Chapter 7.

Application of Thermodynamics
to Flow Processes
 Introduction

 Thermodynamics of flow
 Based on mass, energy, and entropy balance on open system
 Flow  also fluid mechanics problem
 Thermodynamics of flow
- Mass conservation, laws of thermodynamics
 Fluid mechanics
- Momentum balance

 This chapter
 Duct flow – pipe, Nozzle, Throttle
 Turbines (expanders)
 Compressors, Pumps
 7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (1)
 Adiabatic, steady state, one-dimensional flow of compressible fluid

 No shaft work and no change in potential energy

 Energy Balance Equation – 1st law

Steady state 0 0 0 0
d(mU) CV  1 2   W

   H  u  zg m  Q
dt  2   fs

 1 
dH  udu
 H  u 2   0
 2 
Changes in enthalpy directly go to
changes in velocity
 7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (2)

 Mass balance equation – Continuity Equation

0
uA
 m
 fs  0
dm cv  )  d(
d(m )0  equation 2.27
dt V (page 47)

dV du dA
  0
V u A
 7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (3)

 Thermodynamic Relations
dH  TdS  VdP
 Replace V in terms of S and P

 V   V  1  V 
dV    dP    dS    (eqn 3.2)
 P s  S  P V  T  P
 V   V   T   S  Cp
         (eqn 6.17)
 S  P  T  P  S  P  T  P T

 V  VT
  
 S  P CP
 7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (4)
 Relation from physics

2  P 
Velocity of sound in a medium
c  V 
2
 is related with pressure
 V S derivative w.r.t volume
with constant enthalpy (S)

 V   V 
dV    dP    dS
 P s  S  P

dV T V
 dS  2 dP
V CP c
 7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (5)

 Variables : dH, du, dV, dA, dS, dP

 Equations : four

dH  udu
dS, dA : treat as independent
dV du dA
  0 Can develop equations of
V u A
other derivatives with dS and
dH  TdS  VdP dA

dV T V
 dS  2 dP
V CP c
 7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (6)

Derive yourself!
  u 2 
u 2
(1  M 2 )VdP  1  TdS  dA  0
 C  A
 p 

 u 2 2 
 M 
 Cp   1 u
2
udu    TdS   2 
dA  0
1 M 2
1 M  A
 
 
  M : Mach number = u/c
7.1 Duct Flow of Compressible Fluids (7)

dP   u 2 
dS u 2
dA
(1  M )V
2 
 1  T  0
dx  
C p  dx A dx

 u 2 2 
 M 
du  C p  dS  1  u 2 dA
u   T  2 
0
dx 1 M 2
dx  1  M  A dx
 
 
 
According to second law, (dS/dx) ≥ 0
 Pipe Flow
 Pipe Flow : constant cross sectional area (dA/dx=0)

 u 2 
 1  Subsonic flow :
dP T C p  dS
  (1  M 2 )  0
dx V (1  M 2 )  dx
 
 
  Implies :
dP
 0 Pressure drops
in the direction of flow
 u 2 2 
dx
 M 
du  Cp  dS du
 0 Velocity increases
u  T
dx 1  M 2  dx dx in the direction of flow
 
 
 
 Pipe flow

 The velocity does not increase indefinitely.

 If the velocity exceeds the sonic value,

dP du Supersonic flow
0 0 Shock wave and turbulence
dx dx
Unstable flow
 Sonic Boom?

 What is happening around the aircraft?

 Example 7.1

Consider the steady-state, adiabatic, irreversible flow of an

incompressible liquid in a horizontal pipe of constant cross-sectional area.
Show that:

(a) The velocity is constant.

(b) The temperature increases in the direction of flow.

(c) The pressure decreases in the direction of flow.

 Example 7.1
(a) From the continuity equation,
uA u A uA
d( )  0  2 2  1 1  A 2  A1 , V2  V1 , so u 2  u1
V V2 V1

(b) For the entropy of incompressible fluid,

d(mS) cv 
Q
(Sm ) fs    S G  0  S  SG
j

dt j Tj

dT T2
dS  CP  VdP  S  CP ln  0
T T1

(c) From dH = -udu, dH = 0 since du = 0

dH  CP dT  1  TVdP  H  H2  H1  CP (T2  T1 )  V(P2  P1 )

H  0  V(P2  P1 )  CP (T2  T1 )  0

 Nozzles

 Flow within a pipe or a duct (variable cross-sectional area)

 Assume isentropic flow (dS = 0)  reversible flow

dP u 2  1  dA
  2 
dx VA  1  M  dx

du u  1  dA
  2 
dx A  1  M  dx
 Nozzles

Converging Diverging

Subsonic (M<1) Supersonic(M>1)

Converging Diverging Converging Diverging

dA/dx - + - +
dP/dx - + + -
du/dx + - - +
 Converging Nozzle
 For subsonic flow in converging nozzle
 Pressure Velocity

 Maximum obtainable velocity = speed of sound, c

 Converging subsonic nozzle can be used to deliver constant flow
into a region of variable pressure
 As P2 decreases, velocity increases and maximum value at sonic
velocity.
 Ultimately, the pressure ratio P2/P1 reaches a critical value at
which the velocity at the nozzle exit is sonic!
 Further decrease in P2 has no effect on velocity.
 Converging / Diverging Nozzle
 Speed of sound is attained at the throat of converging/diverging
nozzle only when the pressure at the throat is low enough that
critical value of P2/P1 is reached.
 Value of critical pressure ratio

dH  udu
dH  TdS  VdP udu  VdP

dS=0  Adiabatic PV   const  P1V1

1/ 
 P1V1  
V 
 P 

P2
2 P V   P 
(  1) / 

u 22  u12  2  VdP  1 1
1   2  
  1   P1  
P1 
 Value of critical pressure ratio

P2
2P1V1   P2 
(  1) / 

u 2  u1  2  VdP 
2 2
1    
  1   P1  
P1 
Critical value  u = c

 P 
u c
2 2
 V 
2

 V S
2
u1  0
 P  P u 22  P2 V2
  
 V S V 
P2  2   1
u  P2 V2
2

P1    1
2
 Example 7.2

A high-velocity nozzle is designed to operate with steam at 700 kPa and 300
oC. At the nozzle inlet, the velocity is 30 m/s. Calculate values of the ratio
A/A1 (A1 is the cross-sectional area of the nozzle inlet) for the sections where
the pressure is 600 kPa. Assume that the nozzle operates isentropically.

From the continuity equation, u 2 A 2 u1A1 A 2 u1V2

  
V2 V1 A1 V1u 2

From dH = -udu,

u 22  u12  2(H 2  H1 ) Compare the unit of u2 and H

 Example 7.2
The initial values for entropy, enthalpy, and specific volume can be found
from steam table.
 S1 = 7.2997 kJ/kg∙K, H1 = 3,059.8×103 J/kg, V1 = 371.39 cm3/g

Then,
A2 30 V2
 and u 22  302  2(H 2  3,059 103 )
A1 371.39 u 2

Since S2 = S1 = 7.2997 kJ/kg∙K (isentropic), other values, H2 and V2, can

be found from steam table (at 600 kPa and S1 = 7.2997 kJ/kg∙K)
From page 727,
S2 = 7.2997 kJ/kg∙K, H2 = 3,020.4×103 J/kg, V2 = 418.25 cm3/g
Then, A2/A1 and u2 can be calculated!
 Example 7.3
Consider again the nozzle in Ex. 7.2, assuming now that steam behaves as
an ideal gas. Calculate the critical pressure ratio and the velocity at the
throat.
 1.3
Let  = 1.3 for steam, P2  2   1
 2  1.31
   0.55
P1    1 
1.3  1
P2
2P1V1   P2 
(  1) / 

u 2  u1  2  VdP 
2 2
1      P1V1 should be obtained
  1   P1  
P1 
For ideal gas , P1V1  RT1  8.314 J / mol  K  573.15 K  4,765.17 J / mol
P1V1  4,765.17 J / mol  296,322 J / kg  296,322 m2 / s 2

2 P V   P  (  1) /   21.3264,511 [1  0.55(1.31) /1.3 ]  296,322

u 22  u12  1 1
1   2    900 
  1   P1   1.3  1

 u 2  544.35m / s
 Throttling Process
 Throttling Process : Orifice , Partly closed valve, porous plug, …

 Primary result : pressure drop

H  0, H 2  H1

 For ideal gases, H = H(T) and no change in T

 For real gases, slight change in T

 Example 7.4

Propane gas at 20 bar and 400 K is throttled in a steady-state flow

process to 1 bar. Estimate the final temperature of the propane and
its entropy change. Properties of propane can be found from suitable
generalized correlations.

T2
H  H 2  H1   CigP dT  H R2  H1R  CigP (T2  T1 )  H R2  H1R  0
T1 H

H1R  H R2
T2  T1  ig
or we can solve for T2 with iteration or solver!
CP
H

T2 dT P
S   CigP  R ln 2  SR2  S1R
T1 T P1
 Example 7.5 Joule-Thompson Coefficient

 Temperature change resulting from a throttling a real gas.

 Joule-Thompson coefficient

 Temperature increase/decrease as a result of throttling process

 T 
  
 P  H
Joule/Thomson Coefficient and other properties

 T 
  
 P  H

1
 T   T   H   H   H 
           
 P  H  H  P  P T  T  P  P T

1  H 
   
CP  P T
J-T coeff. comes from the
pressure dependence of H
Joule/Thomson Coeff. from PVT relation

 H   V 
   V  T 
 P  T  T  P

 H  RT 2  Z  With Cp and PVT

    
 P  T P  T  P relation, any
property can be
predicted.
RT 2  Z 
  
C P P  T  P
 7.2 Turbines (Expanders)

 Expansion of gas  Production of Work

 Internal Energy  Kinetic Energy  Shaft Work

 Turbines (Expanders)
 Heat effects are negligible, Inlet and outlet velocity changes are small

 m
W  H  m
 (H 2  H1 )
s

Ws  H  (H 2  H1 )

 Normally T1, P1 and P2 are given

 If turbine expands reversibly and adiabatically…

 isentropic process (adiabatic process): S = 0
 Maximum work

Ws (isentropic)  (H)S
 Turbines (Expanders)
 Turbine Efficiency

Ws

Ws (isentropic)
H

(H)S

 Turbine efficiency of properly designed turbine : 0.7 to 0.8

 Turbines (Expanders)

Adiabatic expansion process in a turbine or expander

 Example 7.6

A steam turbine with rated capacity of 56,400 kW operates with steam at

inlet conditions of 8,600 kPa and 500 oC, and discharges into a condenser
at a pressure of 10 kPa. Assuming a turbine efficiency of 0.75, determine
the state of the steam at discharge and the mass of flow of the steam.

At the initial condition of 8,600 kPa and 500 oC,

H1 = 3,391.6 kJ/kg, S1 = 6.6858 kJ/kg∙K (from steam table, page 752)

For isentropic process, S2  S1  6.6858 at P2  10kPa

at P2  10kPa, S2v  8.1511 and Sl2  0.6493  it is two phase! ( vapor  liquid )
Then, S2  x l2Sl2  x 2vS2v  (1  x 2v )Sl2  x 2vS2v
6.6858  (1  x 2v )  0.6493  x 2v  8.1511  x 2v  0.8047
 Example 7.6

From steam table, H 2v  2,584.8 and H l2  191.8 at P2  10kPa

H2  (1  0.8047) 191.8  0.8047  2,584.8  2,117.4kJ / kg
H S  H2  H1  2,117.4  3,391.6  1,274.2kJ / kg
Now, a turbine efficiency is  = 0.75,
H  H S  0.75 1,274.2  955.6kJ / kg
 H 2  H1  H  3,391.6  955.6  2,436.0kJ / kg

The composition of steam is

2,436.0  (1  x 2v ) 191.8  x 2v  2584.8  x 2v  0.9378
and...
S2  (1  0.9378)  0.6493  0.9378  8.1511  7.6846kJ / kg  K
From W  m  H  m (H  H ),
s 2 1
  56,400  m
W  (2,436.0  3,391.6)  m
  59.02kg / s
s
 Example 7.7

A stream of ethylene gas at 300 oC and 45 bar is expanded adiabatically

in a turbine to 2 bar. Calculate the isentropic work produced. Find the
properties of ethylene, assuming an ideal gas.

T2
H  H 2  H1   CigP dT  CigP (T2  T1 )
T1 H

T2 dT P T2 P
S   CigP  R ln 2  CigP ln  R ln 2
T1 T P1 S T1 P1
 Example 7.7

For isentropic process (S = 0),

T2 P T2 2
S  CigP ln  R ln 2  0  CigP ln  R ln 0
S T1 P1 S 573.15 45
T2 dT P
Find T2 by calculatin g C ig
P S or solve for T2 from S   CigP  R ln 2  0
T1 T P1
Once we calculate T2 ,
T2
Ws (isentropic)  (H)S   CigP dT  CigP (T2  T1 )
T1 H
 7.3 Compression Processes
 Compression Devices : Rotating blades, Reciprocating pistons
 Turbine operating in reverse
 Compressors

 Compressor efficiency : 0.7 to 0.8

Ws (isentropic)

Ws
(H)S

H
 Compressors

Adiabatic compression process

Ws (isentropic)

Ws
(H)S

H
 Isentropic Compression of Ideal Gas
 For ideal gas,
dT dP T2 dT P T P
dS  CP R  S   CigP  R ln 2  CP S ln 2  R ln 2
T P T1 T P1 T1 P1

Assuming S = 0 (isentropic process),

R / C 'P
P 
H S  WS (isentropic)
S

T  T1  2 
'
2 then,
 P1 
T2
  CigP dT  C'P (T2'  T1 )
T1 H

Remember that S is not zero for real compression process!

 Example 7.8
Saturated-vapor steam at 100 kPa (Tsat = 99.63 oC) is compressed
adiabatically to 300 kPa. If the compressor efficiency is 0.75, what is the
work required and what are the properties of the discharge stream?

For saturated steam at 100 kPa,

S1 = 7.3598 kJ/kg∙K and H1 = 2,675.4 kJ/kg
For isentropic compression to 300 kPa, S2  S1  7.3598kJ / kg  K
For steam at 300 kPa with this entropy, H2  2,888.8kJ / kg
H S  2,888.8  2,675.4  213.4kJ / kg
H 
H S 213.4
  284.5kJ / kg
 0.75
Then, H 2  H1  H  2,675.4  284.5  2,959.9kJ / kg
 T2  246.1o C and S2  7.5019kJ / kg  K (from steam table, page 723)
And, WS  H  284.5kJ / kg
 Example 7.9
If methane is compressed adiabatically from 20 oC and 140 kPa to 560 kPa,

estimate the work requirement and the discharge temperature of the methane.

The compressor efficiency is 0.75. Assume that methane is an ideal gas.

T2 P T2 560
S  C P S
ln  R ln 2  C P S
ln  R ln 0
T1 P1 293.15 140
T2 dT 560
or S   CigP  R ln 0
293.15 T 140
Solve for T2 , T2  397.37K

H S  WS (isentropic) 
T2'
(T  T1 ) or 
' '
Then, CP 2 CigP dT
H T1

The actual work is then

W (isentropic) T2
WS  S

and H  WS  C P H
(T2  T1 ) or 
T1
CigP dT
 Pumps
 Liquids are usually moved by pumps, generally rotating equipment.
 Same assumption (adiabatic process) as compressor
 For isentropic process (adiabatic pump),

dH  VdP
WS (isentropic)  H S   VdP
P1

P1

 In general process,

dT
dH  C P dT  V(1  T)dP dS  C P  VdP
T
T2
 H  C P T  V(1  T)P S  C P ln  VP
T1
 Example 7.10

Water at 45 oC and 10 kPa enters an adiabatic pump and is discharged at

a pressure of 8,600 kPa. Assume the pump efficiency to be 0.75. Calculate
the work of the pump, the temperature change of the water, and the
entropy change of the water.

For saturated liquid water at 45 oC,

V = 1,010 cm3/kg,  = 425×10-6 K-1, Cp = 4.178 kJ/kgK
Ws(isentropic)=(H)S=1,010×(8,600-10)=8.676×10-6 kPa  cm3/kg=8.676 kJ/kg

(H)S 8.676
Since   , H   11.57kJ / kg
H 0.75
T and S can be calculated
T2
H  C P T  V(1  T)P S  C P ln  VP
T1
 Homework

 Problems
 7.20, 7.23, 7.34
 7.16
 Z   Z 
- Just prove that T    
 T     T
- You don’t have to work on parts (a) and (b)!

 Due:

 Recommend Problems
 7.18, 7.27, 7.28, 7.32, 7.49, 7.52