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Chapter 1 – Productive skills and problems arising when

improving them

1.1. Analysis of productive skills

While addressing the topic of English language skills, the productive skills
of writing and speaking seem to be the most fundamental and vital in
language learning and teaching. They are basic communication skills and
can contribute to the overall development of a learner. Not only are
productive skills considered highly needed because of the fact that writers
and speakers are expected to convey messages which are understood by
their partners, but they also indicate how successful a learner is in using a
particular language. Active production of the acquired language is involved
in developing skills of writing and speaking, so it is crucial to possess basic
abilities which are underscored by Edge (1999:116) - “to develop meanings
logically and clearly, express unambiguously the function of what [writers
and speakers] say or write, use language appropriate for the people you are
addressing”. In other words, writers and speakers are supposed to use
language clearly and correctly in terms of register, genre, cohesion and
coherence, which is vital to become an efficient user of language.

To begin with, it is worth considering the characteristics of speaking.

Thornbury (2005:1) claims that “the first point to emphasize is that speech
production takes place in real time and is therefore essentially linear”. As a
result, speakers are given the opportunity to make references which are
logical and understood by their partners in conversation and which can help
them in raising their ability to comprehend the raised issue. Speaking,
unlike writing, does not require the usage of full, grammatically correct
sentences and it usually involves some mistakes, hesitations or even
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repetition. It can be said that speakers use some of those when they are lost
for words or simply stressed by public speaking.

Furthermore, Byrne (1988:3) stresses the fact that while speaking a wide
variety of techniques may be used to “help convey meaning”. It is
strictly connected with passing the message across with the help of correct
lexis, grammar and even body language – facial expressions, gestures and
body movements. It is equally vital that speakers are able to change stress,
intonation in a particular word or even change the pitch and speed of their
speech to make themselves understood by others. For instance, good
speakers are able to cope with problems while communicating using proper
grammar and vocabulary, supporting themselves with gestures or trying to
improve their own pronunciation.

Another important feature of speaking is that speakers are given feedback

instantly. Conversational partners can use verbal feedback when they ask
for explanations, paraphrases or make comments if a point of a discussion
or a speech is not clear for them. What is more, interlocutors can convey
their opinions with the help of non – verbal feedback – speakers can use
facial expressions. As a result, they are given the chance to support their
verbal expressions with non – verbal ones, which can make communication
more successful.

What is significant while taking into consideration the speaking skill is that
it requires knowledge which leads to effective communication. In other
words, these are abilities which are needed to become a good speaker.

The main aspect which should be analyzed is the range of vocabulary

and structures which are to be used accurately. A good speaker of
language should pay attention to applying them in a correct way to become
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understood. S/he is expected to be able to conduct real life communication

without any problems, adjusting the choice of vocabulary to a particular
situation, which means that successful interlocutors should choose the
structures wisely to express themselves effectively.

The knowledge of phonology is another element of achieving competence

in language. Thornbury (2005:37) claims that the areas important to
improve pronunciation are “certain ‘core’ consonant sounds (but not
vowels); the contrast between long and short vowels (as in hit and heat);
consonant clusters, especially those at the beginning of words, such as pr in
product; sentence stress, i.e. the correct placement of stress in an utterance,
especially contrastive stress”. After combining all these factors, speakers
are able to develop their own pronunciation and in the long run, they will
be understood by a bigger number of listeners.

Another aspect which is stressed by Thornbury (2005:32) is “intercultural

competence – that is, the ability to manage cross – cultural encounters
irrespective of the culture of the language being used, and taking into
account that difference and ambiguity are inherent in communication”. In
this sense, speakers are advised to master basic cultural differences to
become effective. As a result, they will be able to convey their messages
without obstacles. The most essential fact to bear in mind is that English is
“an International Language” (Thornbury,2005:31), which means that it is
spoken by many people of different origins. For instance, it may be used
not only by people from the United Kingdom or America, but also from
Japan or Russia. When good speakers possess this ability, they are aware
which facts can become intriguing or vital for foreigners.

The next feature of speaking is register which is described as the

knowledge of applying various functions of language to a specific
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event. Speakers are to be aware of the fact that their choice of language
should be adjusted to the level of formality in immediate surroundings. For
instance, communication with friends will differ significantly from an
interview with a future employer since these relationships require a
distinctive type of language. When it comes to the former it requires more
colloquial and straightforward vocabulary, while the latter – formal and
sophisticated. Successful speakers are to gain mastery of these
characteristics and use them effortlessly.

In addition to the point mentioned above, the knowledge of genre is also

considered to be a basic prerequisite to communicate effectively.
Thornbury (2005:32) points out that it “includes knowing how different
speech events are structured”. Although the structure of speech seems to be
dominant, it may be of minor importance while thinking about everyday
communication because of the fact that speakers are able to voice their
needs without knowing how to structure their discourse. However, speakers
are to know how to speak in a particular situation – for example at a hotel
or hospital – in terms of interaction patterns. This means that a good
speaker is expected to know what could be included first in their dialogue
and how to structure their interaction.

After discussing speaking and its basic features and implications for future
good speakers, it is pivotal to illustrate the main characteristics of writing
and necessary sub-skills within it.

In almost every classroom situation, writing “creates its own context and
therefore has to be fully explicit” (Byrne, 1988:3). This means that
writing is a complex activity in which good writers have to combine a wide
variety of skills to convey meanings and to be understood. It may be
difficult because writers are deprived of the opportunity to interact with
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other people because they are nor given the opportunity to negotiate
meaning. As a result, readers are not able to ask for clarification,
rephrasing or exchanging opinions.

In addition, Byrne (1988:3) stresses that “writing is permanent [and] can

be reread as often as necessary and at own speed”, which means that
usually no alterations can be made after it was written and writers have to
spend more time on thinking about the content of their texts since it
requires more accuracy in terms of range of vocabulary and more
sophisticated grammar. However, it is also an advantage because of the fact
that comments made after reading may contribute to changes in linguistic
or stylistic features of a text.

The main goals of developing writing skills for a learner are to become
understandable and to make progress in language learning. This can be
achieved while concentrating on crucial sub - skills since these may
indicate that a writer mastered the most important rules and features of
writing.

Foremost, good writers have to focus their attention on the purpose of

their text. Harmer (2004:17) stresses that “we call these different writing
constructions (‘advertisements’, ‘letters’, etc.) genres”. This feature of a
written text is essential to become an efficient writer for the reason that
without sufficient knowledge of genres, s/he will not be able to
communicate successfully with his/her reader. A good writer is aware of
the conventions of a text and applies them effectively in his/her own
writing. Genre is a fundamental point of a written text since it plays a
prominent role in choosing the appropriate register, purpose, form and
content. For instance, while preparing a tourist brochure, a writer should be
able to structure his/her text in a way that is commensurate with the
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requirements of this type of writing – the use of the passive voice or

vocabulary connected with senses.

The ability to use the appropriate register is a major feature of a good

writer. Harmer (2004:26) stresses that “register is a word used to denote the
actual language that we use in a particular situation when communicating
with a particular group of people”. Every writer should decide what register
is to be used because it is not always determined by a specific genre.
Harmer stresses that “register is not just about topic – vocabulary choice. It
is also about the tone of a piece – how formal or informal it is”. This means
that even if writers discuss the same topic, it can be different in terms of
formality of the language used.

Although genre and register are crucial in writing, the next predominant
step is making a given text easy to follow and understand. These features
are called cohesion and coherence.

A written text is coherent when a good writer can apply these devices
which are used to make it consistent. It can be accomplished with the help
of lexical and grammatical items. When it comes to lexical ones, Harmer
(2004:22) stresses that coherence is attained when the used phrases and
words are ”in the same topic area which interrelate with each other”. As far
as grammatical tools are concerned, cohesion is accomplished when a
writer manages to use pronoun and possessive reference, article reference,
tense agreement, linkers, substitution and ellipsis.

So as to make a written text more logical, a good writer’s focal point is

coherence which can be attained with using cohesive tools. Harmer
(2004:25) explains that “coherence … is frequently achieved by the way in
which a writer sequences information, and this brings us right back to the
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issue of genre and text construction”. In other words, a good writer has to
combine content and organisation of his ideas in a text to make it clear and
logical to his reader. It can be provided by appropriate paragraphing and
structure of sentences.

1.2. The benefits of developing writing and speaking

In order to demonstrate and acquire the abilities described earlier, students

need formal learning, instruction and training. Working on improving these
skills in the classroom brings benefits. The productive skills are crucial in
language learning since they are a perfect reflection of what students know.
When students have the opportunity to use language freely in the safety of
a classroom, they tend to make progress in their learning. What is more,
writing and speaking can be personalized in such a way that students can
feel that they prepare something which will be useful in their future lives.
Both speaking and writing are significant learning and teaching goals.

The importance of speaking and writing may be reflected by the fact that
they give students an opportunity to see their progress in learning and
it “allows teacher to monitor and diagnose problems in a particular
class” (Hedge,1988:7). The students are given visible evidence of what
they know and their psychological need to see their progress is fulfilled.
Students are able to check how much they know and what they should pay
more attention to.

What is more, speaking and writing are skills “through which much
language is learnt, and which for many is particularly conducive to
learning” (Bygate,1987:vii). Students can learn how to use language
successfully through activities in which they can demonstrate their own
abilities and knowledge of vocabulary and grammar which is required to
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become a competent learner. When it comes to the writing skill itself, it is

an efficient way for students to check if they manage to plan their work,
write it and, in the end, edit their text.

Another reason why speaking and writing are important for both learners
and teachers is gaining confidence. “Our learners often need to be able to
speak [and write] with confidence in order to carry out many of their most
basic transactions” (Bygate,1987:vii). Students should be prepared to give
their opinions about every topic in a determined and resolute way. It is
highly significant for them because the basic goal in learning is getting
prepared for real-life situations.

In addition, Harmer (2007:123) stresses that “the more opportunities

students have to activate various elements of language they have stored
in their brains, the more automatic their use of these elements
become”. Not only does it help to consolidate knowledge but it also gives
the precious opportunity to become more confident in a foreign language.
As a result, students are more likely to become free language users in the
future. Repeating and practising spoken and written language leads to
automaticity and intuitive use of structures.

Having described the benefits of both speaking and writing, it will be

important to give an insight into the advantages of them as separate entities.

Writing is an essential skill in our life. Harmer (2007:112) claims that

“there are many reasons for getting students to write, both in and outside
class. First of all, a wide variety of forms of writing may appeal to
different learning styles and learners’ needs. “Some learners, especially
those who do not learn easily through oral practice alone, feel more secure
if they are allowed to read and write in the language” (Byrne,1988:6).
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Those students can feel more self-confident in using the language because
of the fact that they are free to practise it in a safe environment.
Furthermore, teachers may adjust their teaching to the needs of those
students who tend to be more successful while doing writing activities.

Another major argument for developing writing skills is that it “provides

variety in classroom activities, serving as a break from oral work (and is
therefore a quieter and more relaxed time for both students and teacher)”
(Byrne,1988:6). As a result, writing activities are beneficial for both sides,
giving students the time of calming down and thinking carefully about their
writing. For example, students can be asked to write an essay after a heated
debate about environmental issues or capital punishment.

In addition to this, writing gives them more “thinking time” than they
get when they attempt spontaneous conversation. This allows them
more opportunity for language processing – that is thinking about the
language – whether they are involved in study or activation”. Students are
encouraged to focus on the grammatical and stylistic appropriacy of
writing, which may make them think about other ways in which they can
put their ideas across and lead to language development. Scrivener suggests
(2005:192) that “writing involves a different kind of mental process.
There is more time to think, to reflect, to prepare, to rehearse, to make
mistakes and to find alternative and better solutions”. This means that
learners are not only required to use language without hesitation, but also
have to consider the explanation for each argument which is given by them.

The above mentioned benefit is also crucial while taking into consideration
the speaking skill since Harmer (2007:123) claims that “speaking
activities provide rehearsal opportunities – chances to practise real-life
speaking in the safety of the classroom”. In other words, students can try
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using the practised language before they present it to the whole class or to
the teacher. It is valuable for those students who need some time to think
about their own ideas or simply to take notes about a particular topic.

After describing the benefits of developing writing and speaking, it is

worth considering the benefits which are strictly connected with
integrating these two skills.

It is highly recommended to integrate writing and speaking since it is

natural for students. Connecting productive skills gives an opportunity to
practise language, which is far closer to the real – life situations. In other
words, students explore the topic fully, taking advantage of the knowledge
from their writing and using it while speaking. These skills reinforce each
other and students are allowed to apply previously used language in a new
way. For example, students are given the opportunity to use the information
from speaking in pairs or groups and then, apply it to their own texts.

What is more, exploration of productive skills can be far more

interesting and understandable for students since they are to discover
the subject from different angles and this is less bitty than concentrating
only on writing or speaking at a time. It is helpful in exploring a particular
subject, showing students the connections between a wide variety of
exercises which are always related to each other through the topic,
vocabulary or grammar. The main goal of these exercises may be different
but students can see that without fulfilling previous writing or speaking
exercises, they will not be able to end up with an expected final product.

Furthermore, blending writing with speaking is advantageous because of

language use and of the personal development of students. They are
given the opportunity to widen their general knowledge which can indicate
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their progress. The end – product of a lesson indicates that students have
become more successful in language learning.

1.3. Problems with developing productive skills and their

causes

Nowadays, writing and speaking are crucial in language learning . As it

was mentioned earlier, they are highly beneficial, but they may cause some
problems for language learners. Learning to write in a foreign language can
become a hurdle difficult to overcome due to the fact that students’ attitude
may become unsatisfactory for a number of reasons. “…Students complain
that writing is hard and tedious. … Teachers [say] that their students have
become frustrated because they report that they can speak better than
they can write” (Sartor,Overcoming Writing Hurdles, 2010:26). It can be
caused by the fact that writing is an unnatural activity. Most people feel
more relaxed when they are allowed to speak about the immediate
surroundings or the topics which are close to their everyday life.

Furthermore, students are not willing to write since they are made to do
it – it is not an action which is chosen by them. Not only does it affect
their psychological comfort but it also may cause “a problem in terms of
content” (Byrne, 1988:5). Learners of all ages and levels sometimes
experience the time when they have no interesting ideas. It can be caused
by the fact that “we are obliged to write” (Byrne,1988:5). As a result, many
learners become discouraged by the fact that they are to write about
something which is too far away from their own experience or knowledge.

In addition to the point mentioned above, writing can be tough because it

does not involve the presence of other people – students have no
opportunity to communicate with others. As Byrne (1988:4) suggests
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“writing is essentially a solitary activity and the fact that we are required to
write on our own, without the possibility of interaction or the benefit of
feedback, in itself makes the act of writing difficult”. In other words, we
can assume that writing is more difficult for students when they are
deprived of the time during which they can interact with others to finish a
given exercise.

Another productive skill, i.e. speaking may also be a difficult aspect of

language acquisition which learners and their teachers have to face
together. The first problem which students have to face is that students are
not prepared for the topic of the lesson – there is no sufficient
introduction or stimuli to the topic. As a result, they do not have any choice
of vocabulary or information about a particular subject. Their background
knowledge is too narrow to find themselves in the given situation or the
purpose is too far from their life and experience.

Lack of preparation to a particular topic may result in another huge

obstacle which can occur while developing the speaking skill -students
have not got any ideas to use when asked to present their opinion about
something.”Even if [learners] are not inhibited, [we] often hear learners
complain that they cannot think of anything to say: they have no motive to
express themselves beyond the guilty feeling that they should be speaking”
(Ur, 1996:121). The fact that students cannot find appropriate structures
and vocabulary to express themselves may prevent them from
communicating or giving speeches.

Inhibition is another problem which has to be dealt with. In this sense,

speaking is totally different from other skills - writing, listening or reading
- since students are required to use language in front of other people.
“Learners are often inhibited about trying to say things in a foreign
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language in the classroom: worried about making mistakes, fearful of

criticism or losing face, or simply shy of the attention that their speech
attracts” (Ur, 1996:121). This obstacle is caused by the fact that students
are under a great deal of peer pressure and appearing less intelligent may
result in discouragement.

Ur (1996:121) draws our attention to the fact that satisfactory

participation can also be an obstacle. “Only one participant can talk at a
time if he or she is to be heard; and in a large this means that each one will
have only very little talking time. This problem is compounded by the
tendency of some learners to dominate, while others speak very little or not
at all”. In other words, it may seem that some students are not willing or
have no opportunity to take part in a discussion. It can be caused by a wide
variety of factors which were mentioned above, for example lack of
knowledge or inhibition in front of other students.

Not only is participation a problem, but also the use of native language.
Ur (1996:121) suggests that “in classes where all, or a number of, the
learners share the same mother tongue, they may tend to use it: because it is
easier, because it feels unnatural to speak to one another in a foreign
language, and because they feel less “exposed” if they are speaking their
mother tongue. If they are talking in small groups it can be quite difficult to
get some classes – particularly the less disciplined or motivated ones – to
keep to the target language”. This may be a huge obstacle because of the
fact that students are not expected to practise their mother tongue and it can
result in difficulties connected with the lack of ideas in a foreign language.

Having discussed the general information about problems connected with

developing speaking and writing, it is crucial and fundamental to consider
those problems which result from students’ motivation. It is a focal point in
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thinking about overcoming obstacles because of the fact that without

students’ will to become a better language learner, it is difficult to improve
and develop their skills of writing and speaking.

To start with, we should discuss the topic of intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation of students. Ur (1996:276) describes intrinsic motivation as
“the urge to engage in the learning activity for its own sake” and extrinsic
motivation as “motivation that is derived from external incentives”.
Although it may be a hurdle to overcome the problem of motivation in a
language classroom, it is an achievable goal for every teacher.

When it comes to the problems connected with intrinsic motivation, they

are usually connected with the fact that students have not succeeded
before while doing tasks individually. In general, students are willing to
work collaboratively. It may be a problem when they are deprived of the
benefits of working together, such as peer-teach or peer-correction. What is
more, the atmosphere of working in total silence is boring and uninteresting
for many students. As a consequence, students do not want to work in
silence, without the help of their friends. The opportunity to socialize with
each other is of great importance since students spend a lot of time together
at school.

Additionally, another major problem with intrinsic motivation is that

learners are not involved in the lesson because of the choice of topics in
their coursebooks. Ur (1996:185) suggests that “the topics dealt with in
the coursebook may not necessarily be relevant or interesting to your
class”. Furthermore, there are also special learners’ needs which should be
fulfilled and not every textbook is able to succeed. Ur (1996:185) also
points out that “a coursebook is confining”, which means that both
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students and teachers may not be given the opportunity to be creative and it
may lead to boredom – both for students and a teacher.

What is more, students’ unwillingness and low motivation may be caused

by the goal of the tasks given. It may happen that students cannot see the
importance of doing activities prepared by the teacher, because they are not
provided with a real-life situation. Without being presented with the aim of
every activity, it is demanding to complete. Ur (1996:280) claims that
“global intrinsic motivation [is a] generalized desire to invest effort in the
learning … [and] is largely rooted in the previous attitudes of the learners:
whether they see the learning as worthwhile … “. Without presenting clear
aims of the prepared activities, their significance is not understood.

Furthermore, when it comes to extrinsic motivation, students sometimes

are not provided with linguistic or visual support to write about
something or discuss the given issues. Some students do not have enough
ideas to use. “Good teacher-made materials are arguably the best there are:
relevant and personalized, answering the needs of the learners in a way no
other materials can”(Ur, 1996:192). Without supplementary aids, it is not
likely that students will succeed in language learning. As a consequence,
lessons are not as effective and efficient as we may expect – students
cannot overcome the hurdle of the lack of ideas.