice tests manipulating objects Prefers open-ended questions Controls feelings More free with feelings Deciphers linguistic cues, and | grammatical subtleties Uses empirical description Favors logical problem solving Texical, Interprets body language, attends to facial, | nonverbal communication | Uses metaphors and verbal imagery Favors intuitive problem solving Ambiguity Tolerance Advantages and disadvantages are present on each end of a continuum. The person who is AT is free to entertain a number of innovative and creative possibilities and not be cognitively or affectively disturbed by uncertainty. In second language leaming a great amount of apparently contradictory information is encountered: words that differ from the native language, rules that not only differ but that are internally inconsistent because of certain exceptions, and sometimes a whole cultural system that is distant from that of the native culture, Successful language learning necessitates tolerance of such ambiguities, at least for interim periods or stages, during which time ambiguous items are given a chance to become resolved. Reflectivity and Impulsivity Downloaded by Nawal Shokar (nawalshakar@gmaicom)Have you ever been tempted to make an impulsive decision to buy a pair of shoes simply because you like them, without carefully calculating their affordability in your budget? Yet another style is an individual’s tendency to be comfortable making quick or gambling (impulsive) decisions versus a tendency to make slower, more calculated (reflective) decisions. Impulsive or systematic thinkers tend to weigh all the considerations in a problem, work out all the loopholes, and then, after extensive reflection, venture a solution. An impulsive or intuitive style involves making a number of different gambles on the basis of “hunches,” with possibly several successive gambles before a solution is achieved (Ewing, 1977), Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Styles Yet another dimension of learning style—one that is salient in a formal classroom setting—is the preference that learners show toward visual, auditory, and/or kinesthetic input. Visual learners tend to prefer reading and studying charts, drawings, and other graphic information. Auditory learners prefer listening to lectures and audiotapes. And kinesthetic learners will show a preference for demonstrations and physical activity involving bodily movement. Of course, most successful learners utilize both visual and auditory input, but slight preferences one way or the other may distinguish one leamer from another, an important factor in examining individual differences in SLA. ‘Measurement of Learning Styles ‘A number of options are available for helping leamers to identify their own styles, preferences, strengths, and weaknesses. The most common method is a self-check questionnaire in which the learner responds to various questions, usually along a scale of points of agreement and disagreement. Examples of such measures include a standard for a number of years, Kolb’s (1999) Leaming Style Inventory (LSI); Oxford's (1995) Style Analysis Survey; Wintergerst, DeCapua, and Verna’s (2002) Learning Styles Indicator; and later in this chapter, a Styles Awareness Checklist. Similar checklists can be found in Brown’s (2002) self-help guide for English language learners, Table 5.2 Summary of possible SLA style advantages [ Stytes [SLA Advantages? Left-brain processing Analyzing linguistic systems structures, definitions, Perceiving the logic of Janguage systems rules, Right-brain processing Integrating diverse linguistic input, Comprehending and producing metaphors Field Independence Expressing and comprehending key ideas concisely, Remembering lexical and syntactic details Field Sensitivity Getting the overall gist of oral and written input, “Reading between the lines” of oral | and written input "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shokar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)‘Ambiguity tolerance ] Transcending linguistic complexity perceived as difficult, Maintaining attention to a difficult conversation or text ‘Ambiguity intolerance Ascertaining order and system within complexity, Questioning/clarifying misunderstood information Reflectivity Taking time to mentally sort through linguistic complexity, Speaking out only when certain of linguistic systems Impulsivity Taking linguistic risks in the face of possible error, Taking initiative in conversations AUTONOMY AND AWARENESS In the last half of the twentieth century, the educational profession began to emphasize the value of leamer autonomy in the form of leamercentered approaches, discovery learning, problem-posing, group work, cooperative learning, and selecting certain goals for individual pursuit (Slavin, 2011). In L2 teaching, methods emphasized allowing learners to initiate oral production, practice language through small-group tasks, and engage in using the language out in the “real world” (Brown, 2007). In keeping with a popular social trend of “self-help” manuals for everything from weight loss to how to feel that you're “okay,” the language teaching profession began to encourage learners to “take charge” of their own learning, and to chart their own “pathways to success” (Brown, 1991 , 2002). Closely linked to the concept of autonomy is the demand on learners to become aware of their own processes of leaming. In your foreign language courses, did your teacher or your textbook help you to become aware of what language leaming was all about? Were you encouraged to monitor your own leaming process? Or to assess your own strengths and weaknesses, and follow up with strategic action? Probably not. Until recently, few courses in languages provided such opportunities for learners to become aware of what language leaming was all about and what they could do to become better learners. Now, with the backdrop of a good deal of research on awareness and “consciousness raising,” language programs are offering more occasions for leamers to develop a metacognitive awareness of their ongoing leaming ( Byram, 2012 ). The journal Language ‘Awareness is, in fact, devoted to the concept. The supporting research stockpile is growing on awareness-raising among L2 leamers in classrooms around the world: ( Lightbown & Spada, 2000 ; Rosa & Leow, 2004 ; Simard & Wong, 2004 ; Nakatani, 2005 ). SELF-REGULATION The culmination of research on autonomy coupled with the principle of awareness-raising lies in what researchers (Zimmerman, 1990 , 2000; Cohen & Macaro, 2007; Démyei, 2009) have called self-regulation: the autonomous process of developing awareness, setting goals, Downloaded by Nawal Shokar (nawalshakar@gmaicom)monitoring performance, using effective strategies, and holding positive beliefs about oneself. Rebecca Oxford (2011b) expanded Zimmerman’s original (1990, 2000) concept to what she calls strategic self-regulation (S 2R), the self-stimulated application by a learner of cognitive, affective, and sociocultural-interactive strategies. Her $ 2R model includes a host of practical suggestions for teachers and learners to develop autonomy, awareness, and action, According to Oxford (2011b, p. 15 ), strategically self-regulated learners do the following: * Actively participate in their own autonomous learning process * Control various aspects of their learning for accomplishing specific goals + Regulate their cognitive and affective states + Form positive beliefs about themselves * Use strategies to move from conscious knowledge to automatic procedural knowledge * Select appropriate strategies for widely differing purposes and contexts + Make the connection between strategy use and learning outcomes STRATEGIES Over the last five decades, research on SLA has offered a mélange of types of strategies, not to mention hundreds of specific strategies, or, in Oxford's (2011b) terminology, tactics. Following are just a few examples of general categories of strategy that have at one time or another been employed in researching and teaching SLA (O'Malley et al., 1983, 1985a, 1985b, 1987, 1989; Chamot & O’Malley, 1986, 1987; Chamot, 1990; O’Malley & Oxford, 1990a, 201 1b; Chamot, Bamhart, El-Dinary, & Robbins, 1999; Cohen & Macaro, 2007), © Leaming vs. Communication * Metacognitive © Memory * Direct vs. Indirect + Cognitive + Affective * Socio-affective (also, Social) * Sociocultural-Interactive * Input (comprehension) vs. Output (production) + Skill-oriented (relating to the four skills) * Avoidance © Compensatory + Selfregulated Cognitive Strategies Table 5.3 Cognitive strategies and taeties Cognitive Strategies | Examples of Tactics Planning Previewing, reviewing, setting schedules, deciding to attend toa specific aspect of "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shokar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)| Organizing | language input, planning for and rehearsing linguistic components necessary to carry out an upcoming language task, deciding to | postpone speaking Deciding to attend to specific aspects of language input or situational details that will cue the retention of language input, reordering, classifying, labeling items in the language Monitoring Correcting one’s speech for accuracy in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, imitating a language model, including silent rehearsal, and self-checkin; Evaluating Checking the outcomes of one’s own language learning against an internal measure of completeness and accurac; Using senses Creating visualizations and pictures to remember, noticing phonological sounds, acting out a word or sentence ‘Activating knowledge Using the first’ — language ‘for comparison/contrast to remember words and forms, applying rules by deduction, using translation to remember a new word Contextualization Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful language sequence, relating new information to other concepts in memor Going beyond the data Affective Strategies Guessing meanings of new items, predicting words or forms from the context ‘The second of Oxford's meta-strategies is a set of affective strategies that help the learner to employ beneficial emotional energy, form positive attitudes toward the learning process, and generate and maintain motivation, Sociocultural-Interactive Strategies The third of Oxford's categories contains what others have called communication strategies (Démnyei, 1995) or socioafte tive strategies (O’Malley et al., 1985b), both of which refer to the leamer’s tacties for generating and maintaining interactive communication within a cultural context. Oxford’s sociocultural-interactive (S-1) strategies “help the leamer interact and communicate (despite knowledge gaps) and deal [effectively] with culture” (2011b, p. 24). c mpensatory Strategies Downloaded by Nawal Shokar (nawalshakar@gmaicom)A further note is in order, however, before moving on to a commentary on the research and to pedagogical implications of research on strategies. It is of singular interest that many language learners who possess a “knack” for gaining communicative control of a second language have some special insights into what Dérnyei (1995, 2009) and others have called compensatory strategies. A review of various self-help books and “how to” manuals on Ieaming a foreign language shows a strong emphasis on how the leamer can compensate for weaknesses and avoid various pitfalls (Lai, 2009). The “knack” seems to be composed quite prominently of such “tricks” and techniques, Research on Learning Strategies The research of the last four decades on L2 strategies has slowly but surely been pushing toward a theory of language learning strategies (Griffiths & Parr, 2001; Hsiao & Oxford, 2002; Dimyei & Skehan, 2003; Cohen & Macaro, 2007; Oxford, 2011b). One of the major conundrums of the hundreds of research studies on strategies has been the identification of the theoretically most parsimonious way of categorizing strategies. Oxford’s three metae strategies comprise one lens—among many—through which to view strategies, Identifying Types of Strate; Other pedagogically useful studies separate strategies for acquiring the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing . Leaning (input) strategies, as opposed to communication (output) strategies, emphasize differences between learning receptive skills of listening and reading in contrast to producing language in speech and writing. O'Malley, Chamot, and Kupper (1989) found that L2 learners developed effective listening skills through monitoring, elaboration, and inferencing. Selective attention to keywords and advance organizers, inferring from context, prediction, using a worksheet, and taking notes were shown to be teachable (Rost & Ross, 1991; Ozeki, 2000; Carrier, 2003; Vandergrift, 2003). And reading strategies such as bottom-up and top-down processing, predicting, guessing from context, brainstorming, and summarizing have also been shown to be effective (Anderson, 1991; Chamot & El-Dinary, 1999; Pressley, 2000) Cross-Cultural Issues Another theoretical issue probes the effectiveness of strategy use and instruction cross- culturally , which has already been alluded to above in our discussion of autonomy (Oxford & Anderson, 1995; Oxford, 1996; Pemberton, 1996; McDonough, 1999). Do cross-cultural factors facilitate or interfere with strategy use among learners? Conclusions from an extensive number of studies in many countries promise more than a glimmer of hope that strategy instruction and autonomous leaming are viable avenues to success: China (Jun Zhang, 2003; Gan, Humphreys, & Hamp-Lyons, 2004); Egypt (Nelson, Carson, Al Batal, & El Bakary, 2002); Italy (Macaro, 2000); Japan ( Ozeki, 2000; Taguchi, 2002; Cohen, 2004); Korea (Lee & Oxford, 2005), Kuwait ( ELDib, 2004 ); Taiwan (Lai, 2009); and Singapore (Wharton, 2000), Measuring Strategy Use "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)A controversial issue in both research and pedagogy is the measurement of strategy use. One of the most widely used instruments for learners to identify strategies is Oxford's (1990a) Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), a questionnaire that has been tested in many countries and translated into several languages. The SILL’s 50 items, divided into six categories, each present a possible strategy (¢.g., “I use thymes to remember new words”), which responders must indicate on a five-point scale of “never true of me” to “always true of me.” Once style preferences have been identified, a learner can presumably proceed to take action through strategies. The Effectiveness of Strategy Instruction We have seen mounting evidence of the usefulness of learners’ incorporating strategies into their classroom learning process. Strategy training has appeared in three basic forms: (1) textbook-embedded instruction (with hints and strategic suggestions within a student textbook and a teacher’s manual); (2) student manuals that promote autonomous self-help strategy training (e.g., Brown, 2002); and (3) strategies-based advice, hints, and tips within a teacher’s planned or impromptu classroom procedures. STRATEGIES-BASED INSTRUCTION Much of the work of researchers and teachers on the application of strategies to classroom, leaning has come to be known generically by several terms: leamer strategy training, Ieaming strategy instruction, styles and strategies based instruction (SSBI) (Cohen, 1998; Cohen & Weaver, 2006), and perhaps more simply as strategies-based instruction (SBI) (Cohen, 1998 ; McDonough, 1999), As we seck to make the language classroom an effective milieu for learning, it has become increasingly apparent that “teaching learners how to learn” is crucial, Wenden (1985) was among the first to assert that leamer strategies are the key to camer autonomy, and Chamot (2005) stressed the importance of including facilitation of that autonomy through explicit instruction. Stimulating Awareness The effective implementation of SBI in language classrooms involves several steps and considerations: 1. identifying learners’ styles and linking them with potential strategies 2. incorporating SBT in communicative language courses and classrooms 3. providing extr sistance for learners From Awareness to Action The SAC is an instrument that has immediate practical value. Once students have had a chance, with no advance coaching, to fill out the checklist, you can engage them in any or all of the following © adi sion of why they responded as they did + small-group sharing of feelings underlying their responses Downloaded by Nawal Shokar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)* an informal tabulation of how people responded to each item. * some advice, from your own experience, on why certain practices may be successful or unsuccessful * reaching the general consensus that responses in the A and B categories are usually indicative of successful approaches to language learning, From Classroom Action to Autonomy Finally, itis important to note that style awareness and strategic action are not and should not be limited to the classroom, Most successful learners reach communicative goals by virtue of their own self-motivated efforts to extend learning well beyond the confines of a classroom. Teachers can help leamers to achieve this further step toward autonomy by helping leamers to see that raising their awareness of styles and strategies aids them in the authentic use of language “out there.” The classroom is an opportunity for learners to begin the journey toward success, and to grasp the reality that beyond those classroom hours are dozens of hours weekly that can be devoted to practicing meaningful uses of their new language. Chapter 13 of Teaching by Principles by Brown & Lee (2015) CHAPTER 13 CREATING AN INTERACTIVE CLASSROOM EXPLORING INTERACTION Interaction is an important word for language teachers. We listed interaction as one of our eight major principles in Chapter 4. In the era of communicative language teaching, interaction is, in fact, the heart of communication. We send messages, receive them, interpret them in a context, negotiate meanings, and collaborate to accomplish certain purposes. In Walsh’s (2011) words, “Crucially, in a classroom, it is through language in interaction that we access new knowledge, acquire and develop new skills, identify problems of understanding, deal with “breakdowns” in communication, and establish and maintain relationships” (p. 3). Intera e Principles Interaction is the collaborative exchange of thoughts, feelings, or ideas between two or more people. Storch (2013) notes that to collaborate means “to share labor,” which invotves “high mutuality” and a spirit of equality, both of which make interaction fruitful and productive. Theories of communicative competence emphasize the importance of interaction as human beings use language in various contexts to “negotiate” meaning, or simply stated, to get an idea out of one person’s head and into the head of another person and vice versa. Interactive Teachers An interactive teacher is by definition one who is fully aware of the group dynamics of a classroom, As Démnyei and Murphey (2003) explained, the success of classroom leaming is very much dependent on how students relate to each other, what the classroom environment is, how effectively students cooperate and communicate with each other, and, of course, what roles the teacher and leamers play. "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)Teacher as Controller A role that is sometimes expected in educational institutions is that of controller, in charge of every moment of a lesson. Of course, some control on your part is an important element of structuring a lesson and successfully carrying out interactive techniques. ‘Teacher as Director ‘Some interactive classroom time can legitimately be structured in such a way that the teacher is like a conductor of an orchestra or a director of a drama, As students engage in either rehearsed or spontaneous language performance, it is your job to keep the process flowing smoothly and efficiently ‘Teacher as Manager This metaphor captures a teacher's role as one who plans lessons and who structures the longer segments of classroom time, but who then allows each individual to be creative within those parameters. ‘Teacher as Facilitator A less directive role might be that of a guide, making learning easier for students and helping them to clear away roadblocks. The facilitating role requires that you step away from the managerial or directive role and allow students, with your guidance and gentle prodding, to find their own pathways to success. ‘Teacher as Resource This is the least directive role. You are available for advice and counsel when the student seeks it, but generally that initiative comes from the student, Interactive Students ‘A huge proportion of students who enter an L2 classroom feel anything but interactive, especially in the first few days of a beginning level. They don’t know any words or phra the language (or very few). The teacher, on the other hand, is perceived to be omniscient, possessing fluent control of the L2 along with a vast storehouse of technical information about the language. Another way to look at interactive students is to recognize and encourage student roles that contribute to collaborative group interaction. Sarkisian (2010) suggests that functioning in groups is usually successful when the participants to do the following: * take initiative (suggest options; change direction; provide new ideas) * seek information (ask for facts; solicit opinions) * question the group by asking for further clarification © clarify when there is confusion or misunderstanding * summarize to put contributions into a pattern ING INTERACTION: QUESTIONING STRATEGIES Downloaded by Nawal Shokar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)Functions and Advantages of Teacher Questions One of the best ways to develop your role as an initiator and sustainer of interaction is to develop a repertoire of questioning strategies. In second language classrooms, where leamers often do not have a great number of tools for initiating and maintaining language, your questions provide necessary stepping stones to communication, Appropriate questioning in an interactive classtoom can fulfill the following different functions (adapted from Christenbury & Kelly, 1983; Kinsella, 1991). Display and Referential Questions There are many ways to classify what kinds of questions are effective in the classroom, Perhaps the simplest way to conceptualize the possibilities is to think of a range of questions, beginning with display questions that attempt to elicit information already known by the teacher, all the way to highly referential questions that request information not known by the questioner. Categories of Referential Questions The list below provides seven categories of questions, mostly referential, with typical classroom question words associated with each category. Categories of Teacher Questions (Adapted from Kinsella, 1991) 1. Knowledge questions: Eliciting factual answers, testing recall and recognition of information. Examples: Define, tell, list, identify, describe, select, name, point out, label, reproduce, Who? What? Where? When? Answer “yes” or “no.” 2. Comprehension questions: Interpreting, extrapolating. Examples: State in your own words, explain, define, locate, select, indicate, summarize, outline, match. 3. Application questions: Applying information heard or read to new situations. Examples: Demonstrate how, use the data to solve, illustrate how, show how, apply, construct, explain. What is___used for? What would result? What would happen? 4. Inference questions: Forming conclusions that are not directly stated in instructional :xamples: How? Why? What did ___mean by? What does __believe? ‘What conclusions can you draw from __? 5, Analysis questions: Breaking down into parts, relating parts to the whole, Examples: Distinguish, diagram, chart, plan, deduce, arrange, separate, outline, classify, contrast, compare, differentiate, categorize. What is the relationship between? What is the function of? What motive? What conclusions? What is the main idea? materials. 6. Synthesis questions: Combining elements into a new pattern, Examples: Compos combine, estimate, invent, choose, hypothesize, build, solve, design, develop. What if? How would you test? What would you have done in this situation? What would happen if...” How can you improve . . .? How else would you... .? 7, Evaluation questions: Making a judgment of good and bad, right or wrong, according to some set of criteria, and stating why. Examples: Evaluate, rate, defend, dispute, decide which, select, judge, grade, verify, choose why. Which is best? Which is more important? Which do you think is more appropriate? "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)Other Means of Stimulating Interaction Questioning strategies are certainly “the most common and universally used activation technique in teaching” (Ur, 2012, p. 228). And we could argue that they are also one of the most important teaching behaviors for you to master. What do you do and say to get students started, to prime them, to stimulate them to further communication? There are, of course, other teacher strategies that promote interaction. Consider the following: strategies for promoting interaction in the Classroom * Designing pair work and group work (details in the next section) * Giving commands or directions (“Open your books,” “Do the following exercise”) + Using organizational language (“Get into small groups”) * Reacting to students (praise, recognition) * Responding genuinely to student-initiated questions + Encouraging students to develop their own strategies (to stimulate self-regulation and autonomy) + Following short lectures/brief teacher monologues with designed collaborative student tasks GROUP WORK: THE STANDARD BEARER OF CLT MYTHS ABOUT GROUP WORK Myth #1: The Teacher Is No Longer in Control of the Class Myth #2: Students Will Use Their Native Language Myth #3: Students’ Errors Will Be Reinforced in Small Groups ‘Myth #4: Teachers Cannot Monitor All Groups at Once Myth #5: Some Leamers Prefer to Work Alone Myth #6: Diverse Student Learning Styles Complicate Group Work ADVANTAGES OF GROUP WORK + Group Work Generates Interactive Language. * Group Work Offers an Embracing Affective Climate. up Work Promotes Learner Responsibility and Autonomy * Group Work Is a Step Toward Individualizing Instruction IMPLEMENTING GROUP WORK IN YOUR CLASSROOM Classroom Language One of the first considerations in implementing group work is to ascertain that your students have an appropriate command of classroom language with which to carry out the group task that you have in mind, Now, some group work is linguistically quite simple, and appropriately so for lower proficiency levels. Pair Work versus Group Work Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)So far, in looking at group work, differences between pair work and group work have not been emphasized. There are, in fact, some important distinctions. Pair work is more appropriate than group work for tasks that are (a) short, (b) linguistically simple, and (¢) quite controlled in terms of the structure of the task. Appropriate pair activities (that are not recommended for groups of more than two) include the following: types of aCtivities suitable for pair work practicing dialogues or doing drills with a partner simple question-and-answer exercises very brief (one minute or less) brainstorming activities checking written work with each other preparation for merging with a larger group any brief activity for which the logistics of assigning groups, moving furniture, and getting students into the groups is too distracting Group Work Techniques 1 Games: A game could be any activity that formalizes a technique into units that ean be scored in some way. Role-Play and Simulations: Role-play minimally involves (a) giving a role to one or more members of a group and (b) assigning an objective or purpose that participants ‘must accomplish. Drama: Drama is a more formalized form of role-play, with a preplanned story line and script. Projects: For leamers of all ages, but perhaps especially for younger learners who can greatly benefit from hands-on approaches to language, certain projects can be rewarding indeed, Interview: A popular activity for pair work, but also appropriate for group work, interviews are useful at all levels of proficiency. Brainstorming: Brainstorming is a technique whose purpose is to initiate some sort of thinking process. Information Gap: Information-gap activities include a variety of techniques in which the objective is to convey or request information. Jigsaw: Jigsaw techniques are a special form of information gap in which each member of a group is given some specific information and the goal is to pool all information to achieve some objective. Problem Solving and Decision Making: Problem-solving group techniques focus on the group's solution of a specified problem. 10. Opinion Exchange: An opinion is a belief or feeling that might not be founded on ‘empirical data or that others could plausibly take issue with. Planning and Initiating Group Work Tasks 1 2, 3. Introduce the Technique Justify the Use of Small Groups for the Technique Model the Technique "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)Give Explicit Detailed Instructions Divide the Class into Groups Cheek for Set the Task in Motion ification Monitoring the Task Guidelines for monitoring groups + Actively circulate through the groups. + Show interest, but remember it’s their group, not yours. + Offer a few helpful comments, but don’t dominate, ‘+ Maintain a “fly on the wall” nondisruptive role. + Keep your own verbal comments to a minimum. + Divide your time as equally as possible among the groups. * Correct students’ errors only if an error is causing a crucial misunderstanding, or a student requests it Debriefing (Processing) the Task 1. Reporting on Task Objectives 2. Focus on Form 3. Establishing Affe tive Support Chapter 2 of The Practice of English Language Teaching by Harmer (2007) CHAPTER 2 DESCRIBING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE A. Language in use ‘The language e speak or write is governed by a number of rules, styles and constrains. Quite apart from the meaning we wish to convey, we have to think about whether we are writing or speaking, texting or emailing B. What we want to say ‘The issue that faces us here is that the words we use and what they actually mean in the context we use them, are not the same thing at all. There is no one-to-one correspondence, in other words, between form and meaning. BI Form and meaning This same-form-different-meanings situation is surprisingly unproblematic for Ianguage users since the context and co-text usually revolve any ambiguity. Neverthless, it makes decisions about what forms to teach, and what meanings to teach them with, a major factor in syllabus planning, B2 Purpose Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)The study of functions and how they are realised in language, has had a profound effect upon the design of language teaching materials, making language purpose a ‘major factor in the choice of syllabus items and teaching techniques. B3 Appropriacy and register When we attempt to achieve a communicative purpose (such as getting someone to agree to an invitation), we have to choose which of these language forms to use. The variables which govern our choice are setting, participants, gender, channel, topic, and tone. Language as text and discourse C1 Discourse organisation In order for collections of sentences or utterances to succeed effectively, the discourse needs to be organised or conducted in such a way that it will be successful. In written English this calls for both coherence and cohesion, C2 Genre ‘One of the r successfully, especially in writing, is becaus we have some understanding of genre. One way of describing this — and one much favoured by people who teach FSP — is to say that a genre is a type of written organisation and layout which will be instantly recognised for what it is by members of a discourse community — that is any group of people who share the same language customs and norms. Grammar Grammar is not just concerned with syntax, however. The way words are formed — and can change their form in order to express different meanings ~ is also at the heart of grammatical knowledge. D1 Choosing words ‘When we construct sentences, therefore, we are constantly making choices about, for example, singular or plural, countable or uncountable, present or past, transitive or intransitive, and about exactly what words we want to use (eg. like, enjoy, say or tell). Grammar ‘is concerned with the implication of such choices’ (Carter and McCarthy 2006: 4), Lexis E1 Language corpora ‘One of the reasons we are now able to make statements about vocabulary with considerably mote confidence than before is because lexicographers and other researchers are able to analyse large banks of language data stored on computers. From a corpus of millions of words (made up novels, scientific articles, plays, etc.) quick accurate information can be accessed about how often words are used and in what linguistic contexts. We can find out what other words are commonly used with "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)the word we are interested in, and we can also state, with some confidence, how frequently words are used in the language. This is a huge advance on, say, the pioneering work of Michael West (see West 1953) who tried to get the same kind of information through manual sweat and toil and a card index. It was impossible for him and his researchers to achieve even a fraction of what computers can now tell us. E2 Word meaning What a word means is often defined by its relationship to other words, for example, we explain the meaning of full by saying that it is the opposite of empty; we understand that cheap is the opposite of expensive. Such antonyms reinforce the meaning of each word in the pair, though of course because a word can be polysemous it may have more than one antonym (e.g. a rich person ~ a poor person, rich food — plain food, etc.) E3 Extending word use Words do not just have different meanings. However, they can also be stretched and twisted to fit different contexts and different uses. We say that someone is in a black mood (very cross) or someone is green (naive), yet we are not actually describing a colour. In such contexts black and green mean something else. E4 Word combinations Word combinations (collocations) have become the subject of intense interest in the recent past, in part spurred on by discoveries from language corpora. Collocations are word which co-occur with each other and which language users, through c practice, have come to see as normal and acceptable. It is immediately apparent that while some words can live together, others cannot. We can talk about a clenched fist and even clenched teeth, yet we cannot talk about *clenched eyebrows. tom and The sounds of language In writing, we represent words and grammar through orthography. When speaking, on the other hand, we construct words and phrases with individual sounds, and we also use pitch change, intonation and stress to convey different meanings. FI Pitch ‘One of the ways we recognise people is by the pitch of their voice. We say that one person has a very hi very high, we talk about them having a ‘high-pitched! voice. voice whereas another has a deep voice. When their voice is F2 Intonation n it's own, pitch is not very subtle, conveying, as we have seen, only the most basic information about mood and emotion, But once we start altering the pitch as we speak (eg. changing pitch direction), we are able to convey a much subtler range of meanings. The music of speech, that is the intonation we use, is a crucial factor in speaking. One of the uses of intonation is to show the grammar of what we are saying. Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)F3 Individual sounds Words and sentences are made up of sounds (or phonemes) which, on their own, may not carry meaning, but which, in combination, make words and phrases. The phonemes /k/ (like the ¢ in can), /a/ (like the a in can) of /t/ (like the t in tooth) are just sounds, but put them together in a certain order and we get /keet/ (cat), a word that is instantly recognisable. If we change just one of these sounds (/b’ for /ki, for example) we will get a different word (bat); if, on the other hand, we changed /e/ for /n/-like the o in hot-we would get another different word, /kDt/ (cot), F4 Sounds and spelling Whereas in some languages there seems to be a close correlation between sounds and spelling, in English this is often not the case, The sound /4/, for example, can be realised in a number of different spellings (e.g. won, young, funny, flood), The letters ou, on the other hand, can be pronounced in a number of different ways (e.g. cloud, {klabd/, pour /p9:/, enough /inAff, through /Oru:/, though /SaW/, trough /teD!, or even joumey /"d3a:.ni/. A lot depends on the sounds that come before and after them, but the fact remains that we spell some sounds in a variety of different ways, and we have a variety of different sounds for some spellings. FS Stress Stress is the term we use to describe the point in a word or phrase where pitch changes, vowels lengthen and volume increases. In a one-syllable word like dance, we know which syllable is stressed since there is only one. A word with more than one syllable is more complex, however. We might stress the word export on the second syllable (exPORT) if we are using it as a verb, But if, on the contrary, we stress the first syllable (EXport), the verb is now a noun. Paralinguistic features of language A number of features of communication take place outside the formal s Tanguage (sounds, grammar, etc.). These paralinguistic features fall into two broad categories, those that involve the voice and those that involve the body. G1 Vocal paralinguistic features There are many ways in which we choose how we say things, depending on the situation we are in, irrespective of the sounds, stress or intonation we are using. For example, we can decide how loud or soft we wish to be (volume): whispering suggests a desire for secrecy, whereas shouting suggests either anger or determination, When we make breathiness a characteristic of our speaking, it is usually because we want to express deep emotion (or sexual desire). We can make our voices nasal (which often indicates anxiety). Whether or not these tones of voice (different from the tone units of intonation-see F2 above) are voluntary or involuntary, they convey intention and circumstance. "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmailcom)G2 Physical paralinguistic features We can convey a number of meanings through the way in which we use our bodies. ‘The expressions on our faces, the gestures we make and even proximity or the way we sit, for example, may send powerful messages about how we feel or what we mean. ‘We can look at some of these in more detail. * Facial expression: facial expression is a powerful conveyor of me: is an almost universal signal of pleasure or welcome. * Gesture: we use gesture to indicate a wide range of meanings, although, once again, the actual gestures we use may be specific to particular cultures. * Proximity, posture and echoing: the physical distance between speakers can indicate a number of things and can also be used to send conscious messages about intent. Closeness, for example, indicates intimacy or threat to many speakers, while distance may denote formality or a lack of interest. Posture can convey meaning, too. Hunched shoulders and a hanging head give a powerful indication of mood. When it occurs naturally in this way, echoing appears to complement the verbal communication. ing. Smiling Speaking and writing We have already seen how ellipsis is used in speech (Cl above), and we have also alluded (in El) to how words are used differently in speech and writing (for example asleep is much more common in speech than in writing). There is also evi we use verb tenses differently in speaking and writing. For example, in speech present verb forms outnumber past verb forms by a factor of 2:1, and simple verb forms are significantly more common in speech than in writing. In speech it appears that passive verb forms are used only rarely, whereas will, would and can are much more common. There are other differences, too. For example, in conversation we tend to take turns rather than speak in well-formed sentences, e.g. A: Biscuit? B: Yeah. A: Here In face-to-face spontaneous conversation we are likely to use small units of conversation (biscuit, yeah, here) rather than long sentences. Indeed, rather than using sentences, we tend to organise utterances into different tone units (see F2 above). jence that Journal Articles Summary 1. THE USE OF GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD (GTM) IN TEACHING BAHASA INDONESIA TO FOREIGN LEARNER ‘The Grammar ‘Translation Method GTM) is a foreign language teaching methodology derived from classical methods (sometimes called traditional) method in teaching Greek and Latin. In this method, the teachers usually have the students to translate whole texts word for word and memorize grammatical rules and exceptions as well as sets of words, Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)Larsen-Freeman (1986) provides some typical techniques associated with the Grammar Translation Method: 1. Translation, The students are instructed to translate a text on target language to their native language 2, Reading comprehension, The students need to answer some questions and find some information based on the text they are learning. 3. Antonyms and synonyms. The students are instructed to find the antonyms or synonyms of a set of words. 4, Fill in the gaps. The teacher provides incomplete sentences and the students are instructed to fill in the gaps with the words or terms they have just learnt. 5. Memorization, The students memorize a set of new vocabularies or grammatical rules, 6. Use words in sentences. Students need to create sentences to define or describe the words or terms they have just learnt. Ast (2015) summed up some flaws in GTM 1. Speaking and understanding are more important for learners of modem languages than reading and writing. However, the grammar translation method focuses on the reading and writing skills instead of the speaking one. 2. Leamers must gradually accumulate the knowledge from the basic to advance level before they can use the language properly. This will bring a disadvantage for leamers whose objective of learning the language is for practical use. 3. Nowadays, teachers and institution prefer learning through exposure and experience method while GTM uses memorization of grammar rules or vocabulary instead 4, Teachers and leamers mostly communicate in the first language but many experts have argued the importance of the use of target language in the 5. Teacher is the center of the leaming process. Students interact with their teacher with little to no student-student interaction 6. Recently, experts and practitioners believe that translation is not the best technique in learning a language. 7. The Grammar Translation Method insists on accuracy which is quite the opposite of the recent teaching methods which emphasizing on the fluency. The teaching and learning of Bahasa Indonesia in this class followed specific pattern of activities; text reading, reading comprehension, new vocabularies, structures, sentence exercise, The teacher started the lesson by text reading, A text, in Bahasa Indonesia was given to the student. She, then, read the text twice; first, the student read the text aloud and second, she tried to translate the text into English. The teacher and the student would discussed some difficult or new words found in the text. Despite being regarded as ‘traditional’, Grammar Translation Method can still be applied in language teaching. This method indeed focuses more on translation, "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmailcom)‘memorization and structure drills, yet it can be modified to fit student's learning style and needs. The translation helps the students to get better understanding, memorization helps the students in the language use in the future, and the structure drills will help the students to form sentences correctly. ‘The writer has applied this method in teaching Bahasa Indonesia to foreign leamer. The writer noted that it can help significantly the student who has known, some basic vocabularies of Bahasa Indonesia. This method is also best fit for a small classroom as it requires a lot of time for translating and drilling activities. Finally, though not required, the target language can be used once in a while during the teaching-leaming activities. . USING DIRECT METHOD IN TEACHING — READING COMPREHENSION ‘The objective of this re reading comprehension through direct method to the eighth grade students of the State Junior High School 44 of Palembang, This study used a quasi-experimental method where the way of this method compare of two groups namely the experimental group and control group. The differences between them were in experimental group given treatment by using direct method; meanwhile in the control group was not given treatment. ‘The population of this study was all the eighth grade students of the State Junior High School 44 of Palembang. There ‘were nine classes or 332 students, and two classes or 74 students were taken as the sample of the study by using purposive non random sampling. In collecting the data, the researcher gave the test. The number of questions are 20 items. The test ‘was given twice namely, pretest and posttest. The items of the test in the post-test were exactly the same as those in the pre-test. It was calculated by using SPS 16.0. From the result of the research, It indicated that the students’ average score of the post-test in experimental group was 80.81 and the students’ average score of post-test in control group was 72.84. The result of statistical analysis between experimental group and control group tobtained should be higher than t-table (0.279). Furthermore the result of the students’ score in experimental group and control group (value t-obtained) were 4.462. Since the value of obtained was higher than table, so that the mull hypothesis (Ho) was rejected and the alternative hypothesis (Ha) was accepted, It can be concluded that teaching reading comprehension through direct method to the eighth grade students of the State Junior High School 44 of Palembang was effective. ;ch was to find out whether or not it is effective to teach Based on the result of analyzing the data, there were some conclusions which could be described from the scores that were found, the result of statistical analysis between experimental and control group (L-obtained) should be higher than t-table (0.279). Furthermore, the result of the students’ score in control group and experimental group (value of t-obtained) were 4.462. Since the value of t- obtained was higher than table, so that the null hypothesis was rejected and Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)alternative hypothesis was accepted. It could be stated that teaching reading comprehension through direct method to the eighth grade students at the state junior high school number 44 of Palembang was effective. TEACHER'S STRATEGIES IN TEACHING LISTENING In the teaching and learning process, listening is not just a difficult skill to leam bbut also has its own challenge to be taught, therefore the researcher tries to carried out the strategy used by the English teachers in teaching listening especially for grade 9 students at SMP Nureahaya Medan, The method was used in this study was qualitative method. Two English teachers were selected to be the participant in the class observing, not-taking and strustured-interview instruments. The result of the study showed that the biggest difficult in listening in the class, came from the students which think that listening wasn't attractive, and to solved it, the English teachers used some strategies like, applying the note taking, summarizing, and also the pay attention strategies. The teachers also upgrade the cr for listening and persuasive students to doing the listening practice. tive media From all the discussion above the researcher take the conclusion that: There are several strategies which used by the English teachers in teaching listening, the strategies are: taking note, summarizing and paying attention, The teachers using these three strategies because students feel difficult to do the listening comprehension without the helping tools like the taking note and the summarizing, and students also feel that listening is uninteresting so the teachers, using the paying attention strategies. The teachers do the strategies step by step from the simpliest ways. INVESTIGATING THE USE OF YOUTUBE, MEDIUM IN ELT AMONG NON-E Since the COVID-19 pandemic came up suddenly to this world, everything takes a drastic turn, The Ministry of Education and Culture Republic of Indonesia reacted to this issue by making an online learning policy Number 3 of 2020 on Prevention of COVID-19 in the Education Unit. Many education institutions adopted this policy by creating online tools such as YouTube as a resource of transition from face-to-face learning to virtual learning sitce it is seen as a popular ‘medium used in online classes. This research investigates the use of YouTube as a medium in the English 1 course for non-English students at one of State Islamic University in Salatiga. YouTube is an online learning platform that enables lecturers and students to upload, view, share, and even interact through the comments column in the learning videos. A descriptive qualitative method is used to achieve the objective of the research, which involved three classes from the Early Childhood Islamic Education study program, the Islamic Elementary School study program, and the Islamic Religious Education study program as the objects, in this research, The researcher limits the content of YouTube from the channel "AR," while the materials are about Degree of Comparison and Collocation. "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)Students’ responses from those three classes in the YouTube column have been analyzed to investigate the findings. The finding shows that YouTube brings a good impact on non-English students in ELT. This finding is supported by the result of the analysis answer sheet of the quiz from students, the survey on students’ perception, and other comments about the materials on the YouTube comment column, Finally, it can be concluded that YouTube can be an effective virtual teaching medium in ELT among non-English students at TAIN Salatiga based on the result of survey by respondents, In this pandemic era, mastery of technology is the most crucial foundation in the education sector. This fact strengthens that by mastering technology, the goal of online leaming can be successfully realized, Students can still learn through digital media wherever and whenever they want without interacting face-to-face with the lecturers in the classroom, Youtube is considered one of the media with great potential to improve the quality of online learning, especially in English Language Learning for non-English students. This medium can create freedom of expression and add experience in improving students' ability to understand learning materials through video content uploaded on the YouTube channel The investigation revealed that Youtube could motivate non-English students in English Language Teaching. This fact was obtained from the analysis the answer sheets and comments in the YouTube comment column, These results indicate a positive attitude of students towards the use of this media. From the 7 lish students seemed to understand the explanations, instructions, and exercises given through an explanation video uploaded on ‘YouTube on the Degrees of Comparison and Collocation material. However, some students are late in posting their assignments due to signal problems results of three classes, non-E Furthermore, most of the students from those three classes also posted the answer sheets on the YouTube comment column. They also got excellent results from doing assignments based on the explanation from the YouTube video. Some comments also showed students’ positive feelings during focusing on lecturer's explanation on the video. The survey on students’ perception of using YouTube as a virtual medium in ELT showed that 80% students agree that YouTube videos significantly improve their understanding of the material Degrees of Comparison and Collocation. Only 13% students disagree, and 7% students are neutral to this, This investigation concludes that YouTube could be an effective virtual teaching medium in ELT among non-English students at IAIN Salatiga, As a recommendation for further researchers, itis better to add a variable that not ‘only focuses on reviewing YouTube use in ELT classes and respondents! perceptions, but also changes the research methodology to measure the effectiveness of YouTube use on learning achievement in EFL classes for non- English students. Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmailcom)THE MODEL OF STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY ENGLISH TEACHERS IN TEACHING WRITING SKILL IN NATIONAL PLUS SCHOOLS In teaching writing, there are number of strategies that can be used. This study ‘was intended to explore (1) the teaching writing strategies used by the teacher, (2) the differences in teaching, and (3) the problems encountered by the English teacher in teaching writing skill. This study was a descriptive qualitative study. Teachers from Bintang Mandiri and Widyatmika Junior High Schools were involved as the informant of the study. They were observed during the teaching and leaming process and also interviewed. The data taken from observation and interview were analyzed in order to find out the answer the research questions. It ‘was identified that In Bintang Mandiri the teacher used 1 more teaching writing strategy namely creative writing while in Widyatmika, creative writing was not identified. There were three main problems identified from the teachers. The first was students’ difficulties in expressing ideas in English. ‘The second problem was, students’ grammar. The third was students’ passiveness in classroom. Suggestions, and implications are furtherly discussed. Based on the result of the study it can be conclude that the implementation of strategies of teaching writing should be directed by the teacher by considering the learning goal and the students’ competency. During the teaching and learning process, students were struggle in developing their writing. As what found in the study, students’ lack of vocabulary, grammar and motivation made them difficult to expre English, The most important thing is that the teacher should focus on the process of writing instead of product. This was due to the context of foreign language in which the students have limitation in practicing the target language. The other reason to focus on process of writing is bec students can be categorized as new leamer of English because English is taught started from junior high school based on national curriculum of Indonesia. ‘Teacher is suggested to read literature and develop teaching writing that is suitable for the students. Teachers are also suggested to integrate the strategy of teaching writing with technology so the students are more motivated in learning English. their idea in se the "Wis ocunt i vlabe o hrg on @ studocu Downloaded by Nawal Shekar(nawalshakar@gmaicom)REFERENCES Adisti, A. R. (2022). Investigating the use of YouTube as virtual teaching medium in ELT ‘among non-English students. ELT Forum: Journal of English Language aching, 11(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10,15294/elt.v11i1,48676 Argisila, S., Lestari Situmorang, N., & Br Boangmanalu, M. (2019). Teacher’s Strategies in ‘Teaching Listening. English Education: English Journal for Teaching and Learning, 72). https://doi.org/10,24952/ee,vTi02,2231 Astrini, F, NM, R,, & G.A. LP, U. I, (2020). The Model of Strategies Employed by English. ‘Teachers in Teaching Writing Skill in National Plus Schools. Journal of Education Research and Evaluation, 4(1), 59. https://doi,org/10,23887/jere,v4il 23682 Brown, D. H. (2014). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (6th Edition) (6th ed.) [E-book]. Pearson Education E: Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching with DVD (4th Edition) (Longman Handbooks for Language Teachers) (4th ed.). Peatson Longman ELT. Lestary, Agustina. The Use of Grammar Translation Method (GTM) in Teaching Bahasa Indonesia to Foreign Learner. TEFLA Journal (Teaching English as Foreign Language and Applied Linguistic Journal), [S.1.], v1, n.2, p. 1-4, may 2019. ISSN 2654-5152. Available at: htps://iournal_umbjm_ac,id/index.php/TEFLAJarticle/view/315. Date accessed: 10 may 2022. Yaliani, S., & Astria, H. (2020). Using Direct Method in Teaching Reading Comprehension. English Community Journal, 4(2). https://doi.org/10,32502/ec).v4i2,3268 Downloaded by Nawal Shokar (nawalshakar@gmaicom)