Resources Policy 86 (2023) 104291

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Resources Policy
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Adoptable approaches to predictive maintenance in mining industry: An overview

Oluwatobi Dayo-Olupona a, Bekir Genc a, *, Turgay Celik b, Samson Bada c
a
School of Mining Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
b
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
c
Clean Coal Technology Research Group, School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The mining industry contributes to the expansion of the global economy by generating vital commodities. For
Artificial intelligence continuous production, the industry relies significantly on machinery and equipment, which, as a result of
Fault diagnosis and prognosis greater modernization, are becoming increasingly complex, with a variety of systems and subsystems. However,
Machine learning
maintaining the machinery and equipment used in the mining industry can be complex and costly. To improve
Predictive maintenance
Mineral and mining industry
the integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) technologies for equipment mainte­
nance and to determine the best maintenance strategies, a systematic literature review was conducted to sum­
marise the current state of research on equipment-related predictive maintenance (RP) in the mining industry.
The review provides an overview of maintenance practices in the mining sector and examines PdM methodol­
ogies and processes used in other industries that may be applicable to the mining industry. In addition, this study
discusses the different PdM architectures, processes, phases, and models (statistical and ML-based) used in
creating a PdM plan. Furthermore, the review explores potential implementation directions for the PdM in the
mining industry and highlights the challenges.

1. Introduction 20–60% of the operational or running expenditure, contingent on

The mining sector critically influences various national economies.
For instance, in Australia, the sector represents around 10.4% of the
national GDP, and in South Africa, it accounts for nearly 8.7%
(Constable, 2020; Baxter, 2021). Mining operations across the globe
vary in their nature, types of minerals extracted, operational structures,
and equipment deployed. The myriad of equipment types, from mobile
to stationary machines, have grown increasingly complex due to tech­
nological advancements. These machines now possess a diverse range of
systems and sub-systems spanning mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, and
control domains (Wakiru et al., 2020; Khan et al., 2021; Zhu et al.,
2022). Effective engineering practices, optimal operational strategies,
and timely maintenance are paramount to ensure these intricate systems
function optimally.
Historically, maintenance programs in the mining sector, despite
being a prominent controllable cost, have been less advanced compared
to other industries. These activities aim to reduce breakdowns and
enhance operational results. On average, equipment maintenance costs
in the industry fluctuate between 40 and 70% of the setup expense and
numerous factors (Dhillon, 2008; Sharma et al., 2022). Recently,
equipment maintenance has transitioned from being a mere operational
necessity to a strategic imperative. Leading mining firms now have
well-defined maintenance strategies to streamline maintenance sched­
ules, activities, and subsequently enhance operational efficiency and
equipment lifespan.
Maintenance approaches are categorized into corrective, preventive/
scheduled, and predictive types (Odeyar et al., 2022). Among these,
predictive maintenance (PdM) has been increasingly spotlighted both in
practice and academia due to its potential in cost-saving, enhancing
safety, and reliability (Montero-Jimenez et al., 2020). The paradigm
shift towards Industry 4.0, characterized by the seamless fusion of
physical and digital systems, has accelerated the accumulation of vast
data volumes (Xiang et al., 2021; Elbazi et al., 2022).
PdM employs this data, combined with analytical methods, to forcast
equipment failures and maintenance needs, thus preemptively sched­
uling maintenance actions. Its intention is not to displace traditional
maintenance methods, but to augment them, providing a more refined,
data-driven dimension to an organization’s maintenance framework

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: 1820222@students.wits.ac.za (O. Dayo-Olupona), Bekir.Genc@wits.ac.za (B. Genc), Turgay.Celik@wits.ac.za (T. Celik), Samson.Bada@wits.ac.
za (S. Bada).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2023.104291
Received 31 July 2023; Received in revised form 13 October 2023; Accepted 13 October 2023
Available online 24 October 2023
0301-4207/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
O. Dayo-Olupona et al.
(Montero-Jimenez et al., 2020). PdM’s primary advantage lies in facil­
itating informed decisions regarding maintenance tasks (Hamadache
et al., 2019; Wakiru et al., 2020). For instance, vibration analyses during
the acceptance tests for new machines can provide insights into their
health compared to established benchmarks (Mobley, 2001; Wakiru
et al., 2020).
PdM applications span several sectors, including aerospace,
manufacturing, railways, and energy, as underscored by X. Chen et al.
(2018) and others (Berghout et al., 2020; Xiong et al., 2021; Nasir and
Sassani, 2021). Industries, such as wind energy, bear resemblances to
mining in terms of machinery complexity and significant maintenance
costs. For wind turbines, these costs often constitute 20–30% of total
operational expenses. Yet, Shen et al. (2022) underscore the necessity
for tailored, industry-specific studies, especially in data-driven PdM and
modelling realms.
The mining sector critically influences various national economies.
For instance, in Australia, the sector represents around 10.4% of the
national GDP, and in South Africa, it accounts for nearly 8.7%
(Constable, 2020; Baxter, 2021). Mining operations across the globe
vary in their nature, types of minerals extracted, operational structures,
and equipment deployed. The myriad of equipment types, from mobile
to stationary machines, have grown increasingly complex due to tech­
nological advancements. These machines now possess a diverse range of
systems and sub-systems spanning mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, and
control domains (Wakiru et al., 2020; Khan et al., 2021; Zhu et al.,
2022). Effective engineering practices, optimal operational strategies,
and timely maintenance are paramount to ensure these intricate systems
function optimally.
Historically, maintenance programs in the mining sector, despite
being a prominent controllable cost, have been less advanced compared
to other industries. These activities aim to reduce breakdowns and
enhance operational results. On average, equipment maintenance costs
in the industry fluctuate between 40 and 70% of the setup expense and
20–60% of the operational or running expenditure, contingent on
numerous factors (Dhillon, 2008; Sharma et al., 2022). Recently,
equipment maintenance has transitioned from being a mere operational
necessity to a strategic imperative. Leading mining firms now have
well-defined maintenance strategies to streamline maintenance sched­
ules, activities, and subsequently enhance operational efficiency and
equipment lifespan.
Maintenance approaches are categorized into corrective, preventive/
scheduled, and predictive types (Odeyar et al., 2022). Among these,
predictive maintenance (PdM) has been increasingly spotlighted both in
practice and academia due to its potential in cost-saving, enhancing
safety, and reliability (Montero-Jimenez et al., 2020). The paradigm
shift towards Industry 4.0, characterized by the seamless fusion of
physical and digital systems, has catalyzed the accumulation of vast data
volumes (Xiang et al., 2021; Elbazi et al., 2022).
PdM employs this data, combined with analytical methods, to fore­
see equipment failures and maintenance needs, thus preemptively
scheduling maintenance actions. Its intention is not to supplant tradi­
tional maintenance methods, but to augment them, providing a more
refined, data-driven dimension to an organization’s maintenance
framework (Montero-Jimenez et al., 2020). PdM’s primary advantage
lies in facilitating informed decisions regarding maintenance tasks
(Hamadache et al., 2019; Wakiru et al., 2020). For instance, vibration
analyses during the acceptance tests for new machines can provide in­
sights into their health compared to established benchmarks (Mobley,
2001; Wakiru et al., 2020).
PdM applications span several sectors, including aerospace,
manufacturing, railways, and energy, as underscored by Y. Chen et al.
(2018) and others (Berghout et al., 2020; Xiong et al., 2021; Nasir and
Sassani, 2021). Industries, such as wind energy, bear resemblances to
mining in terms of machinery complexity and significant maintenance
costs. For wind turbines, these costs often constitute 20–30% of total
operational expenses. Yet, Shen et al. (2022) underscore the necessity
2
Resources Policy 86 (2023) 104291
for tailored, industry-specific studies, especially in data-driven PdM and
modelling.
This study aims to provide an up-to-date review of PdM practices for
equipment used in the mining industry, as well as identify models,
techniques, and methodologies used in other industries that could be
applied to the mining industry. Journal articles and reports were
comprehensively reviewed and analysed to understand the historical
development and current context of equipment maintenance, with a
particular focus on PdM and ML, its broad types, and methodologies for
predicting equipment and component failure. Furthermore, attention
was also given to data gathering, diagnosis, and deterioration of ma­
chine components, as well as the prognosis of failure and the processes
involved.
1.1. Predictive maintenance (PdM)
Predictive Maintenance (PdM) varies in its definition and application
across industries and research fields. Napieraj (2019) describes it as a
method whereby the service life of essential components is determined
based on inspection or diagnosis, enabling their utilization up to the
limit of their lifespan. This implies that PdM not only anticipates the
degradation or malfunction of machinery, its parts, or process metrics
but also triggers preventative actions to mitigate potential downtime or
catastrophic failures. The overarching aim of PdM is to optimize main­
tenance management, which is often best realized when synergized with
both corrective and preventative maintenance strategies (Monter­
o-Jimenez et al., 2020). While the corrective approach responds to
component failures, the preventative model relies on temporal metrics,
such as hours or cycles, to dictate maintenance activities. PdM, there­
fore, can transition unforeseen machinery failures into planned correc­
tive interventions (Gutschi et al., 2019).
Selcuk (2017) emphasized that if executed correctly, PdM can yield a
tenfold return on investment and potentially boost production by up to
25%. However, the substantial investment required for the deployment
and upkeep of PdM systems, alongside the continuous professional
development of staff, can deter its widespread adoption (Napieraj,
2019). Napieraj (2019) further opines that universally applying PdM is
not cost-effective. It is more prudent to categorize machinery into crit­
ical, relevant, and general groups, reserving the sophisticated PdM ap­
plications for the most vital equipment. The rationale for this
categorization and the associated prioritization is explored further in
Napieraj (2019). The historical application of PdM dates back to the
1940s. However, its introduction to the mining sector, especially con­
cerning specific tools like large electric mining shovels (Selcuk, 2017)
and jaw crushers (Guerroum et al., 2021), remains elusive.
Recent technological advancements have empowered PdM systems,
offering tools for the early detection and diagnosis of potential faults.
Innovations include advanced sensors for data capture (Hsu et al.,
2020), improved data processing tools employing statistical methods,
big data, and machine learning, as well as leaps in computational ca­
pacities (Ran et al., 2019). Sensing is pivotal to PdM; these devices re­
cord diverse data points, ranging from vibrations and temperature to
operational efficiency (Sundaram and Zeid, 2021). It’s essential to
discern that anomalies in these data parameters do not always indicate
equipment faults. Therefore, models that leverage this data for main­
tenance identification are indispensable.
While PdM is promising for its reliability enhancements, its proper
execution necessitates an understanding of the system’s architecture,
and the diagnostic and prognostic techniques (Randall, 2021). While
there’s abundant research on machine diagnostics, the prognostic
literature is equally comprehensive, with often blurred boundaries be­
tween the two (Montero-Jimenez et al., 2020). This study delves into
these foundational elements.
PdM primarily revolves around two processes: fault diagnosis and
fault prognosis. Both aim to refine the outcomes of diagnostic and
prognostic evaluations. Fault Diagnosis ascertains the root cause of
O. Dayo-Olupona et al.
faults. Through techniques like Failure Mode and Effects Analysis
(FMEA), researchers discern if a parameter acts as a symptom or cause of
the malfunction (Wu et al., 2021). Such analyses facilitate the deter­
mination of the equipment’s current health status (Montero-Jimenez
et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2022). Some studies that delve into diagnostic
methodologies include Yu et al. (2018) and Li et al. (2021). On the other
hand, Prognosis involves forecasting the future health of systems or
machinery, primarily focusing on estimating the Remaining Useful Life
(RUL) of the components in question. For instance, Kang et al. (2021)
and Yu and Guo (2021) employed diverse methods to predict equipment
lifespans.
Overall, PdM offers the mining sector a viable strategy to enhance
operational outcomes and curtail downtime. Harnessing data-driven
insights, PdM can pre-empt equipment failures, streamline mainte­
nance activities, and yield considerable cost savings, safety enhance­
ments, and heightened reliability. Despite its merits, the mining sector’s
tentative embrace of PdM underscores existing research gaps. Tailoring
PdM specifically for mining machinery, accounting for their unique
failure types and interconnected components, is paramount. Moreover,
crafting cost-efficient PdM implementation strategies and seamlessly
integrating diagnostic and prognostic methodologies are essential.
Addressing these research gaps will undoubtedly reinforce the role of
PdM in improving maintenance practices within the mining industry.
2. Maintenance models and methodology
Models developed for machine maintenance serve the dual purpose
of diagnosis and prognosis. From the existing literature, maintenance
models can be categorized into three predominant paradigms:
a) Data-driven models: Data-driven maintenance models leverage
large datasets to discern patterns and relationships, which subse­
quently guide predictions or decisions. These models are character­
ized by their training on extensive datasets and their subsequent
application to new data based on the learned patterns (Bektas et al.,
2020; Cao et al., 2022). Numerous studies, such as those by Lee et al.
(2021), Wen et al. (2021), Xue et al. (2021), and Sun et al. (2022),
adopt this data-driven approach for machine diagnosis and prog­
nosis. When compared with physics-based models, these have
demonstrated superior accuracy in identifying degradation points,
enhancing the model’s general applicability.
b) Physics-based models: These models incorporate physical princi­
ples and mathematical formulations to predict or decide outcomes.
They embody the understanding of intrinsic physical processes
dictating the performance of the machine or its components (Bektas
et al., 2020; Cao et al., 2022). Investigations by Gouda et al. (2019)
and Bodo et al. (2020) highlight the efficacy of physics-based models
in classifying faults both in laboratory and industrial environments.
While these models can be exceptionally accurate, their utility di­
minishes when the failure mechanisms are only partially understood.
c) Knowledge-based models: Knowledge-based models operate on
existing or expert knowledge to facilitate predictions or decisions.
The capturing of domain-specific expertise into rules or decision
trees typifies these models, which subsequently predict or decide
based on new data (Bektas et al., 2020). Predominantly, models in
this category, such as "expert systems" and "fuzzy logic," emulate
human cognitive processes. Zhou et al. (2018) exemplify the appli­
cation of such models in the analysis of signals from rolling bearings
and gears. While these models prove effective, ambiguities in expert
or real-world knowledge can hinder decision-making.
Both physics-based and knowledge-based models necessitate
comprehensive information about the machine and its operational
environment. This accumulated knowledge augments the diagnostic or
prognostic model (Mosallam et al., 2013). Zhang et al. (2017) offer an
exhaustive elucidation of the intricacies of physics and knowledge-based
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Resources Policy 86 (2023) 104291
models. Fig. 1 expounds the criteria for model selection by illustrating
the three aforementioned paradigms and their underlying sub-models.
For instance, a subset of the data-driven paradigm includes ML-based
models which further branch into supervised, unsupervised, and
semi-supervised learning approaches. Shen et al. (2022) advocate for an
integration of physics-based and data-based methodologies to bolster
the generalizability of predictive models tailored for industrial ma­
chines. Similarly, Steenwinckel et al. (2021) suggest combining
data-driven and knowledge-driven techniques for fault diagnosis. As
delineated in Fig. 1, while the data-driven paradigm relies on deep
learning (DL) and ML techniques, alternative techniques include sto­
chastic algorithms (e.g., Bayesian Network, Particle filter, Kalman Fil­
ter) and statistical algorithms (e.g., Trend Extrapolation, ARMA,
Multi-regime, PCA, Regression) (Bektas et al., 2020).
2.1. Maintenance models in mining
Traditionally within the mining, the most used maintenance-related
programmes are condition-based monitoring and reliability-centred
maintenance (Lewis and Steinberg, 2001).
2.1.1. Condition monitoring or condition based monitoring
Studies such as Kateris et al. (2014) and Alshorman et al. (2020) have
classified and defined PdM to be one and Condition Monitoring (CM) the
same, however, there is a slight difference. CM involves processes that
consistently capture and monitor the current operating conditions of
specific components, sub-systems or systems of a machine. In real-time
scenarios, these data streams are connected to alarms that notify the
maintenance team of a deviation from the manufacturer’s specification
or normal operating procedures. At best, their data can be used for
equipment diagnosis (Lee et al., 2017, 2019; Zhang et al., 2017).
However, PdM goes a step further to include the prognosis component in
CM’s maintenance characteristics. Even though condition-based moni­
toring (CBM) has excelled in some of its application areas, its data
analysis and processing techniques consistently need an upgrade
(Raheja et al., 2006). The CM data are usually useful input in the
development of a PdM model or system. Within mining, two software
categories are used: the computer maintenance management system and
the CM system. The computer maintenance management system stores
information like the manufacturer’s recommendations, historical data
maintenance activities and related events. On the other hand, the CM
system stores important physical parameters e.g. pressure, temperature,
vibration, acoustics, etc. (Galar et al., 2012).
In the conventional condition monitoring system, one, a few or all of
the techniques listed below are employed. They include vibration
monitoring, oil debris analysis, acoustic emission, temperature moni­
toring, electrical signals analysis (Liu et al., 2019), torque measurement
and SCADA signals (Benbouzid et al., 2021). Some of the problem­
s/issues that can be observed from the data collected from the
above-listed process are detailed in Table 1. Bangert (2021) indicated
that advanced condition monitoring is comparable to anomaly detection
in terms of value. The objective of both is to recognise an event or
sequence of events that deviate from the typical functioning condition;
therefore, it is merely a matter of identifying concerning events and
alerting the operator.
2.1.2. Reliability centred maintenance
Reliability centred maintenance (RCM) is a maintenance approach
that was first introduced in 1960, when the Boeing 747 and its more
advanced electronics was first made and commercialized (Napieraj,
2019). However, it took more than 20 years (1988) for RCM to be
adopted in the mining industry (Hoseinie et al., 2016).
The approach determines the downtime characteristics of equipment
using a probability-based statistical reliability models. Vagenas et al.
(1997) highlighted the importance of probability distribution and sta­
tistical concepts in making reliability analysis. A brief history of the RCM
O. Dayo-Olupona et al. Resources Policy 86 (2023) 104291

Fig. 1. A breakdown of the different modelling approaches applicable to PdM (Cao et al., 2022).

a) What failed (equipment or component name/identity);

Table 1
b) When it failed (time of failure);
Anomalies detectable within the broad CM approaches (Selcuk, 2017).
c) When it was repaired (repair start time);
Vibration Oil Analysis Acoustic Analysis Thermal Imaging d) How long it took to repair (repair duration); and
Imbalance, Abrasive wear, Leak detection in Loose and e) How much it cost to repair (repair cost).
turbulence, adhesive wear, pressure and corroded
rubbing, cavitation, vacuum systems, electrical
Several literatures have discussed how this approach has been
resonance corrosive wear, electrical arcing, connection,
problems, cutting wear, compressor valve mechanical
applied to the mining equipment. Vagenas et al. (1997) sees the meth­
misalignments fatigue wear, analysis, pump looseness, load odology applied to load-haul-dumps (LHDs), (Ho, 2015) looks at its
(couplings and sliding wear, etc. cavitations, steam problems, application for mobile mining equipment, Sinha and Mukhopadhyay
bearings), blade trap inspections, component (2015) for cone crusher maintenance and Demirel and Gölbaşı (2016) on
defects (turbine bearing failure, etc.
dragline for components replacement. From those studies, it is evident
and fan), bends inspections,
and cracks Switch gear that the approach is typically used in preventive maintenance planning
(shafts), corona detection, and can be useful in detecting rate of wear in preventive component
mechanical electrical arcing, replacement.
looseness and integrity
weakness, wear detection of seals,
and damages gaskets, pipe
2.1.3. Statistical methods for modelling equipment failure data
(gears and systems Cost function plays a significant role when determining a mainte­
bearings), etc. nance plan/policy as discussed in the RCM section. Hence, conventional
statistical model and distribution usually show the relationship between
parameters such as maintenance costs, downtime production lost cost,
approach can be found in the Napieraj’s (2019) study. Within mining,
and the total cost of production. Furthermore, it is possible to apply
the goal of RCM is to help the maintenance engineer determine the most
statistical techniques to equipment maintenance data to determine
effective mix of maintenance policies/plans based on the cost factor. It
where an equipment lies within its life cycle. Even though statistical
usually involves two stages: failure mode and critically analysis, and
approaches are useful, one of its downsides is that exaggerated as­
maintenance option/task determination. The criticality analysis is usu­
sumptions are usually made when statistical distribution models are
ally based on probability of occurrence and cost or severity of the
selected. For instance, when selecting a statistical stationary model
breakdown.
distribution, it is presumed that a machine or its component would be in
Two major parameters are yardsticks to evaluate the efficacy of any
exactly the same condition as when it was brand new after each repair.
equipment related maintenance policy or activity. They are Overall
However, in reality, these situations differ, and many factors are
Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) and Mean Time Between Failure
responsible.
(MTBF). The OEE indicator measures the efficiency while on the other
Examples of statistical functions used to model equipment failure
hand, the MTBF indicator measures the availability (Napieraj, 2019).
data include Weibull, exponential, and lognormal distribution. They
While trying to describe the reliability for surface mining equipment,
provide a traditional path determining the reliability function or dis­
Hall and Daneshmend (2003) outlined four possible data analysis pro­
tribution (Hall, 1997; Alsina et al., 2018). Studies such as Jacobs et al.
cesses for effective RCM. It also discussed when and how to use them to
(2018, 2019) used statistical Weibull distribution to identify faliure and
achieve the best RCM result. Furthermore, the study identified the most
improve reliability in a mine’s compressors and dewatering pump.
essential data to collect for the proposed data analysis procedures are:
Alsina et al. (2018) goes further to demonstrate that ML approaches can
be used to generate more accurate reliability.

4
O. Dayo-Olupona et al.
2.2. Generic processes of building a predictive system
A predictive system should be able to collect important information/
data, do basic optimization analysis, and have a user-friendly interface
so that the maintenance staff can quickly comprehend and implement
the recommended maintenance policies and actions. Data engineering,
reliability and maintenance engineering, computer and electrical sci­
ences, and organisational decision-making are just a few of the fields
whose methods are incorporated into the construction of a PdM system
(Napieraj, 2019; Sundaram and Zeid, 2021). These studies further
highlight the following phases to make up the process flow for designing
PdM system:
a) Data acquisition and pre-processing: Collecting, cleaning and
appropriately storing high quality data;
b) Diagnostics and Degradation detection: identifying components that
display signs of anomalies, not performing optimally, or that a failure
is imminent. It also involves understanding causes of failure finding
its root causes, failure classification into types and modes are also
made here;
c) Prognostics: predicting the future health of a system in order to avoid
potential failures. Models and accuracy of predictions are crucial
here; and
d) Maintenance decisions making: deciding on best policies for main­
tenance planning, will be made based on the outcome of the pre­
dictive outcome higher yield and reduction losses.
2.3. Machines and subsystems
Typically, a machine consists of several systems, sub-systems/sub-
assemblies and components (Raheja et al., 2006). Consequently, the
status or condition of the whole machine is directly and in directly
dependent on these sub-hierarchical levels. Thus, the overall operating
status of the machine is determined by the aggregation of the status of all
its component and part, therefore any needed maintenance must pri­
oritise maintenance needs of the sub-level components. However, for
this to happen, each hierarchical level should have the following:
component identification information; component failure mode infor­
mation; component or group pf components’ operational goal; and
component digital data in relation to it failure mode (Raheja et al.,
2006):
Furthermore, Fig. 2 graphically displays, how to classify equipment
components, maintenance action and maintenance decision making
Fig. 2. Component classification based on fault frequency and component downtime (Raheja et al., 2006).
5
Resources Policy 86 (2023) 104291
using on the fault frequency and duration of the fault (time) as classi­
fiers. Components with more downtime and less frequency of failure are
often the most critical and they are the best fit for PdM. The components
with minimal downtime and less frequency are components fit for reg­
ular or routine type of maintenance, while those with more fault or
failure frequency and less time downtime should fall into the PdM
categories.
Guerroum et al. (2021) study singled out a jaw crusher from the
several pieces of equipment arranged in the mineral processing facility.
In its position in the processing array, the jaw crusher treats the waste
from one of the process screens in the process equipment array. The six
essential equipment components that made up the jaw crusher transition
line were identified, and the vibration, acceleration and temperature
data were collected on those components. The components consisted of
two motors and four bearings located in separate locations across the
transition line. Thereafter, the predictive analysis and evaluation were
conducted on them.
Similarly, in order to carry out risk-based maintenance, Sahoo and
Palei (2020) had to break down a dragline into 42 different components.
To identify critical components, two approaches were used. The first was
via downtime and fault frequency method as shown in Fig. 2. For the
second, risk and cost factor was considered. These combined approaches
assisted to figure out the top three critical components from a total of 42
dragline components (Sahoo and Palei, 2020). The studies conducted by
Cofre-Martel et al. (2021) and Jämsä-Jounela et al. (2013) also discusses
how critical equipment and machine components are identified espe­
cially when a large array of equipment is considered and needs to be
analysed.
Even though Hsu et al. (2020) used a single model to analyse an
entire machine: wind turbine, it is observed that the breakdown of the
piece of equipment is difficult to determine from just one diagnostic or
predictive model. This single-model approach even becomes more
difficult with complex mining equipment. Therefore, a system, subsys­
tem or even component-level breakdown is recommended. This is
demonstrated by some studies, like; Patil et al. (2021) focused on break,
transmission, and engine components rather than the entire machine.
Collecting specific data/tag that speaks to the focus system then be­
comes the pathway to diagnosis and prognosis. Similarly, Prytz et al.
(2015) and Kotriwala (2021) focus on the engine and compressor
components of dump trucks. When reviewing commercial industrial
fault diagnosis systems, Liu et al. (2022) discussed studies that employed
distributed fault diagnosis systems for multiple component systems.
They simply employ a combination of the outcome from several
O. Dayo-Olupona et al. Resources Policy 86 (2023) 104291

diagnostic sub-systems.
Ochella et al. (2021) presented a method for selecting a preferred
choice of component from the numerous options of components to be
evaluated. The processes involved grouping the equipment into cate­
gories. Thereafter, essential components are identified. Among many
other grouping categories, grouping the machine can be mechanical and
electrical, and the mechanical category can further sub-grouped into
rotational and non-rotational. Motor (Zhang et al., 2019), gearboxes
(Cabrera et al., 2015), and bearings (Hamadache et al., 2019) are ex­
amples of rotational equipment.

2.4. PdM architectures and processes

Choosing a model or approach that works typically involves selecting

an appropriate architecture that best suits an organisation, especially
from a business perspective. Raheja et al. (2006) proposed that any
proposed model, solution system should fit into the organization’s ho­
listic maintenance goal. This will aid the scalability of this continuous
progress in the area if necessary (Sundaram and Zeid, 2021).
According to Ran et al. (2019)’s survey, three broad overarching
system architecture to consider in order to implement PdM include:
open System Architecture for Condition Based Monitoring (OSA-CBM);
cloud-enhanced PdM system and PdM 4.0.
Nested within the International standard organization’s (ISO) code;
ISO 13374 (Ran et al. 2019), the OSA-CBM was developed to provide a
uniform and layered architecture to assist in the design and imple­
mentation of PdM system held by Machinery Information Management
Open system Alliance (MIMOSA). It currently consists of six functional
blocks: Data Acquisition, Data Manipulation, State Detection, Health
Assessment, Prognostics Assessment, and Advisory Generation.
Cloud-enhance PdM is inspired by the potentials of cloud computing
and cloud manufacturing, the architecture proposes the use of cloud
computing technology and infrastructure to enhance the PdM. Hence,
they envision a situation where equipment subscribes to cloud services
such as prognosis-as-a-service, diagnostic-as-a-service or generally
maintenance-as-a-service.
PdM 4.0 still its infancy, is inspired by the industry 4.0 principles,
where the goals are to make a machine/factory smarter to improve
production management. According to Ran et al. (2019), the biggest
evolution of PdM 4.0 will be the employing of emerging technologies to
make industrial maintenance more intelligent. Bonnard et al. (2021) for
instance, buttresses the PdM 4.0 architecture and cloud enhanced PdM
system architecture. Ren et al. (2021) further explained how DL on the
cloud based PdM maintenance architecture has been deployed.
Bourcevet et al. (2020) further identified Technology Acceptance
Model (TAM) and the Cross Industry Standard Process for Data Mining
(CRISP-DM) as most frequently used information technology architec­
ture used from a business standpoint. However, of the two, CRISP-DM is
significantly used within PdM. Its vast industrial application makes it a
benchmarking methodology for data analytics (Duan et al., 2022).
Kotriwala (2021), Patil et al. (2021) and Kannan et al. (2022),
applied the CRISP-DM within the mining industry. Patil et al. (2021)
applied it in design of predictive models for the engine’s brakes and
transmission for underground trucks and loaders used in mining. Simi­
larly, Kotriwala (2021) utilized it in the construction of predictive
models for the diagnosis and prognosis of articulated dump trucks en­
gines. Whereas, Kannan et al. (2022) applied it to the design of a data
analytic process for an optimised quarry’s workflow.
Patil et al. (2021) identified CRISP-DM as a step-by-step process with
a feedback loop mechanism that helps to evaluate or validate a data
processing/analysis process against a business understanding at each of
the stages as identified in Fig. 3. Originally created in 2000 as a project
management tool for data science projects where significant amounts of
data are usually managed (Schröer et al., 2021). It is believed that it will
help deliver the best end goal for any data project it is applied to. Other
studies that use CRISP-DM include, Duan et al. (2022) and Kotriwala
Fig. 3. Phases of the CRISP-DM architecture (Patil et al., 2021).
(2021) and Wiemer et al. (2019, 2019) modification is intended for
engineering application. It is named data mining methodology for en­
gineering applications (DMME).
This section delves into adoptable maintenance models and meth­
odologies in the context of predictive maintenance (PdM) within the
mining industry. Three main maintenance models, data-driven, physics-
based, and knowledge-based, have been discussed, each offering unique
ways to diagnose and predict equipment failures. PdM in mining goes
beyond conventional condition monitoring by incorporating prognosis
elements. The construction of an effective PdM system involves data
acquisition, diagnostics, prognostics, and maintenance decision-making,
with critical components prioritized for PdM efforts. While PdM shows
promise, certain research gaps need attention, such as tailoring meth­
odologies to mining, cost-effective implementation, fault diagnosis and
prognosis integration, and improving predictive models. Overcoming
these challenges will lead to enhanced operational efficiency, reduced
downtime, and increased productivity in the mining industry through
the successful implementation of PdM.
3. Machine learning in predictive maintenance
ML can be used at various stages of the CRISP-DM process, including
the modelling, evaluation, and data-related phases (data understanding
and data preparation). In the modelling phase, ML algorithms can be
used to build predictive models that can be used to forecast the likeli­
hood of equipment failure or predict the remaining useful life of a piece
of equipment. In the evaluation phase, ML algorithms can be used to
assess the performance of these models and identify areas for improve­
ment. In the data-related phases, ML algorithms can be used to pre-
process the data and extract relevant features that can be used as in­
puts to the predictive models. Overall, the use of ML can help to improve
the performance and accuracy of PdM systems within the CRISP-DM
architecture. This section investigates the various ML options that
were used in the papers considered in this review.
ML approaches for PdM are:
a) Supervised learning methods, such as decision trees and support
vector machines, which can be used to create models that predict
when equipment is likely to fail based on labelled training data;

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b) Unsupervised learning methods, such as clustering algorithms,
which can be used to identify patterns in data that might indicate an
impending failure;
c) Reinforcement learning, which can be used to develop models that
learn from experience and make decisions about when to perform
maintenance actions in order to maximize equipment uptime; and
d) DL, which involves training large, multi-layered neural networks on
large amounts of data. DL models can be used to make highly ac­
curate predictions about when equipment is likely to fail.
Fig. 4 provides clarifying questions to assist with selecting the most
preferred choice or choices of ML method for their needed CRISP-DM
phases.
PdM is widely recognized as one of the most important uses of in­
dustrial data for gaining insights, thanks to its ability to employ ML
algorithms to predict machine breakdowns (Duan et al., 2022). This ML
based PdM approach offers several benefits, including scalability and
non-invasiveness, as well as high computational accuracy in some cases.
However, as Z. Zhao et al. (2021) point out, choosing a ML-based PdM
approach for equipment can also present challenges. Several review
papers have discussed the use of ML for PdM in different industries, such
as manufacturing (Çınar et al., 2020; Montero-Jimenez et al., 2020),
Fig. 4. Flow chart showing how PdM models can be effectively selected in relations to ML methods (Jahnke, 2015).
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mineral processing (McCoy and Auret, 2019), and energy (including
renewable energy, power and industrial systems) (Esteban et al., 2022).
The survey by McCoy and Auret (2019) identified and reviewed
about 150 articles that explored the use of ML in mineral processing, but
only two of these articles directly addressed the topic of PdM. Sham­
sirband and Mehri Khansari (2021) also provided insight into using ML
approaches to detect structural damage in equipment at the
micro-mechanical level. Ali and Frimpong (2020) identified some
generalist application areas across the mining value chain, but did not
specifically discuss PdM.
The choice of ML model or technique often depends on various
characteristics, including the nature of the application (classification,
feature extraction, regression), the nature of the available data
(incomplete or unbalanced data), and the type of collected data samples
(such as images, time series, or text). These and other factors (such as
those presented in Figs. 6 and 7) should be considered when selecting an
appropriate ML model for a given PdM task.
After comparing statistical-based and ML-based methodologies for
PdM, Sheuly et al. (2021) found that ML-based analytics performed best
when the nature of the analytics problem was complex and required
some form of adaptation over time. Other studies have suggested that
anomaly detection, fault detection, and RUL estimation are the best
O. Dayo-Olupona et al.
applications for ML in PdM (Bodo et al., 2020). While Ouadah et al.
(2022) study provides a guide to selecting the most appropriate super­
vised ML method, Vicêncio et al. (2021) present a flowchart that pro­
vides an overview of the methods, techniques, and specific applications
capabilities of supervised and unsupervised ML in PdM. Unsupervised
learning, through clustering could be used for anomaly detection, while
supervised learning, employing regression can be used to estimate RUL.
Additionally, multiclass classification, a subtype of supervised learning,
can be used to estimate health status, predict faliure state and detect
degradation patterns (Vicêncio et al., 2021).
Laine et al. (2021) predicted the occurrence of adverse events using a
classifier based on the multiheaded convolutional neural
network-recurrent neural network architecture. This multiple binary
classifier was able to identify parameters and correlate them as event
precursors. Susto et al. (2015) further discussed various ML multiple
classifier approaches in detail because of their possible application
within PdM.
In the real-world industrial context, data often has wrong, incom­
plete or partial labelling, and fault occurrences are rare. To address these
challenges, researchers such as Cerquitelli et al. (2021) and Cohen and
Ni (2022) have designed ML-based models. Cerquitelli et al. (2021)
developed a custom platform using unsupervised learning, Cohen and Ni
(2022) used a semi-supervised learning approach for anomaly classifi­
cation for partially labelled dataset. also, Jittawiriyanukoon and Sri­
sarkun (2022) explored the use of a weighted approach in applying ML
to improve decision making for support, scheduling, and schedule
planning. They found the approaches to be promising as it improves
multiclass classification, while also preventing overfitting that occurs as
a result of data class imbalance.
3.1. Broad ML types
In this study, the tradition ML approach and the DL approach which
are the two broad ML classifications are discussed. This sections will not
discuss the definitions, working diagrams, or pros and cons of traditional
and DL approaches because other studies (Dai et al., 2019; Ran et al.
2019; Ouadah et al., 2022) have already covered these topics in detail.
Instead, this study focuses on identifying some of their areas of
application.
3.1.1. Traditional ML based technique
The traditional ML technique is also known as shallow neural
network (He et al., 2016). According to Martins and Soofastaei (2020),
some of the most used traditional ML methods within mining PdM
include: Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Random Forest (RF), Support
Vector Machine (SVM), K-Nearest Neighbour (KNN), and Decision Tree.
Others include Particle Filter, Principal component analysis, adaptive
resonance theory, self-organizing maps, etc. Fig. 5 identifies the typical
process involved when any of the traditional ML is used. Furthermore,
the ML techniques listed in Table 2 are ML algorithms that are
commonly used for operational and failure mode detection, fault diag­
nosis, and RUL prediction within the mining industry.
3.1.2. DL based techniques
DL, also known as deep neural networks (DNNs), has superior per­
formance in tasks such as feature and trend learning, extraction, fault
mode identification and classification, and RUL prediction (Liu et al.,
2019; Hsu et al., 2022). Techniques such as auto-encoders (AE), con­
volutional neural networks (CNN), deep belief networks (DBN), recur­
rent neural networks (RNN), and reinforcement learning (RL) are often
Fig. 5. Traditional ML based PdM process (Hamadache et al., 2019).
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used for equipment diagnosis and prognosis (Nasir and Sassani, 2021;
Zhang et al., 2021). DL algorithms are particularly useful for dealing
with complex, high-dimensional data sets and can achieve
state-of-the-art performance in many applications. Fig. 6 gives a picto­
rial representation of how a DL approach could be implemented as
opposed to traditional ML approach shown in Fig. 5.
Deciding between traditional and DL-based approaches is as also not
clear-cut. However, Trizoglou et al. (2021) and Shen et al. (2022)
demonstrated employing traditional ML can be advantageous because it
has better predictive accuracy and a lower computational cost compared
to DL approaches.
3.1.3. Hybrid models
Several researchers have used hybrid DL techniques to prognose
rotating machine systems. Aydemir and Paynabar (2020) and Bazi et al.
(2022) used different hybrid DL techniques for this purpose. Cao et al.
(2022) used ML and chronicle mining to extract machine degradation
models from industrial data.
Tao et al. (2019) used a hybrid of Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)
and hidden Markov models for their study. Li et al. (2019) combined
LSTM with a sparse autoencoder (SAE) to detect anomalies (deviation
from normal behaviour) in the operating conditions of monitored
equipment components. Mun et al. (2020) proposed the use of deep
autoencoding and gaussian mixture models for anomaly detection on
high-dimensional data. Bazi et al. (2022), Guo et al. (2022) and Du et al.
(2022) used a hybrid of bidirectional LSTM (BiLSTM) and convolutional
neural networks (CNNs) to improve tool wear degradation estimation.
For RUL prediction, L. Zhao et al. (2021) used autoregressive inte­
grated moving averages (ARIMA) and nonlinear autoregressive neural
network (NARNN) models. Kateris et al. (2014) also used hybridized two
traditional ML models: multilayer perceptron and Bayesian automatic
relevance determination (ARD) for the same RUL predictions. This
hybrid methods consistently outperformed the single model methods.
This section explores the implementation of ML in PdM for the mining
industry and its promise for improving equipment reliability and
maintenance strategies. ML techniques can be applied throughout the
CRISP-DM process, enabling the creation of predictive models, evalua­
tion of their performance, and data pre-processing. Furthermore,
various ML options, such as supervised and unsupervised learning,
reinforcement learning, and deep learning, each offering unique ad­
vantages for predicting equipment failures, identifying patterns, facili­
tating decision-making, and handling large datasets. While ML-based
PdM offers numerous benefits, challenges remain, including data
labelling, dealing with incomplete or unbalanced data, and addressing
rare fault occurrences. Adapting ML methodologies to incorporate
inherent risk and environment to suit mining environment Also, opti­
mizing approaches and models for anomaly and fault detection, within
different context specific to a mining phases/segment are essential to
fully unlock the potential of ML-based PdM in the mining industry. This
will lead to an enhanced operational reliability and productivity.
4. Application area of PdM in the mineral industry
PdM finds wide-ranging applications in mining and mineral pro­
cessing equipment, focusing on mining machinery, mineral processing
equipment, and specific components (Sharma et al., 2022; Guerroum
et al., 2021; Aqueveque et al., 2021a). Sharma et al. (2022) developed a
data-driven predictive model to optimize the maintenance schedule for a
shovel. Similarly, Guerroum et al. (2021) emphasized the importance of
IoT sensors and data analytics for predicting the RUL of a jaw crusher
O. Dayo-Olupona et al. Resources Policy 86 (2023) 104291

Fig. 6. Classical DL based PdM process (Hamadache et al., 2019).

Fig. 7. Modified 3-phased PdM structure (Sundaram and Zeid, 2021).

mining equipment using ML models. Aqueveque et al. (2021a) demon­
strated a cyber-physical system for early failure detection in vibrating
screens using test bench experiments and multiphysics simulations.
Rocha et al. (2021) showcased the effectiveness of employing autono­
mous robotic systems for inspections, exemplified by their mobile robot
for belt conveyor inspections. The various mining industry related PdM
studies and predictive models for mining equipment, such as draglines,
shovels, conveyor belts, wheel loaders, and underground trucks and
loaders is shown in Table 2.
These sources collectively underscore the pivotal role of ML models
in PdM, particularly in fault detection and diagnosis. They discuss the
use of ML algorithms for both fault detection and diagnosis in mining
equipment, underscoring the three phased process to effectively imple­
ment a PdM system for effective maintenance decision support.
4.1. Degradation, diagnostics and prognostics
In the context of mining machinery, Cofre-Martel et al. (2021)
demonstrated a comprehensive methodology for sensor data classifica­
tion and degradation diagnosis. They utilized machine learning

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Table 2
Mining-related PdM studies.
S/ Reference Machine Application description Scope 3 - phase processes
N
Fault prognosis Set up, data, Data Modelling ML models &
detection/ collection & data preparation & & Algorithms
Fault understanding Analysis Evaluation
diagnosis

1 Vahed et al. Dragline Predict failure mode Enhanced KNN1

(2020) based of time to failure
data
2 Sharma et al. Shovel RUL prediction model COX Regression,
(2022) development Cox SVM,2 Decision
regression ML Tree
3 Vališ and Conveyor belt Degradation modelling
Mazurkiewicz using Stochastic
(2018) Mathematical Modelling
4 Warner and Wheel loaders Automatic lubrication CLSTM3
Desmet (2018) system degradation
monitoring and failure
classification
5 Cofre-Martel Copper mineral Diagnostic model RF,4 SVM
et al. (2021) processing line development for
multiple failure mode
classifications
6 Patil et al. Underground Predictive model design COX Regression,
(2021) trucks and for the brakes, engine, Decision tree, RF,
loaders and transmission SVM, neural
Network
7 Elbazi et al. Stacker Digital twin
(2022) machine development framework
for a stacker to aid PdM
8 Curilem et al. Mining heavy Designing a semaphore SVM
(2016) trucks to predict the criticality
and possible availability
of the machine months
ahead
09 Aqueveque et al. Vibrating IoT-based vibration Naïve Bayes,
(2021b) Screens monitoring system for SVM
real-time mining
machinery
10 Aqueveque et al. Vibrating Development of a Cyber- Naïve Bayes,
(2021a) Screens Physical System for SVM
Early Failure Detection
in Vibrating Screens
11 Kannan et al. Quarry Predicting potential Neural Network
(2022) production delays in production (MLP)5 &
operation operations within a Logistic
quarry company Regression
12 Guerroum et al. Jaw Crusher RUL design for a jaw RF, Neural
(2021) crusher Network
Regression
13 Rocha et al. Belt Conveyor Automatic anomaly RF, CNN6
(2021) system detection in belt
conveyor inspection
1
KNN: K-nearest neighbour.
2
SVM: Support Vector Machine.
3
CLSTM: Contextual Long Short-Term Memory.
4
RF: Random Forest.
5
MLP: Multilayer Perceptron.
6
CNN: Convolutional Neural Network.

algorithms to train classification models, which were able to classify the
system as healthy or unhealthy and identify specific failure modes.
Similarly, Patil et al. (2021) developed predictive maintenance models
for mining equipment, which demonstrated improved performance
compared to traditional approaches. These studies underscore the
importance of accurate diagnostics in enabling targeted maintenance
interventions and improving asset availability.
Degradation monitoring is another critical aspect of PdM, providing
insights into the wear and tear of equipment over time. Aqueveque et al.
(2021a) developed a cyber-physical system for early failure detection in
vibrating screens, which integrated test bench experiments and multi­
physics simulations. The system demonstrated high precision and ac­
curacy in detecting wear in vibrating screens, highlighting the potential
of PdM in monitoring equipment degradation.
Prognostics, the prediction of future equipment health states, is
demonstrated in Guerroum et al. (2021) and Patil et al. (2021) study,
where they developed ML models for predicting the RUL of mining
equipment. The models, which outperformed traditional linear regres­
sion techniques, enabled proactive maintenance strategies, minimizing
downtime and optimizing resource allocation.
4.2. Autonomous systems and robotics
One of the key areas where autonomous systems are making a sig­
nificant impact is in the inspection of industrial equipment. Rocha et al.
(2021) developed a mobile robot, ROSI, for conducting inspections of

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belt conveyors. The robot, equipped with various sensors, captures vi­
sual, thermal, and acoustic data during inspections. The use of CNN and
RF ML algorithms enables the robot to identify anomalies such as dirty
build-ups, roller failures, and bearing faults with high accuracy. This
autonomous system not only enhances the efficiency of inspections but
also ensures the safety of workers by reducing their exposure to haz­
ardous conditions. In addition to mobile robots, the use of
cyber-physical systems is also gaining traction in the industry. Aque­
veque et al. (2021a) presented a methodology for the development and
evaluation of a cyber-physical system designed to detect early failures in
vibrating screens. The system, which combines test bench experiments
and multiphysics simulations, demonstrates high precision and accuracy
in detecting failure statuses and wear in vibrating screens. The early
detection capability of the system allows for intervention up to 168 h
before maximum deck wear, thus preventing unplanned downtimes.
Moreover, the integration of autonomous systems with other technolo­
gies is also being explored. Rocha et al. (2021) proposed the integration
of ROSI robots with drones and rail-guided devices for comprehensive
inspection coverage in complex environments. This highlights the po­
tential of combining different autonomous systems to further enhance
the effectiveness of PdM strategies.
4.3. Simulation, digital twin and real-time technology
Digital twin technology is proving to be a powerful tool for PdM
particularly within the mining industry (Zhang et al., 2022). Digital
twins, virtual replicas of physical systems, allow for real-time moni­
toring and predictive analysis of system performance, thereby enabling
proactive maintenance strategies. Elbazi et al. (2022) presents a
comprehensive architecture for a digital twin in the mining industry,
focusing on a case study of a stacker machine in an open-pit mine. The
architecture comprises four layers: physical, data preprocessing, edge
computing, and cloud data, each playing a crucial role in the digital
twin’s functionality. The physical layer involves data acquisition from
various sources, including sensors and staff clocking systems. The data
preprocessing layer ensures the quality and usability of the collected
data. The edge computing layer enables faster processing and real-time
monitoring, while the cloud layer hosts the cloud database and facili­
tates applications such as predictive production and maintenance
scheduling. Real-time monitoring and control, equipment prognosis,
and other tasks are performed by virtual models in this layer.
Simulation, on the other hand, allows for the modelling of complex
systems and scenarios, providing insights into potential failure modes
and system performance under varying conditions. For instance, Aque­
veque et al. (2021a) used multiphysics simulations to simulate the
vibrational behaviour of vibrating screens under different load condi­
tions. This approach allowed the system to categorize the wear of the
meshes with high precision, contributing to the detection and preven­
tion of failures.
Aqueveque et al. (2021b) developed a smart monitoring IoT system
that can assess the real-time condition of non-stationary heavy ma­
chinery in mining operations. The system consists of a vibration sensor
network with wireless communication and ML data-driven capabilities.
The sensor data is transmitted wirelessly to a cloud server, where mul­
tiple ML algorithms are applied to classify the machine condition ac­
cording to the ISO 2372 standards for vibration severity.
The implications of these technologies are substantial, and organi­
zations can enhance their ability to detect degradation in complex sys­
tems. However, further research is needed to fully realize the potential
of these technologies and address challenges related to their imple­
mentation and scalability.
4.4. 3-Phase implementation framework for the mining industry
Derived from the foundational CRISP-DM framework illustrated in
Fig. 3, Sundaram and Zeid (2021) proposed a 3-phased structure that
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can be effectively employed for PdM and intelligent prognostics of
equipment in the mining and mineral processing operations. The three
phases are: Setup and Data Acquisition; Data Preparation and Analysis;
and Modelling and Evaluation as shown in Fig. 7. Within the mining
industry, there is a push for a data-driven approach in improving pro­
cesses and operations within both condition monitoring and
reliability-centred approaches. Ho’s (2015) study confirmed that mining
industries generally embrace for data acquisition but have found limited
use of it for operational performance management (Ho, 2015). Similarly,
Napieraj (2019) identified the lack of use of all the acquired machine
data, as well as the neglect of some of the behavioural relationships
between failure-related events. Hence, a study that investigates identi­
fying, linking, and building relationships between data features and
events, especially within the mining industry is needed to serve as a
guide for data-driven decision making.
In the study by Vahed et al. (2020), the researchers utilized data from
installed sensors on mining equipment to monitor their performance and
health status. Similarly, Cofre-Martel et al. (2021) focused on data
collection from sensors installed on critical components in mining sys­
tems, such as the crusher component. They assessed the quality of
recorded sensor measurements and excluded errors such as sensor
communication errors and non-numerical values that could disrupt the
training of classification models. Preprocessing of the collected data is
another critical step in the methodology. Patil et al. (2021) highlighted
the importance of preprocessing steps to address missing values, out­
liers, and noise in the data. They applied techniques such as data
imputation, normalization, and filtering to prepare the dataset for
further analysis. Similarly, Elbazi et al. (2022) emphasized the need for
preprocessing to convert raw data into well-formed datasets suitable for
data mining methods. They addressed issues such as incomplete or
inconsistent data and employed techniques like data cleaning, integra­
tion, and reduction to improve the quality and usability of the data. The
importance of high-quality data collection and preprocessing is also
underscored in the study reported by Guerroum et al. (2021). They
removed records during the downtime of the jaw crusher machine to
ensure the accuracy of the analysis. Each component of the machine was
treated individually, and the datasets were normalized to facilitate
effective modelling. The process of data collection and preprocessing is a
critical initial step in PdM methodologies. It ensures the quality and
reliability of the data, which is crucial for the accuracy of subsequent
analysis and modelling. In terms of performance and evaluation, Guer­
roum et al. (2021) also evaluated different ML models, including
Bayesian Linear Regression, Poisson Regression, Neural Network
Regression, and Random Forest Regression, to predict the RUL of mining
equipment. The models are trained and evaluated using metrics such as
Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), and
R-squared (R2). The Random Forest and Neural Network Regression
models consistently outperform linear regression techniques due to the
nonlinearity of the data. They also demonstrate higher accuracy in
estimating RUL for alignment and greasing failures. Similarly, Kannan
et al. (2022) compared five supervised ML algorithms using metrics such
as accuracy, sensitivity, precision, and F-measure. The Neural Network
and Logistic Regression models emerged as the top-performing models,
demonstrating high accuracy in predicting production delays in the
quarry operation.
In conclusion, the reviewed literature for this section showcases the
promising application of predictive maintenance in the mineral in­
dustry. The deployment of various techniques, processes and models
have proven fruitful in detecting degradation, predicting equipment
failures, and optimizing maintenance practices. Data preprocessing and
feature engineering are key to unlocking the full potential of these
methods. The shift from reactive to proactive maintenance strategies is a
significant step forward, aided by real-time monitoring through IoT and
cyber-physical systems. Furthermore, the integration of digital twins
offers a powerful tool for improving industrial operations (Day­
o-Olupona et al., 2020; Onifade et al., 2023). Nevertheless, challenges
O. Dayo-Olupona et al.
persist, and future research endeavours are vital to address these ob­
stacles and propel the field of predictive maintenance within the in­
dustry towards even greater effectiveness and efficiency. By embracing
these emerging technologies and addressing the associated challenges,
the industries can enhance their maintenance practices, reduce down­
time, and optimize operational performance, ultimately leading to
increased competitiveness and sustainability.
4.5. Future research directions
The adoption and efficacy of predictive maintenance models,
particularly in sectors like the mining industry, are contingent on their
ability to be both robust and adaptive. Section 5.1 describes key areas of
future research essential for the enhancement of predictive maintenance
models. These areas encompass the economic feasibility of these models,
their capability to generalize across several units within the industry, the
potential for predictive capability improvements through the use of
varied data types, and the incorporation of real-time decision-making
processes.
4.5.1. Improving predictive maintenance models
A critical area for consideration is the economic viability of predic­
tive maintenance models. A detailed cost-benefit analysis could shed
light on the initial setup costs, ongoing maintenance expenses, and po­
tential cost savings, thereby validating the model’s cost-effectiveness
and feasibility. Considerations regarding the return on investment,
cost of hardware, maintenance requirements, and the impact on oper­
ational efficiency and downtime reduction can help in establishing a
robust financial understanding of the implementation of such models
within the mining industry.
An essential aspect of improving predictive maintenance models lies
in their ability to adapt and generalize to different contexts. Currently,
the study’s focus is on specific components of the mining industry;
however, predictive maintenance models may also benefit other in­
dustry segments. Future research should assess the generalizability of
these models across diverse industries, each with unique equipment
types and maintenance requirements. This exploration will ensure
broader applicability and scalability of the proposed model.
4.6. Enhancing predictive capabilities
Predictive maintenance models reviewed in this study are often
designed based on structured data, such as sensor data and maintenance
logs. However, unstructured data, like textual data from maintenance
reports, sensor notes, or equipment manuals, may also provide valuable
insights. The integration of natural language processing (NLP) tech­
niques to handle this unstructured data could significantly enhance the
predictive capabilities of the model. Future research should also
consider external factors, like weather conditions, market demand, or
supplier performance, which may influence equipment failure rates.
The efficiency of predictive maintenance models also depends on
their ability to handle uncertainties inherent in real-world conditions.
The deterministic assumptions regarding failure probabilities may not
accurately capture this variability. The incorporation of uncertainty
analysis and risk management techniques into the model will offer a
more robust decision-making framework. This approach, coupled with
improved feature engineering processes, can further enhance predictive
capabilities.
4.7. Advancing practicality and decision-making
An effective predictive maintenance model should also provide real-
time decision-making capabilities. While the majority of the study fo­
cuses on health state prediction and forecasting horizon, the aspect of
real-time decision-making based on detected anomalies is less explored.
Future research could benefit from exploring decision support systems
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that integrate predictive models with maintenance optimization algo­
rithms, enabling proactive, cost-effective decision-making.
Long-term performance assessment is another area that requires
attention. Predictive models often rely on historical data for predicting
equipment failures and scheduling maintenance tasks. The effectiveness
of these predictions may vary due to factors like equipment age,
changing operating conditions, and maintenance interventions. A
comprehensive long-term performance assessment involving monitoring
actual equipment performance over time and comparing it with the
model’s predictions could help improve the model’s accuracy.
Additionally, the incorporation of reinforcement learning could
continuously optimize strategies based on real-time equipment perfor­
mance feedback. This approach, coupled with considering the dynamic
selection of algorithms and predictor variables based on current oper­
ating conditions, can enhance the practicality and adaptability of the
predictive maintenance models.
In conclusion, the future of predictive maintenance lies in the
continuous evolution of these models, ensuring their robustness,
adaptability, and effectiveness in dynamic real-world conditions. The
research areas identified above could significantly contribute to the
advancement of predictive maintenance models, particularly in the
mining industry.
4.8. Conclusion
A thorough analysis of the existing literature on predictive mainte­
nance in the mining industry has revealed significant advances and
ongoing developments in this field. This review provides a compre­
hensive overview of the predictive maintenance landscape, highlighting
its utility, current research, and future potential.
The mining industry has progressively adopted the concept of pre­
dictive maintenance due to its potential to reduce operational downtime
and optimize maintenance scheduling, thereby enhancing overall effi­
ciency and competitiveness. The combination of technologies, such as
IoT and cyber-physical systems, with data-driven models has enabled
the transition from reactive to proactive maintenance strategies by
facilitating the monitoring of equipment health.
In predictive maintenance, artificial intelligence techniques, specif­
ically machine learning algorithms, have emerged as indispensable in­
struments. These models have proven effective at detecting early
indicators of equipment deterioration and predicting equipment failure,
thereby improving operational efficiency. In this manner, the perfor­
mance of various machine learning algorithms has been compared, with
neural networks models, decision tree models, linear and hybrids of
these models demonstrating good performance in predicting machine
defects and remaining useful life.
Despite the obvious benefits, deploying predictive maintenance
models is not without obstacles. The importance of data quality, its
preprocessing, and feature engineering for accurate predictions has been
emphasized, necessitating an emphasis on efficient data administration
practises. In addition, the need for models to account for real-world
uncertainties, the incorporation of unstructured data, external factors,
and the cost-effectiveness of implementation have been identified as
areas requiring additional research.
In assessing the present state of predictive maintenance in the mining
industry, it is evident that while significant progress has been made, a
consensus on the most effective techniques and models has not yet been
reached. Literature reveals approaches that vary based on equipment
type, failure type, and data availability. However, the evidence dem­
onstrates that predictive maintenance in the mining industry is not only
feasible, but also advantageous, encouraging further research and
development in this area.
Future research should focus on enhancing the predictive capabil­
ities of models, enhancing their applicability, advancing decision-
making, and evaluating their long-term performance. It is crucial to
ensure the robustness, adaptability, and efficacy of models in dynamic
O. Dayo-Olupona et al. Resources Policy 86 (2023) 104291

real-world conditions. The role of reinforcement learning in optimizing
strategies based on real-time equipment performance feedback, as well
as the potential of decision support systems that incorporate predictive
models with maintenance optimization algorithms, offer intriguing
research opportunities.
Writing - original draft: Oluwatobi Dayo-Olupona.
Writing - review and editing: Bekir Genc, Turgay Celik and Samson
Bada.
Declaration of competing interest

Author contributions
Conceptualization: Oluwatobi Dayo-Olupona, Bekir Genc, Turgay
Celik and Samson Bada.
Data curation: Oluwatobi Dayo-Olupona.
Formal analysis: Oluwatobi Dayo-Olupona, Bekir Genc.
Investigation: Oluwatobi Dayo-Olupona, Samson Bada.
Methodology: Oluwatobi Dayo-Olupona, Turgay Celik.
Project administration: Bekir Genc.
Supervision: Bekir Genc, Turgay Celik and Samson Bada.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The work presented in this paper is part of a PhD research study in
the School of Mining Engineering at the University of the Witwa­
tersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa and funded by The Coaltech
Research Association NPC.

Appendixes A

1. Search Databases

The primary databases considered for this study is the Scopus, Web of Science, and SpringerLink, and the secondary databases used include Google
Scholar, Science direct and OneMine. The second group of articles obtained from the secondary databases helped form a background for the study and
the search term identified.

2. Search Strategy

The search terms used to generate the articles that were reviewed in this study include are:
("Mining" OR "Mineral Processing" OR "Mineral" OR "Minerals” OR “Mine")
AND.
("Machine" OR "Equipment" OR "Plant" OR "Machinery")
AND.
("Predictive" OR "Prognostics" OR "Diagnostics")
AND.
("Maintenance" OR "Condition-based" OR "Health Management")
OR.
("Condition monitoring" OR "Condition based Monitoring")
AND.
("Artificial intelligence" OR "Machine learning")
Those keywords when inputted in the “title, abstract or keyword” search box of the various article repositories generated phrase combinations such
as “mining equipment condition monitoring” or “mineral processing plant diagnostics” or “machine learning predictive maintenance”. The search
terms choices can be attributed to Hoppenstedt et al. (2018) bibliographic study that identified the words “predictive maintenance” “condition
monitoring”, “maintenance” and “reliability” as the top-ranking predictive maintenance-related research keywords within the last decade.

3. Article Selection

To focus the study, the following measures were taken to further refine and sort the articles.

• The subject area was limited to Engineering and Computer Science for Scopus and Web of Science. For SpringerLink, it was further limited to
Mechanical Engineering as Mining or Mining Engineering was not a classification option;
• Peer-reviewed articles, book chapters, and select conference papers were allowed;
• The time frame considered was between 2012 and 2022 for the primary databases; and
• The articles written in the English language were considered.

The query was run on the primary databases in December 2022 and after it was refined the above-listed filters it produced 541 articles under
several subject areas. The quality assessment screening was carried out in three phases as shown in Fig. 7. The first step involved the elimination of
articles that did not contain at least two of the keywords or related terms in the title. Next the abstract was reviewed to screen out the non-related
articles. Lastly, at the comprehensive article review stage, articles that scaled through the previous two stages and do not find any applicability
within the mining industry or are outside the scope of screening criteria were eliminated.

13
O. Dayo-Olupona et al. Resources Policy 86 (2023) 104291

Fig. 8. Journal article selection flow chat.

The quality assessment criteria include:

• Removal of articles without the search term;

• Inclusion of industrial machine’s or machine component’s case study, architecture, and review;
• The article has a component of PdM or ML application or related maintenance term; and
• Clearness of objectives and explanation of models, architecture, and review’s usefulness to fulfil tasks.

The search result generated very few mining and mineral processing industries, to supplement, articles from the mechanical/manufacturing,
aerospace, rail, and renewable/energy industries were accepted. They were considered because these industries share similar machinery components.
Additionally, it is believed that some of the advances in technology from these industries can be easily transferred into the mining industry because of
the similarity of operations. It is also noteworthy that these industries seemingly have published more articles in this research area than the mining and
mineral processing industry. On the other hand, articles related to industries such as medicine, diseases, banking, material science, decision science,
etc., were completely excluded.

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