• Molds and mushrooms consist of masses of mycelia

TOPIC 1: THE SCIENCE OF

• Yeasts are unicellular; Organic materials as
MICROBIOLOGY nourishment

THE SCIENCE OF MICROBIOLOGY PROTOZOA

Revolves around two themes: • Eukaryotes; Absorb or ingest organic chemicals
1. Basic Biological Science – accessible research • Maybe motile via pseudopods (ex. Entamoeba
tools, excellent model systems, simple yet histolytica), cilia (ex. Paramecium) or flagella (ex.
representative. Euglena)

2. Applied Science – Medicine, agriculture industry, ALGAE

biotechnology.
• Eukaryotes; Cellulose cell walls; Use photosynthesis
WHAT IS A MICROBE? for energy
• Produce molecular oxygen and organic compounds
 Microbes or microorganisms are minute living things
that are usually unable to be viewed with the naked VIRUSES
eye
• Acellular; Consist of DNA or RNA core; The core is
WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF MICROBES? surrounded by a protein coat, enclosed in a lipid
envelope.
 Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, viruses; Some are • Viruses are replicated only when they are in a living
pathogenic host cell.

MICROORGANISMS MULTICELLULAR ANIMAL PARASITES

• Decompose organic waste; Are producers in the • Eukaryote; Multicellular animals; Parasitic flatworms
ecosystem by photosynthesis and roundworms are called helminths.
• Produce industrial chemicals such as ethanol and • Microscopic stages in life cycles. Ex. Taenia saginata
acetone; Produce fermented foods such as vinegar, (beef tapeworm), Taenia solium (pork tapeworm)
cheese, and bread
DIFFERENT FIELDS OF MICROBIOLOGY
• Produce products used in manufacturing (e.g.,
cellulase) and treatment (e.g., insulin) • Bacteriology, Virology, Mycology, Parasitology,
Phycology, Immunology
• A few are pathogenic, disease-causing
WHY STUDY MICROBIOLOGY?
KNOWLEDGE OF MICROORGANISMS
 Applications: Public Health, Food, Industrial,
Allows Human to:
Biofuels, Biopharmaceutical
• Prevent food spoilage
• Prevent disease occurrence MICROORGANISMS AND THEIR
-Led to aseptic techniques to prevent contamination in
ENVIRONMENTS
medicine and microbiology laboratories. • Microbial population: groups of cells derived from a
BACTERIA single-parent cell
• Microbial habitat: Environment in which the
• Prokaryotes; Peptidoglycan cell walls; Binary fission population thrive (microbial communities, Interacting
• For energy, use organic chemicals, inorganic assemblages)
chemicals, or photosynthesis. • Microbial Ecosystem

ARCHEA • Microbial Interactions

o Can be beneficial or harmful to some; interact
• Prokaryotic; Lack peptidoglycan; Live in extreme with their physical and chemical environment
environments o Ecosystems greatly influenced (if not
controlled) by microbial activities
• Include: o Diversity and abundances of microbes are
controlled by resources (nutrients) and
o Methanogens (ex: Methanobacterium environmental conditions (e.g., temp, pH, O2)
aarhusense)
o Extreme halophiles (ex: Halobacterium MICROBES AND HUMAN WELFARE
salinarum)
o Extreme thermophiles (ex: Thermoplasma
acidophilum) • Microbial ecology: Bacteria recycle carbon, nutrients,
sulfur, and phosphorus that can be used by plants
FUNGI and animals.
• Bioremediation (Bacteria degrade organic matter in
• Eukaryotes; Unicellular or multicellular; Chitin cell sewage, Bacteria degrade or detoxify pollutants such
walls; Use organic chemicals for energy. as oil and mercury)

MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 1

 THE IMPACT OF MICROORGANISMS ON
HUMANS
 Microorganisms and Agriculture
o Many aspects of agriculture depend on
microbial activities
 Positive impacts: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
 Cellulose-degrading microbes in the rumen:
regeneration of nutrients in soil and water
 Negative Impacts: Diseases in plants and
animals
BIOLOGICAL INSECTICIDES
• Microbes that are pathogenic to insects are
alternatives to chemical pesticides in preventing
insect damage to agricultural crops and disease
transmission.
• Bacillus thuringiensis infections are fatal in many
insects but harmless to other animals, including
humans, and plants.
MICROORGANISMS AND FOOD
 Negative impacts - Food spoilage by
microorganisms requires specialized
preservation of many foods and also
Foodborne diseases
POSITIVE IMPACTS
MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS
 (typically fermentations) yield dairy products, baked
goods & alcoholic beverages
MICROORGANISMS IN FOOD
• Soy sauce (Aspergillus oryzae)
• Yogurt (Streptococcus thermophilus and
Lactobacillus bulgaricus)
• Camembert cheese (Penicillium camemberti)
• Roquefort cheese (P. roqueforti)
• Swiss cheese (Propionibacterium)
• Carlsberg beer (S. carlsbergensis, now S.
pastorianus)
MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETIC
ENGINEERING
• Biotechnology, the use of microbes to produce foods
and chemicals
• Genetic engineering is a new technique for
biotechnology. Through genetic engineering,
bacteria and fungi can produce a variety of proteins,
including vaccines and enzymes.
MICROORGANISMS AS DISEASE AGENTS
• major cause of death in the 20th Century; Control of
infectious disease during the last century
• A major threat to survival; Threat to emerging
diseases (bird flu, Ebola); biowarfare agents
 Negative Effects
o Molds can trigger respiratory infections and
allergies
o fungal staining of carpets and algal growth on
paint
o Bacteria and fungi are common causes of
malodor in home textiles, clothing, and
footwear.
o Bacteria and other microbes can lead to food
poisoning and serious illness.
o Microbes are the agents of food spoilage and
decomposition of clothing and sheltering
materials
INFECTIOUS DISEASES
• When a pathogen overcomes the host’s resistance,
disease results.
• Emerging infectious diseases (EID): New diseases
and increasing incidence.
EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES
 Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS)
o Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
o First identified in 1981
o Worldwide epidemic infecting 44 million
people; 14,000 new infections every day
o Sexually transmitted disease affecting males
and females
o In the United States, HIV/AIDS cases: 30% are
female and 75% are African American
BIOLOGICAL WARFARE AGENTS AND
BIOTERRORISM
BIOLOGICAL WARFARE AGENT S
• microorganisms that give rise to diseases in man,
animals or plants, when deliberately dispersed in an
area
BIOT ERRORISM
• the intentional release of viruses, bacteria, or other
germs that can sicken or kill people, livestock, or
crops.
o Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis); Smallpox (Variola
virus); Tularemia (Francisella tularensis);
Plague (Yersinia pestis)
OBSERVING MICROORGANISMS THROUGH
A MICROSCOPE
MICROSCOPY: THE INSTRUMENTS
 Hooke’s microscope (1600’s): shared several
common features with early telescopes.
 Leeuwenhoek Microscope: Made up of only one
lens and was similar to a magnifying glass.
o The single lens could magnify a microbe 300X;
the first person to see bacteria
 Janssen's Microscope: the first compound
microscope around 1600; poor quality and could not
be used to see bacteria.
 Lister's Achromatic Microscope: used an
achromatic lens; Led to the development of the
modern compound microscope.
 Compound light microscope: uses visible light as
its source of illumination; examine very small
specimens and some of their fine detail
MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 2
 o In a compound microscope, the image from the
objective lens is magnified again by the ocular
lens.
o Total magnification = objective lens ́ ocular
lens
o Resolution: ability of the lenses to distinguish
two points.
 A microscope with a resolving power of 0.4 nm can
distinguish between two points ≥ 0.4 nm;
 Shorter wavelengths of light provide greater
resolution.
 Refractive index: light-bending ability of a medium;
The light may bend in the air so much that it misses
the small high-magnification lens; Immersion oil is
used to keep light from bending.
TYPE OF MICROSCOPES
LIGHT
 Brightfield – uses visible light as a source of
illumination; cannot resolve structures smaller than
about 0.2 µm; specimen appears against a bright
background. Inexpensive and easy to use.
Principal Uses – to observe various stained specimens and
to count microbes; does not resolve very small specimens,
such as viruses.
 Darkfield – uses a special condenser with an
opaque disk that blocks light from entering the
objective lens directly; light reflected by specimen
enters the objective lens, and the specimen appears
light against a black background.
Principal Uses – to examine living microorganisms that are
invisible in brightfield microscopy, do not stain easily, or are
distorted by staining; frequently used to detect Treponema
pallidum in the diagnosis of syphilis.
 Phase-contrast – uses a special condenser
containing an annular (ring shaped) diaphragm. The
diaphragm allows direct light to pass through the
condenser, focusing light on the specimen and a
diffraction plate in the objective lens. Direct and
reflected or diffracted light rays are bought together
to produce the image. No staining required.
Principal Uses – to facilitate detailed examination of the
internal structure of living specimens.
 Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) – like
phase-contrast, uses differences in refractive
indexes to produce images. Uses two beams of light
separated by prisms; the specimen appears colored
as a result of the prism effect. No staining required.
Principal Uses – to provide three-dimensional images.
 Fluorescence – uses an ultraviolet or near-
ultraviolet source of illumination that causes
fluorescent compounds in a specimen to emit light.
Principal Uses – for fluorescent-antibody techniques
(immunofluorescence) to rapidly detect and identify microbes
in tissues or clinical specimens.
CONFOCAL – uses a single photo to illuminate one plane of
a specimen at a time.
Principal Uses – to obtain two and three-dimensional images
of cells for biomedical applications.
ELECTRON
 Transmission – uses a beam of electrons instead of
light; electrons pass through the specimen; because
of the shorter wavelength of electrons, structures
smaller than 0.2 µm can be resolved. The image
produced is two-dimensional.
Principal Uses – to examine viruses or the internal
ultrastructure in thin sections of cells (usually magnified
10,000,10,000,000x).
 Scanning – uses a beam of electrons instead of
light; electrons are reflected from the specimen;
because of the shorter wavelength of electrons,
structures smaller than 0.2 µm can be resolved. The
image produced is three-dimensional.
Principal Uses – to study the surface features of cells and
viruses (usually magnified 1000-500,000x)
SCANNED-PROBE
 Scanning Tunneling – uses a thin metal probe that
scans a specimen and produces an image that
reveals the bumps and depressions of the atoms on
the surface of the specimen. Resolving power is
much greater than that of an electron microscope. No
special preparation required.
MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 3
  A smear is usually fixed to attach the microbes
to the slide and to kill the microbes.

Principal Uses – provides very detailed views of molecules

inside cells.
COMPONENTS OF THE COMPOUND LIGHT STAINING
MICROSCOPE
• Coloring microorganisms for better visibility; salts
Component Function composed of a positive and a negative ion
Ocular Lens Topmost part of the microscope which is the • basic dyes (positive ion like crystal violet)
or Eyepiece lens the viewer looks through to see the • Acidic dyes (negative ions like India ink); Staining the
specimen. background instead of the cell is called negative
Revolving Located above the stage, it holds the staining.
nose piece objective lenses. ST EPS FOR ST AINING PREPARAT IONS
Diopter It is used to change focus on one eyepiece in
adjustment order to correct any difference in vision  AIR DRY
between the two eyes.  FIX
Body tube It connects the evepiece to the objective  STAIN
or head lenses.  RINSE
Arm It connects the body tube to the base of the
microscope
Coarse It brings the specimen into general focus.
adjustment
Fine It fine-tunes the focus and increases the
adjustment details of the specimen. SIMPLE
Objective This is held in place above the stage by the STAINS
lenses revolving nosepiece and are the lenses that
are closest to the specimen. It contains 3 to 5 • An aqueous or alcohol solution of a single basic dye;
objectives ranging in power from 4X to 100X. Determine cell shape, size, and arrangement of the
microorganisms
Stage Located beneath the revolving nosepiece, it is
the flat platform on which the specimen is • A mordant may hold the stain or coat the specimen
placed. to enlarge it. Ex: methylene blue, carbolfuchsin,
Stage clips Situated above the stage, these are metal crystal violet, and safranin.
clips that hold the slide in place. DIFFERENTIAL STAINS: GRAM STAIN
Stage Found beneath the stage, these knobs move
control the stage either left or right or forward and • Differential stains are used to differentiate between
backward types of bacteria
Aperture The hole in the middle of the stage that allows • The Gram stain classifies bacteria into gram-positive
light from the illuminator to reach the slide and gram-negative.
containing the specimen. • Gram-positive bacteria tend to be killed by penicillin
On/off The switch located at the base of the and detergents.
switch microscope that turns the illuminator on or off. • Gram-negative bacteria are more resistant to
Illuminator The light source of the microscope. antibiotics.
Iris Found on the condenser, it is used to adjust
Diaphragm the amount of light coming through the GRAM ST AINING PROCEDURE
condenser.  Crystal violet (primary stain); Iodine (mordant);
Condenser It is found beneath the stage and contains a Alcohol (decolorizing agent); Safranin
lens system that focuses light onto the (counterstain)
specimen. It gathers and focuses light onto
the specimen.
Base It supports the microscope, and it is where the
illuminator is found.

BACTERIAL STAINS
PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS
 Tools: Loops and needles - compare uses
 All other preparations require:
o A thin film of a solution of microbes on a slide
is a smear.

MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 4

  G+ cells retain the dye and remain purple; G+  These are used to demonstrate specific structures in
bacteria – are susceptible to penicillins, a bacterial cell.
cephalosporis  Negative staining; Observing overall cell shapes ,
sizes and capsules; It can also be used to stain cells
 G- cells are colorless until counterstained with
that are too delicate to be heat-fixed
a red dye; most consistent when used on
young, growing bacteria; more resistant to
antibiotics
GRAM ST AIN REACT IONS
 ALL COCCI are Gram-positive except Neisseria,
Branhamella, Moraxella, and Veilonella
 ALL BACILLI are Gram-negative except Bacillus,
Lactobacillus, Listeria, Actinomyces,
 Clostridium, Corynebacteium, Mycobacterium,
Erysiphelothrix, Nocardia
 The higher forms of organisms including
Actinomyces, Streptomyces, yeasts and molds, are
G+ ENDOSPORE ST AIN
 Spiral Organisms are not stainable except for some  a differential stain used to visualize bacterial
which are G+ endospores; Spores are resistant to heat,
 All cocci are non-motile and non-spore formers desiccation, chemicals, and radiation.
 All encapsulated organisms are non-motile  Heat is required to drive a stain into the endospore;
 Bacillus and Clostridium are spore-forming most common method is Schaeffer-Fulton
organisms endospore stain
Table: Reagents used in Gram-Staining and expected results.
CAPSULE ST AIN
Reagent Function Result if Result if
Gram-Positive Gram-  a stain used to reveal negatively charged bacterial
Negative capsules. The encapsulated cells will have a halo
Crystal Primary stain Purple or blue Purple or blue appearance under the microscope.
violet
Gram’s Mordant* Purple or blue Purple of blue FLAGELLA ST AINING
iodine  Demonstrate the presence of flagella; Mordant and
Acetone Decolorizer Purple or blue Colorless carbolfuchsin are used
or 95%
alcohol CULTURE MEDIA
Safranin Counterstain or Purple or blue Red or Pink
secondary Stain  Staining procedures only give clues as to the
*a mordant enhances the uptake of the primary stain. probable organism being studied.
 To identify a specific organism, culture using specific
ACID FAST ST AIN culture media is the most ideal. Media (sing.
 identify acid-fast organisms such as members ofthe medium) are used to grow microorganisms.
genus Mycobacterium.  A culture medium is basically an aqueous solution to
 Cell walls contain mycolic acid and large which all the necessary nutrients essential for the
 amounts of fatty acids, waxes, and complex lipids. growth of organisms are added.
 Cells that retain a basic stain in the presence of acid-  These are classified into three primary levels:
alcohol are called acid-fast. physical state, chemical composition, and functional
 Ziehl-Nelsen Stain – also known as the “hot type.
method” because it requires steam-bathing the ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL STATE
prepared smear after addition of the primary dye.
This is because the primary stain used is aqueous 1. LIQUID MEDIA
and will not bind to the cell wall of the organism. Acid  commonly called broths, milk, or infusions, these are
fast organisms will appear red on a blue background. water-based solutions that do not solidify at
temperatures above the freezing point. These
contain specific amounts of nutrients but do not
contain gelling agents such as gelatin or agar. Liquid
media are suited for the propagation of a large
number of organisms, fermentation studies, and
other tests.
2. SEMI-SOLID MEDIA
 exhibit a clot-like consistency at ordinary room
temperature and contain agar at concentrations of
0.5% or less that allows thickening of the media
 Kinyoun Stain – also known as the “cold method” as without producing a firm substance. They have a soft
it does not utilize heat after the addition of the primary consistency similar to custard and are best suited for
stain, which is oil-based. The acid-fast organisms will culture of microaerophilic bacteria or for the study of
appear red on a green background. bacterial motility.
SPECIAL ST AINS 3. SOLID MEDIA

MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 5

  contain a solidifying agent such as 1.5%-2% agar,
giving them a firm surface on which cells can form
discrete colonies. They are used for isolation of
bacteria and fungi or for determining the colony
characteristics of the organism under study. Solid
media come in two forms: (a) liquefiable (or
reversible) solid media and (b) non-liquefiable (or
non-reversible) solid media.
ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
1. SYNT HET IC MEDIA
 contain chemically-defined substances which are
pure organic and/or inorganic compounds. The
precise chemical composition of a synthetic medium
is known.
 They may be simple or complex, depending on what
supplement is added to it.
2. NON-SYNT HET IC MEDIA
 complex media that contain at least one ingredient
that is not chemically defined, which means that it is
neither a simple or pure compound. It is not
representable by an exact chemical formula. Most
are extracts of animals, plants, or yeasts.
 Non-synthetic media can support the growth of more
fastidious organisms.
ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONAL TYPE
1. GENERAL PURPOSE MEDIA
 Are designed for primary isolation of a broad
spectrum of microbes and contain a mixture of
nutrients that support the growth of both pathogenic
and non-pathogenic organisms.
 Ex. Peptone water, nutrient broth, and nutrient agar.
2. ENRICHMENT MEDIA
 Contain complex organic substances such as blood,
serum, or special growth factors, and are designed
to increase the number or desired microorganisms
without stimulating the rest of the bacterial
population.
 Two commonly used ENRICHMENT MEDIA:
o Blood Agar – contain general nutrients with
5%-10% (by volume) blood added to a blood
agar base. Their hemolytic reaction is
categorized into three.
- Beta hemolysis – shows complete
lysis of red blood cells resulting in
complete clearing around the colonies.
- Alpha hemolysis – shows incomplete
lysis of red blood cells, producing, a
greenish discoloration of the blood
agar and colonies.
- Gamma hemolysis – shows no
hemolysis, resulting in no change in the
medium.
o Chocolate agar – a type of nutrient medium
that is used for the culture of fastidious
organisms such as Haemophilus sp. Heat is
applied to lyse the RBC, causing the medium
to turn brown.
3. SELECT IVE MEDIA
 contain one or more substances that encourage the
growth of only a specific target microorganism and
inhibit the growth of others.
 designed to prevent the growth of unwanted
contaminating bacteria or commensals so only the
target bacteria will grow.
Examples of this type of culture medium include the following:
o Thayer-Martin agar - contains the antibiotics
trimethroprim, nystatin, vancomycin, and
colistin. It is used for the isolation of Neisseria.
o Mannitol Salt agar - contains 10% NaCI and
used for the isolation of Staphylococcus
aureus.
o MacConkey's agar - promotes the growth of
gram-negative bacteria, primarily those
belonging to the family Enterobacteriacee, and
inhibits the growth of gram-positive bacteria
through the addition of bile salts. It is both
selective and differential.
o Löwenstein-Jensen medium - a selective
medium used to recover Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. It is made selective by the
incorporation of malachite green.
o Saboraud's dextrose agar - used for the
isolation of fungi.
4. DIFFERENT IAL MEDIA
 allow the growth of several types of microorganisms.
These are designed to show visible differences
among certain groups of microorganisms.
 Differential media allow the growth of more than one
target microorganism that demonstrate morphologic
variations in colony morphology.
5. T RANSPORT MEDIA
 used for clinical specimens that need to be
transported to the of laboratory immediately after
collection.
 These media prevent the drying of specimen and
inhibit the overgrowth of commensals and
contaminating organisms.
 Charcoal or is added to neutralize inhibitory factors.
 Examples are the Cary Blair transport medium for
transport of feces of suspected cholera patients and
Pike's medium which is used to transport throat
specimens of patients with streptococcal infection.
6. ANAEROBIC MEDIA
 media used specifically for organisms that cannot
survive in the presence of oxygen and require
reduced oxidation-reduction potential and other
nutrients.
 These are supplemented with nutrients such as
vitamin K and hemin. They undergo boiling to
remove dissolved oxygen. To reduce the oxidation-
reduction potential, substances such as 1% glucose,
0.1% ascorbic acid, 0.1% thioglycolate, or 0.05%
cysteine are added.
 Methylene blue or resazurin is added as an indicator
of the oxidation-reduction potential.
 Examples are chopped cooked meat and
thioglycolate broth.
TOPIC 2: PROKARYOTIC AND
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
COMPARISON BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC
AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 6
 1. Type of nucleic acid they
2. Shape of the capsid
3. Number of capsomeres
4. Size of the capsid
5. Presence or absence of an envelope
6. Type of host they infect
7. Type of disease they produce
8. Target cell or tropism
9. Immunologic or antigenic properties
BACT ERIOPHAGES
• Special type of viruses that primarily infect bacteria.
• Similar to other viruses
o They are obligate intracellular parasites;
o They are similarly shaped like other viruses
o They may also be classified based on the type
of nucleic acid they possess.
o Play a role in the acquisition of virulence factors
of certain bacteria
BACTERIA
• Prokaryotic cells
• Cell wall – outer covering, that is composed mainly
of peptidoglycan
• They possess DNA and RNA
• Eukaryotic organisms – bacteria possess a nucleoid
LIVING CELLS instead of a true nucleus, smaller ribosomes, and
lack of mitochondria.
 Can be classified into two general
categories – PROKARYOTES AND PHYSICAL CHARACT ERIST ICS OF BACT ERIA
EUKARYOTES. MAY BE BROADLY CAT EGORIZED INT O
 PROKARYOTES – organisms that do not • Gram-negative bacteria with cell wall (Escherichia
possess a true nucleus and membrane-bound coli)
organelles(e.g., bacteria). • Gram-positive bacteria with cell wall
(Staphylococcus aureus)
 EUKARYOTIC organisms – are those that
possess a true nucleus and membrane-bound • Acid fast bacteria with lipid-rich cell wall
organelles. They are usually multicellular (Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
organisms that include plants, animals, fungi, • Bacteria without cell wall (Mycoplasma)
parasites, and algae. FUNGI
 Viruses are acellular organisms that possess • Eukaryotic cells
only DNA or RNA.
• Chitin – outer surface
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT MICROORGANISMS • Cell membrane is made up of mostly ergosterol
 Organisms that are considered medically important • Fungi possess both DNA and RNA
are those that have the potential or the ability to • They possess a true nucleus that is enclosed by a
produce significant clinical disease in humans. nuclear membrane and mitochondria that function for
 They may be part of the normal flora of the body or ATP production.
are true pathogenic organisms.
PROTOZOA
These may be categorized into bacteria, viruses, fungi,
algae, and parasites (protozoa and helminths) • Representative for parasites
• Also a eukaryotic cells
VIRUSES
• Pellicle – outer surface
• Acellular organisms • Unicellular organisms that usually divide through
• Capsid – the outer surface, composed of repeating binary fission, similar to bacteria
sub-units called capsomeres. • Morphologic forms
• Possess only a single nucleic acid (either DNA or o Cysts
RNA, but never be both) o Trophozoites
• Lack the necessary cellular parts that can allow them • Protozoa possess both DNA and RNA as well as
to replicate independent of the host cell other cellular features seen in typical eukaryotic cells
• Also lack of genes and enzymes ALGAE
• Rely on the cellular machinery of the host cell for
protein and energy production • Eukaryotic organisms
• Viruses considered obligate intracellular parasites.
• Celluloses – an outer surface
• Describe as plant-like organisms because most
VIRUSES ARE CLASSIFIED BASED ON T HE
of them have chlorophyll and thus capable of
FOLLOWING:
photosynthesis

MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 7

 • They do not possess true roots, stems, and leaves.
• Do not produce significant disease in humans
• Important sources of food, iodine, and other
minerals.
• Used as fertilizers, emulsifiers for puddings, and
stabilizers for ice cream and salad dressing

TOPIC 3: BACTERIAL MORPHOLOGY

BACTERIA
• Prokaryotic cells
• Simpler structures compared to eukaryotic
organisms
• In terms of morphology BACTERIA may be classified
into three basic shapes
o Coccus (pl. cocci)
o Bacillus (pl. bacilli)
o Spiral-shaped or curved
COCCI
• Can be described as spherical or round-shaped
organisms (Staphylococcus, Streptococcus)
• Arranged singly;
• In pairs – diplococci,
• In chains – streptococci
• In clusters – staphylococci
• In groups of four – tetrad
• In groups of eight – octad
BACILLI
• Rod shaped organisms (Escherichia coli,
Salmonella)
• Some may be very short
• Coccobacilli – resembling elongated cocci
(Haemophilus influenza)
CURVED AND SPIRAL SHAPES
• Show variations in their morphology.
• Vibrio cholerae – organisms causing cholera,
described as comma shaped.
• Treponema pallidum – spiral in shaped while the
causative agent of diphtheria
• Corynebacterium diphtheriae – club-shaped
ENVELOPE STRUCTURES
• Prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a complex
envelope that may vary in composition
• ENVELOPE – serves to protect the bacteria
from harsh environmental conditions.
GLOCOCALYX

MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 8

CHAPTER 7: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
METHODS OF STERILIZATION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Sterilization – the process of killing or removing all
microbial forms, including spores
2. Disinfection – process by which most microbial forms
on inanimate objects are killed without necessarily
destroying saprophytes and bacterial endospores which
leads to a reduction in the number of organisms to a
level that they cannot produce infection.
3. Antisepsis – use of chemical agents on living tissue
(e.g., skin) to prevent the spread of microorganisms
either by inhibiting their growth or destroying them.
4. Bactericidal or germicidal agent – agent, chemical or
physical, that kills bacteria
5. Bacteriostatic agent – agent, physical or chemical,
capable, of inhibiting the growth of bacteria without
necessarily killing them.
6. Sporicidal, fungicidal, viricidal – agents capable of
destroying spores, fungi, and viruses, respectively.
PHYSICAL METHODS OF STERILIZATION
HEATING
• Is the most common physical method of
sterilization.
• The rate of killing is expressed in the thermal
death time, the minimum time required to kill a
suspension of an organism at a predetermined
temperature and environment.
MECHANISMS OF ACT ION OF HEAT ING
1. Formation of single-strand breaks in the bacterial DNA
2. Coagulation and denaturation of proteins
3. Accumulation of toxic levels of electrolytes and
4. Alteration of cell membrane structure
FACT ORS CAN AFFECT T HE PROCESS OF
ST ERILIZAT ION T HROUGH HEAT ING
1. Nature of the heat – moist heat has greater killing
action than dry heat
2. Temperature and time – as temperature increases,
the time take to sterilize decreases. INVERSE
RELATIONSHIP
3. Number of microorganisms – the more
microorganisms there are, the higher the temperature
and the longer the duration of the process required to
destroy all of them.
4. Nature of microorganisms – spore-forming
microorganisms are more difficult to destroy than non-
spore forming ones.
5. Type of material – the temperature required to sterilize
materials depend on the sensitivity of the material to
heat.
6. Presence of organic material – the presence of
organic materials such as fats, proteins, and sugars
may necessitate higher temp.
TYPES OF HEATS
1. MOIST HEAT
• preferred over dry heat because of its more rapid
killing action.
• To cause coagulation and denaturation of proteins.
TEMPERATURE BELOW 100 DEGREES CELSIUS
PASTEURIZATION
The method of destroying disease-producing organisms in
milk and milk products as well as other beverages.
VACCINE BATH
This is use to destroy contaminating bacteria in vaccine
preparations
SERUM BATH
This is used to inactivate bacteria contamination serum
preparations and is done by heating at 56 degrees Celsius
for several successive days.
INSPISSATION
Is used to solidify and disinfect egg-containing and serum-
containing media.
TEMPERATURE OF 100 DEGREES CELSIUS
BOILING
This method involves utilizing water at boiling temperature of
100 degrees Celsius. It is not sporicidal and will destroy only
the vegetative forms.
FRACTIONAL STERILIZATION
Is also known as intermittent sterilization and involves
exposing the material to be sterilized to live steam at 100
degrees celsius for 30-09 minutes for three consecutive
days, depending on the material to be sterilized.
TEMPERATURE ABOVE 100 DEGREES CELSIUS
AUTOCLAVE
Most efficient method of sterilization because it can all
microbial forms
2. DRY HEAT
• the effectiveness of dry heat on the penetration of
heat through the material to be sterilized.
• It is used to sterilized materials enclosed tubes, oils
jellies, powders, glassware such as test tubes and
petri dishes
RED FLAME
This method is used to sterilize articles like bacteriological
wire loops, straight wires, tips of forceps, and searing
spatulas.
OPEN FLAME (FLAMING
This method is also make use of the Bunsen burner or
alcohol lamp. The material to be sterilized is passed over the
flame several times but is not heated to redness.
INCINERATION
This method is aimed at burning the organism into ashes.
The contaminated material is burned using an incinerator.
HOT OVEN
MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 9
The use of the hot air oven was first introduced by Louis
Pasteur.
• Articles to be sterilized are placed in the oven with a
temperature of 160 degrees celsius for a period of
one hour.
INFRARED RAYS
The articles to be sterilized are placed in a conveyor belt and
passed through a tunnel that is heated by infrared radiators.
DESSICATION
• This method is based on the principle of depriving the
microorganisms of moisture
FREEZING
• Freezing is not reliable method of sterilization
because most pathogenic organisms are resistant to
low temperature.
• Its main use in the laboratory is for the preservation
of microorganisms in a process call lyophilization or
freeze-drying where the organisms is rapidly frozen
then dehydrated in high vacuum and stored in a
vacuum-sealed container
FILTRATION
• This is a form of mechanical sieving that does not kill
microorganisms but merely separated them from the
fluid.
RADIATION
ULT RAVIOLET LIGHT UVL/ NON IONIZING
RADIAT ION
• The effective UVL wavelength is in the range of 200
nm-280 nm, with 260 nm as the most effective.
• This corresponds with the maximum absorption of
bacterial DNA.
• UVL acts by inducing the formation of thymine-
thymine dimers resulting in lethal frameshift
mutations. Microorganisms such as bacteria,
viruses, and yeasts can be inactivated within
seconds.
IONIZING RADIAT ION
• ionizing rays have greater penetrance than UV rays.
• It exerts its effect by causing formation of free
radicals that chemically interact with proteins and
nucleic acids, resulting in cell death.
• It is not routinely used because of its potential to
harm human tissues.
TWO TYPES OF IONIZING RADIATION USED FOR
STERILIZATION PURPOSES
ELECTRON BEAMS
• Electron beams are particulate in nature.
• A linear accelerator from a heated cathode is used to
generate high speed electrons. It can be used to
sterilize syringes, gloves, dressing packs, food, and
some pharmaceuticals. It has lower penetrance and
requires sophisticated instruments.
ELECTROMAGNETIC RAYS (GAMMA RAYS)
• Produced from nuclear disintegration of selected
radioactive isotopes.
• They have greater penetrance than electron beams
but require longer exposure time.
• The high energy radiation produced cause damage
to the microorganism's nucleic acid.
• It is bactericidal, fungicidal, viricidal, and sporicidal. It
is used commercially to sterilize disposable Petri
dishes, plastic syringes, vitamins, antibiotics,
hormones, fabrics and glassware.
SONIC AND ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS
• Some bacteria can be killed after exposure to certain
frequency of sound waves.
• Exposure to sound waves at a frequency of
approximately 20,000 cycles/second for one hour
can Kill lime bacteria and viruses. High frequency
sound waves act by disrupting cells.
• They are used to disinfect and clean instruments and
to reduce microbial load.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
• This method is based on the principle of osmosis, so
that when the concentration of the fluid surrounding
the organism is altered, this will cause the bacterial
cell to collapse.
• This used for preservation of fruits in syrup and
meats in brine
CHEMICAL METHODS OF STERILIZATION
• Chemicals can inhibit the growth of pathogenic
organisms, either temporarily or permanently.
• Several factors can affect the efficacy of a chemical
agent. These include:
1. Concentration and potency of the chemical
agent. In general, a higher concentration is
bactericidal whereas a lower concentration may only
be bacteriostatic. This is not true for alcohol. For
alcohol, the effective bactericidal concentration is at
50% to 80%.
2. Duration of exposure. The longer the time of
exposure to the chemical agent, the better the killing
action.
3. Temperature. A higher temperature speeds up the
rate of a chemical reaction and thus accelerates
killing action. However, there are also certain
chemical agents that exert optimal effect at lower
temperatures.
4. Nature of the surrounding medium. The pH of the
medium and the presence of extraneous materials
like pus or blood decreases the efficiency of the
chemical agent.
5. Nature of the organism. This refers to the innate
resistance of the microorganism to disinfectants.
Microorganisms vary in their resistance to
disinfectants. Bacteria that produce endospores may
be resistant to most chemical agents.
6. Number of organisms/Size of inoculum. The
larger the number of microorganism present, the
more time needed for a disinfectant to destroy all of
them
A chemical agent, to be effective as a disinfectant or
antiseptic, must be chosen carefully based on the specific
purpose, pathogen, and environment. A good chemical agent
must possess the following characteristics:
1. It should be broad spectrum, able to destroy a wide
variety of microorganisms.
2. It should be fast-acting, able to destroy microbes within a
short period of time.
3. It should be active in the presence of organic matter. n
4. It should be active in any pH.
5. It should be stable.
MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 10
6. It should be non-toxic, non-allergenic, non-irritative, and
non-corrosive.
7. It should be soluble in water and easy to apply.
8. It should leave a residual antimicrobial film on the treated
surface.
9. It should have high penetrating power.
10. It should not be expensive and must be easily available.
11. It should be safe under storage and shipping for
reasonable periods of time.
12. It should not have a bad odor.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF CHEMICAL
DISINIFECTANTS
Chemical disinfectants may be classified based on the
following:
(1) consistency (liquid or gaseous);
(2) spectrum of activity (high level, intermediate level, low
level); or
(3) mechanism of action.
MECHANISMS OF ACTION
DAMAGE T O CELL MEMBRANE
• Damage to the cell membrane can cause smaller
molecules to leak out of the bacterial cell and
interfere with the active transport and energy
metabolism within the cell.
Chemicals under this include the following:
1. SURFACE ACTIVE AGENTS
• Compounds have long chain hydrocarbons that are
fat-soluble and charged ions that are water-soluble.
• They concentrate on the surface of membranes and
disrupt membrane resulting in leakage of cell
components.
A. CATIONIC AGENTS
• These are detergents where the fat-soluble portion is
positively charged due to combination with a
quaternary nitrogen atom.
• These are called quaternary ammonium compounds
and are effective at alkaline pH.
• Examples are cetrimide and benzalkonium chloride.
B. ANIONIC AGENTS
• These are negatively charged agents that contain
long chain hydrocarbons.
• Examples are soaps and bile salts.
• They remove dirt through the process of
emulsification and are most effective at acidic pH.
2. PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
• These act by disrupting cell membrane as well as
causing precipitation of proteins and inactivation of
enzymes.
• These are coal-tar derivative that act as disinfectants
at high concentration and as antiseptic at low
concentrations
• Phenols are Bactericidal and fungicidal with good
activity against Mycobacteria but have poor activity
against spores and most viruses.
a. Phenol is no longer used as a disinfectant
because it is toxic to human cells leg used as a
gold standard in the chemical evaluation of new
chemical agents using the phenol coefficient
test.
b. Cresols are phenol derivatives more potent and
safer than phenol. An example is Lysol®.
c. Chlorhexidine is used as a skin disinfectant if in
isopropanol solution. The aqueous preparation
is used for wound irrigation. Its main use is as
antiseptic hand wash.
d. Chloroxylenols are used for topical purposes.
They are effective against gram-positive
bacteria.
e. Hexachlorophene is a chlorinated diphenyl
which has greater activity against gram-positive
bacteria similar to chloroxylenols.
f. Triclosan, an organic phenyl ether, has good
activity against gram-positive bacteria and a
number of gram-negative bacteria including
Pseudomonas. It has some activity on fungi and
viruses.
3. ALCOHOLS
• Disorganize the lipid structure of the cell membrane,
dehydrate cells, and cause denaturation and
coagulation of cellular proteins.
• The microbial killing property of alcohol is seen better
in a 70% aqueous solution compared to absolute
alcohol. The disadvantage of using alcohols is that
they are skin irritants and are also flammable.
a. Ethyl alcohol - used as skin antiseptic, it is
bactericidal and removes lipids from skin
surfaces.
b. Isopropyl alcohol - it has greater bactericidal
activity than ethyl alcohol and is less volatile. It
can be used to disinfect surfaces. Inhalation of
its fumes can cause narcosis.
c. Benzyl alcohol - it is used mainly as a
preservative.
d. Methyl alcohol - it is fungicidal and sporicidal
used in disinfecting inoculation hoods.
DENATURAT ION OF CELLULAR PROTEINS
Substances that cause denaturation or loss of the normal
structure of proteins pave the way for the eventual
destruction of the bacterial cell. Denaturing agents include:
(1) acids and alkalis,
(2) alcohol and acetone, and
(3) phenol and cresol.
MODIFICAT ION OF T HE FUNCT IONAL GROUPS
OF PROT EINS AND NUCLEIC ACID
1. HEAVY METALS
• Cause damage to the enzyme activity. They also
cause precipitation of proteins and oxidation of
sulfhydryl groups.
2. HALOGENS
• Bactericidal oxidizing agents that cause oxidation of
essential sulfhydryl groups of enzymes causing
inactivation of the enzymes.
3. ALKYLATING AGENTS
a) Aldehydes damage nucleic acids by alkylation of amino-,
carboxyl-, or hydroxyl groups. It kills all microorganisms
including spores.
o Formaldehyde (formalin) is used for surface
disinfection. It can be used to sterilize bedding and
furniture. It is also used to kill Mycobacterium
tuberculosis in sputum and fungi in athlete's foot.
MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 11
 o Glutaraldehyde is sporicidal and used as a cold
sterilant in sterilizing medical equipment such as
respiratory therapy machines and other equipment
that can be damaged by heat. It is more potent than
aldehyde. It requires alkaline pH for its action and
exposure time of at least 3 hours to be effective.
b) Ethylene oxide is also sporicidal and is used in the
gaseous sterilization of heat-sensitive materials or
equipment like heart-lung machine, respiratory and dental
equipment, and polyethylene tubes in anesthesia
machines. It is more potent than glutaraldehyde but
slower-acting. It is highly flammable and is usually
combined with 10% CO,. It causes eye irritation and is
mutagenic and carcinogenic.
CHAPTER 8: ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
ANTIBIOTICS OR ANTIMICROBIALS
• are substances produced from microorganisms or
synthetically that are capable of inhibiting or
destroying microorganisms even at low
concentrations.
• Natural sources include fungi and bacteria. The
antibiotic penicillin, for example, was derived from
the fungus Penicillium. Polymixin and bacitracin were
developed from the bacterium Bacillus sp. while
Actinomyces was the source for the drugs
tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and streptomycin.
• Antibiotics are mainly used in the treatment of
infectious diseases.
• An ideal antimicrobial agent must possess the
following characteristics:
1. It should be able to kill the microbial agent or inhibit
its growth.
2. It must have a broad spectrum of activity.
3. It should not cause any damage or adverse effect
to the patient.
4. It should remain stable when stored in either a
solid or a liquid form.
5. It should be able to remain in specific body tissues
long enough for it to be effective.
6. It should be able to kill the organism or inhibit its
growth before it has had a chance to mutate and
develop resistance.
7. It must exhibit selective toxicity. It must be toxic to
the microbial cell but not to the host's cells.
• Antibiotics may be classified in several ways. Based
on spectrum of activity, they may be classified as
broad spectrum or narrow spectrum antibiotics.
• Broad spectrum antibiotics are those with a wide
coverage of activity against a wide spectrum of
microorganisms while narrow spectrum antibiotics
are those with a limited coverage of activity, effective
only against a limited number of microorganisms.
• Antibiotics may also be classified based on their
antimicrobial activity.
• An antibiotic is said to be bactericidal if it is capable
of killing the microorganism. An antibiotic is
bacteriostatic if it can only inhibit the growth of the
organism. In the choice of antibiotics, bactericidal
agents are more preferred than bacteriostatic drugs.
• Another way of classifying antibiotics is based on
their absorbability from the site of administration. A
locally-acting antibiotic is one that limits its action at
the site where it is administered. Examples are
topical agents such as topical ointments or eye
drops.
• A systemically-acting antibiotic is one that affects
several body systems. Examples are antibiotics that
are administered intramuscularly or intravenously.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIBIOTICS
ACCORDING TO MECHANISM OF ACTION
AGENTS THAT INTERFERE WITH THE
SYNTHESIS OF BACTERIAL CELL WALL
• These agents act by inhibiting the different stages of
peptidoglycan synthesis or by destroying an already
formed peptidoglycan by activating autolytic
enzymes.
• The most commonly used are the -lactam antibiotics
as exemplified by penicillins and cephalosporins.
• Also called penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), these
act by inhibiting the conversion of immature
peptidoglycan to mature peptidoglycan by directly
inhibiting bacterial transpeptidases. The
peptidoglycan produced is weakly cross-linked
making the organism susceptible to cell lysis and
death.
• Another class of cell wall synthesis inhibitor is the
glycopeptides (e.g., Vancomycin).
• Members of this class inhibit the transglycosylase
and transpeptidase enzymes that are essential for
the completion of the synthesis of the peptidoglycan
component of the bacterial cell wall.
AGENTS THAT ALTER THE FUNCTION OR
PERMEABILITY OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
• The microbial cell membrane is essential to the
survival of the organism because not only does it
serve as a barrier by its selective permeability but
more importantly, it is the site of bacterial ATP
production.
• Agents that target the cell membrane can be
classified into cationic, anionic, and neutral
agents. The most well-known are polymyxin B and
colistemethate (polymyxin E) which are cationic
agents. These agents initially act by disrupting the
outer membrane structure enabling them to enter the
cell and inhibit metabolic processes in the bacterial
cell. Among the damaging effects of polymyxin B are
(1) disturbance of the surface charge and lipid
composition of the cell membrane, (2) disruption of
the potassium gradient on the cell membrane, and
(3) depolarization of the cell membrane.
• Antifungal drugs such as polyenes (nystatin,
amphotericin B) alter the permeability of the cell
membrane. Azoles (clotrimazole, ketoconazole,
miconazole, fluconazole), another group of anti-
fungal drugs, interfere with the synthesis of
ergosterol, a major component of the fungal cell
membrane.
AGENTS THAT INHIBIT PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS
• These agents bind with the ribosomes, either the 305
or the 505 ribosomal sub-units or both. Binding with
the ribosome results in failure to initiate the synthesis
of proteins, interference with protein elongation or
misreading resulting in deformed proteins. Inhibitors
of the 30S ribosomal subunit interfere primarily with
the initiation process. The representative drugs are
the aminoglycosides and tetracycline.
• Aminoglycosides cause formation of nonfunctional
complexes and misreading. Spectinomycin is an
antimicrobial agent related to the aminoglycosides
MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 12
 that binds to a protein in the 305 of ribosomes
different from the target of aminoglycosides.
Similarly, tetracycline also targets bacterial 30S
ribosomal subunit.
• Spectinomycin and tetracycline are only
bacteriostatic but inhibit a wide variety of bacteria
including Chlamydia and Mycoplasma.
• Agents that bind to the 505 ribosomal sub-unit are
inhibitors of the elongation process of protein
synthesis. There are three classes of drugs under
this chloramphenicol, macrolides, and lincinoids.
Chloramphenicol acts by binding to a peptidyl
transferase enzyme thereby inhibiting peptide bond
formation. It is a bacteriostatic agent that is effective
against a number of gram-positive and gram-
negative organisms.
• Macrolides also act on peptidyl transferase enzyme
by interfering with its reaction or translocation. The
most popular macrolide is erythromycin which can
effectively inhibit certain gram-positive and gram-
negative bacteria including Haemophilus,
Mycoplasma, Chlamydia, and Legionella.
AGENTS THAT ACT ON THE NUCLEIC ACID
1. Agents that inhibit DNA topoisomerases -
topoisomerase enzymes (types I and II) are essential to
DNA synthesis and critical enzymes involved in protein
translation and cell replication.
2. Agents that inhibit RNA synthesis - agents that act by
interfering with the B-subunit of an RNA polymerase that
is needed for RNA synthesis. Rifampicin is a first-line
drug used for the treatment of tuberculosis that
specifically inhibits bacterial RNA synthesis.
AGENTS THAT INHIBIT MICROBIAL
METABOLIC PATHWAYS
• These agents interfere with metabolic pathways
crucial for the survival of the microorganism.
Trimethoprim and sulfonamides are antibiotics that
interfere with folic acid metabolism. They act as
competitive inhibitors of tetrahydrofolic acid which is
important in the synthesis of DNA, RNA, and
bacterial cell wall proteins.
MECHANISMS OF DRUG RESISTANCE
• Drug resistance is a growing concern in the field of
infection control.
• An organism is said to have developed resistance to
an antibiotic if it is not affected anymore by that
particular antibiotic.
• Development of resistance may either be innate
(intrinsic) or acquired.
• Intrinsic resistance is a stable genetic property that
is encoded in the chromosome of the organism and
shared by all strains of the species.
• Acquired resistance is resistance arising from the
ability of an organism to resist an antimicrobial drug
to which the species, as a whole, is naturally
susceptible, It is not normally encoded in the
chromosome of the organism but developed in the
course of time due to constant exposure to the
antimicrobial agent involved. It can be due to
chromosomal mutation or the result of genetic
exchange between organisms.
• There are several factors that contribute to the
development of antimicrobial resistance of
microorganisms. The most common is the overuse of
broad-spectrum antibiotics due to over-prescription.
• Other factors include incorrect diagnosis,
unnecessary prescription of antibiotics,
indiscriminate or improper use of antibiotics by the
patient, and the use of antibiotics as additives to
livestock feeds to improve the growth of the animals.
• Resistance acquired through genetic exchange can
occur through any of three ways-transformation,
transduction, and conjugation.
• Transformation is the simplest and the earliest form
of genetic exchange studied. In transformation,
naked or free microbial DNA inserts itself into the
DNA of the same species.
• Transduction is the transfer of genetic material by a
bacteriophage.
• Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material
through the sex pilus. In conjugation, what is
transferred to another bacterium is an
extrachromosomal DNA called plasmid.
MECHANISMS OF DRUG RESISTANCE –
DRUG MODIFICATION OR INACTIVATION
• Certain resistance genes may affect the activity of an
antibiotic in two ways.
• A resistance gene may code for enzymes that can
alter its chemical structure leading to the inactivation
of the antibiotic, or the products of the resistance
genes may cause hydrolysis of the antibiotic thereby
destroying the antibiotic.
• For example, certain bacteria produce beta-
lactamases which can hydrolyze the beta-lactam
bonds in the chemical structure of the antimicrobial
agent.
• This is the most common mechanism of beta-lactam
resistance and is the mechanism involved in the
resistance of certain microorganisms to penicillin and
cephalosporin.
PREVENTION OF CELLULAR UPTAKE OR
EFFLUX
• Gram-negative bacteria have developed the ability to
change the lipid composition of their outer membrane
thereby preventing the antibiotic from reaching its
cellular target.
• This prevents their accumulation in the bacterial cell.
• In addition, there are gram-positive and gram-
negative bacteria that have developed an efflux
pump that can prevent the antibiotic to accumulate
within the bacterial cell. This is true in the case of
bacterial resistance to tetracyclines and
fluoroquinolones.
MODIFICATION OF TARGET SITES
• Antimicrobials have specific targets in the bacterial
cell. Any change in the structure of these target
structures will lead to the inability of the antibiotic to
exert its action on the target bacteria.
• Certain bacteria have developed the ability to alter
the normal target binding sites of antibiotics thereby
effectively inhibiting the drug to act on the infectious
agent.
• For example, the target site of penicillin on the
bacterial cell is a structure called penicillin-binding
protein (PB). The organism Streptococcus
pneumonia has developed resistance to penicilin by
MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 13
 causing alteration in the structure of its penicillin-
binding protein.
• In the case of Stapbylococous aureus, in addition to
producing beta-lactamase, the genetic changes in
the organism include the formation of a new PBP that
is of low affinity to penicillin.

Table 8.1 Examples of antimicrobial target sites that

have undergone modifications

OVERPRODUCTION OR BYPASS OF TARGET

ENZYME
• One of the mechanisms developed by bacteria is
targeting specific enzymes that are essential to the
metabolism of the organism.
• This is true in the case of antimicrobials that function
as anti-metabolites.
• One way by which this is achieved is by over-
production of the target enzyme of the bacteria.
• By overproducing the target enzyme of the antibiotic,
there will still be enough amount of the enzyme that
is free from the antibiotic allowing the organism to still
carry out the essential enzymatic reaction. Some
bacteria have developed alternative or bypass
mechanisms that can serve as alternative for the
target enzyme.
• Both these mechanisms are involved in bacterial
resistance to sulfonamides.
TARGET MIMICRY
• Target mimicry is a new mechanism of antimicrobial
resistance that has been discovered.
• It involves bacteria producing proteins that are
similar in structure to the target sites of the
antibiotics.
• Due to the similarity in structure of the new proteins
and the target proteins, the antimicrobial binds the
new proteins and not the target protein.
• For instance, the organism Mycobacterium
tuberculosis produces a protein that can be mistaken
for the structure of DNA.
• The protein selectively binds fluoroquinolones
preventing its binding to the organism's DNA making
the organism resistant to the drug.

Figure 8.1 Summary of mechanisms of antibiotic

resistance by bacteria

MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY LECTURE 14

 o Low pH (1.2–3.0) of gastric juice
CHAPTER 9: HOST RESPONSE TO INFECTION o Low pH (3–5) of vaginal secretions
✓ Normal Microbiota and Innate Immunity
IMMUNITY
o Microbial antagonism/competitive exclusion:
- The state of protection from infectious disease Normal microbiota compete with pathogens
o Innate immunity: Defenses against any or alter the environment
pathogen o Commensal microbiota: One organism
o Adaptive immunity: Induced resistance to a (microbe) benefits and the other (host)
specific pathogen is unharmed
o may be opportunistic pathogens
Overview of Body’s Defenses
2nd Line of Defense:
Innate Immunity Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity
First line of Second line of Third line of - Formed Elements in Blood
defense defense defense
- intact skin - phagocytes, - specialized Leukocytes (White Blood Leukocytes (White Blood
- mucous such as lymphocytes T Cells) Cells)
membranes eosinophil, cells and B cells Granulocytes Function
and their dendritic cells - antibodies Neutrophils Phagocytosis
secretion and Basophils Histamine Production
- normal macrophages Eosinophils Kill parasites
microbiota - inflammation Agranulocytes Function
- fever Monocytes Phagocytosis
- antimicrobial Dendritic Cells Phagocytosis
substances Natural Killer Cells Destroy target cells
Lymphocytes Function
INNATE IMMUNITY
T cells Cell-mediated immunity
o first line of defense against infection. B cells Produce antibodies
Platelets Blood clotting
o rapid response (minutes)
o not specific to a particular pathogen ✓ Phagocytosis
o no memory and does not confer long-lasting o Ingestion of microbes or particles by a
immunity to the host cell, performed by phagocytes
o Neutrophils
- First Line of Defense: Skin and Mucus Membrane
o Fixed macrophages
✓ Physical Factors o Wandering macrophages
• Epidermis consists of tightly packed cells with ✓ Fever
Keratin, a protective protein o Abnormally high body temperature
o Hypothalamus generally set at 37°C
✓ Physical Factors o Gram-negative endotoxin cause
o Mucous membranes phagocytes to release interleukin–1 (IL–1)
o Mucus: Traps microbes o Hypothalamus releases prostaglandins that
o Ciliary escalator: Microbes trapped in reset the hypothalamus to a high
mucus are transported away from temperature
the lungs o Body increases the rate of metabolism
o Lacrimal apparatus: Washes eye and shivering which raise the
o Saliva: Washes microbes off temperature
o Urine: Flows out o Vasodilation and sweating: Body
o Vaginal secretions: Flow out temperature falls (crisis)
✓ Chemical Factors ✓ The Complement System
o Low pH (3–5) of skin o Serum proteins activated in a cascade
o Fungistatic fatty acid in sebum ✓ Activated by
o Lysozyme in perspiration, tears, saliva, o Antigen-antibody reaction
and urine o Proteins C3, B, D, P, and a pathogen
✓ Interferons (IFNs) antigenic determinants.
o IFN-a and IFN-b: Cause cells to produce
✓ The Nature of Antibodies
antiviral proteins that inhibit viral
o Globular proteins called immunoglobulins
replication
o The number of antigen-binding sites
o Gamma IFN: Causes neutrophils and
determines valence
macrophages to phagocytize bacteria
✓ Innate Immunity IGG ANTIBODIES
o Transferrins
- Bind serum iron o Fix complement

o Antimicrobial peptides o In blood, lymph, and intestine

- Lyse bacterial cells o Cross placenta

o Enhance phagocytosis; neutralize toxins
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY and viruses; protects the fetus and
newborn.
✓ specific immune response directed at an invading
pathogen IGM ANTIBODIES
✓ initial EFFECTOR RESPONSE
o Following exposure to a foreign organism o Fix complement

o eliminates or neutralizes a pathogen. o In blood, in lymph, and on B cells

✓ Re-exposure to the same alien organism induces o Agglutinates microbes; first Ab produced

a MEMORY RESPONSE in response to infection

o The more rapid immune reaction

IGA ANTIBODIES
o eliminates the pathogen and prevents
disease. o In secretions
o Found only in vertebrates. o Mucosal protection

IGD ANTIBODIES

o In blood, in lymph, and on B cells

o On B cells initiate an immune response

IGE ANTIBODIES

o On mast cells, on basophils, and in blood

o Allergic reactions; lysis of parasitic worms
✓ Activation of B Cells
✓ Dual Nature of Adaptive Immunity
o Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
o T and B cells develop from
expressed in mammalian cells
stem cells in red bone marrow
o T-dependent antigens
o Humoral immunity
▪ Ag presented with (self) MHC to
o B cells mature in the bone
TH cell
marrow
▪ TH cell produces cytokines that
- Chickens: Bursa of
activate the B cell
Fabricius
o T-independent antigens
o Due to antibodies
✓ Stimulate the B cell to make Abs
✓ Cellular immunity
o B cells differentiate into
o Due to T cells
▪ Antibody-producing plasma cells
o T cells develop in the thymus
▪ Memory cells
✓ The Nature of Antigens
o Antigen (Ag): A substance that causes
the body to produce specific antibodies or
sensitized T cells

- Antibodies (Ab) interact with epitopes or

 o Clonal deletion eliminates harmful B cells
T CELLS AND CELLULAR IMMUNITY
o T cells mature in the thymus
✓ To prevent contamination
▪ Thymic selection eliminates many
✓ Types of Vaccines
immature T cells
o T cells respond to Ag by T-cell
receptors (TCRs)
o T cells require antigen-presenting cells
(APCs)
o Pathogens entering the gastrointestinal or
respiratory tracts pass-through
▪ M (microfold) cells over
✓ Peyer's patches, which contain APCs
✓ Immunological Memory
o Antibody titer is the amount of Ab in
serum.
o The primary response occurs after initial
contact with Ag
o Secondary (memory or anamnestic)
response occurs after the second
exposure
VACCINES
o A preparation that is used to stimulate
the body’s immune response against
diseases
o Modes of administrations
▪ Subcutaneous, oral, nasal
o Vaccination
o Immunization
✓ Vaccine Ingredients
❖ Purpose
o To provide immunity
o To keep the vaccine safe and long-
lasting
o To make the vaccine more effective
o Stabilizers
o To keep the vaccine effective after
manufacturing
o Adjuvants
o To help boost the body’s response to
the vaccine
o Residual inactivating ingredients
o To kill viruses or inactivate toxins during
the manufacturing process
o Residual cell culture materials
o To grow enough of the virus or
bacteria to make the vaccine
o Residual antibiotics
o To prevent contamination by bacteria
during the vaccine manufacturing
process.
o Preservatives
o Whole Pathogen Vaccines
o Subunit Vaccines
o Nucleic Acid Vaccines
o Viral Vectored Vaccines
WHOLE PATHOGEN VACCINES
o Live attenuated Vaccines
o contain whole bacteria or viruses which
have been “weakened” (attenuated)
o Lasting immune response
o Disadvantage: not suitable for
immunocompromised people
o Ex: MMR Vaccines
INACTIVATED VACCINES
o contain whole bacteria or viruses which
have been killed or have been altered
o Disadvantage: strong or long-lasting
immune response
o Ex: Polio vaccine
SUBUNIT VACCINES
o include one or more specific antigens
from the surface of the pathogen
o the immune response can focus on
recognizing a small number of antigen
targets
o Disadvantage: requires repeated doses
initially and subsequent booster doses in
following years
▪ Adjuvants
▪ Common local reactions in
infection sites
o Recombinant Protein Vaccines
 o uses bacterial or yeast cells to
manufacture the vaccine
o small piece of DNA is taken from the
virus or bacterium against which we
want to protect and inserted into the
manufacturing cells
- Ex: Hepatitis B vaccine
- Toxoid Vaccines
o Some bacteria release toxins (poisonous
proteins) when they attack the body
o made with inactivated versions of these
toxins
o Ex: DPT Vaccines
NUCLEIC ACID VACCINES
o provide the genetic instructions of the
antigen to cells in the body, and in turn;
the cells
o produce the antigen, which stimulates an
immune response
o mRNA vaccines
o DNA vaccines
MRNA VACCINES
o uses mRNA enveloped in a lipid (fat)
CLASSIFYING INFECTIOUS DISEASES
sphere.
o The vaccine is then introduced into the
body, where the body’s immune cells take
up the
o vaccine particles and reveal the mRNA.
o Ex: COVID-19 vaccines (Pfizer-Biotech,
Moderna)
CHAPTER 10: PRINCIPLES OF DISEASE AND
EPIDEMIOLOGY
PATHOLOGY, INFECTION, AND DISEASE
o Pathology: The study of disease
o Etiology: The study of the cause of a
disease
o Pathogenesis: The development of
disease
o Infection: Colonization of the body by
pathogens
o Disease: An abnormal state in which the
body is not functioning normally
NORMAL MICROBIOTA AND THE HOST
o Transient microbiota may be present for
days, weeks, or months
o Normal microbiota permanently colonize
the host
o Symbiosis is the relationship between
normal microbiota and the host.
SYMBIOSIS
o In commensalism, one organism benefits,
and the other is unaffected
o In mutualism, both organisms benefit
o In parasitism, one organism benefits at
the expense of the other
▪ Some normal microbiota are
opportunistic pathogens
o Microbial antagonism is a competition
between microbes.
o Normal microbiota protect the hosts by
▪ Occupying niches that pathogens
might occupy
▪ Producing acids
▪ Producing bacteriocins
▪ Probiotics: Live microbes applied
to or ingested into the body,
intended to exert a beneficial
effect
o Symptom: A change in body function that
a patient feels as a result of disease
o Sign: A change in a body that can be
measured or observed as a result of
disease
o Syndrome: A specific group of signs and
symptoms that accompany a disease
o Communicable disease: A disease that is
spread from one host to another
o Contagious disease: A disease that is
easily spread from one host to another
o Non-communicable disease: A disease that
is not transmitted from one host to
another
OCCURRENCE OF A DISEASE
o Incidence: Fraction of a population that
contracts a disease during a specific time
o Prevalence: Fraction of a population
having a specific disease at a given time
o Sporadic disease: Disease that
occasionally occurs in a population
o Endemic disease: Disease constantly
present in a population
 o Epidemic disease: Disease acquired by THE STAGES OF A DISEASE
many hosts in a given area in a short
time RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION

o Pandemic disease: Worldwide epidemic

o Continual sources of infection
o Herd immunity: Immunity in most of a
o Human: AIDS, gonorrhea
population
▪ Carriers may have inapparent

SEVERITY OR DURATION OF A DISEASE infections or latent diseases

o Animal: Rabies, Lyme disease
o Acute disease: Symptoms develop rapidly ▪ Some zoonoses may be
o Chronic disease: Disease develops slowly transmitted to humans
o Subacute disease: Symptoms between o Nonliving: Botulism, tetanus
acute and chronic ▪ Soil
o Latent disease: Disease with a period of no
symptoms when the causative agent is inactive TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE

THE EXTENT OF HOST INVOLVEMENT o Contact

▪ Direct: Requires close association
o Local infection: Pathogens are limited to between an infected and
a small area of the body susceptible host
o Systemic infection: An infection ▪ Indirect: Spread by fomites
throughout the body ▪ Droplet: Transmission via
o Focal infection: Systemic infection that airborne droplets
began as a local infection
o Sepsis: Toxic inflammatory condition VEHICLE TRANSMISSION

arising from the spread of microbes,

o Transmission by an inanimate reservoir
mainly bacteria or their toxins, from a
(food, water, air)
focus on infection
o Bacteremia: Bacteria in the blood VECTORS
o Septicemia: Growth of bacteria in the
o Arthropods, especially fleas, ticks, and
blood
mosquitoes
o Toxemia: Toxins in the blood
o Transmit disease by two general
o Viremia: Viruses in the blood
methods:
o Primary infection: Acute infection that
▪ Mechanical transmission:
causes the initial illness
Arthropod carries pathogen on
o Secondary infection: Opportunistic infection
feet
after a primary (predisposing) infection
▪ Biological transmission: Pathogen
o Subclinical disease: No noticeable signs or
reproduces in vector
symptoms (inapparent infection)
NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS
PREDISPOSING FACTORS
o Are acquired as a result of a hospital
o Make the body more susceptible to
stay
disease
o Affect 5–15% of all hospital patients
▪ The short urethra in females
▪ Inherited traits, such as the EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES
sickle cell gene
▪ Climate and weather o Diseases that are now increasing in

▪ Fatigue incidence or showing a potential to grow

▪ Age shortly

▪ Lifestyle o Contributing factors

▪ Chemotherapy o Genetic recombination

o E. coli O157, avian influenza (H5N1)
 o Evolution of new strains
o V. cholerae O139
o Inappropriate use of antibiotics and
pesticides
o Antibiotic-resistant strains
o Changes in weather patterns
o Hantavirus
o Modern transportation
▪ West Nile virus
o Ecological disasters, war, and expanding
human settlement
▪ Coccidioidomycosis
o Animal control measures
o Lyme disease
» Public health failure
- Diphtheria
EPIDEMIOLOGY
o The study of where and when diseases
occur
o Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC)
▪ Collects and analyzes
epidemiological information in the
United States
o Publishes Morbidity and Mortality Weekly
Report (MMWR)
o www.cdc.gov
THE CDC
o Morbidity: Incidence of a specific notifiable
disease
o Mortality: Deaths from notifiable diseases
o Morbidity rate: Number of people
affected about the total population in a
given period
o Mortality rate: Number of deaths from
the disease in the population in a given
time
CHAPTER 11: INTRODUCTION TO PARASITOLOGY
Symbiosis - A relationship where unlike organisms exist
together is called symbiosis. There are three types of
symbiotic relationships.
o Commensalism - is a form of symbiotic
relationship in which two species live together
and one species benefits from the other without
o harming or benefitting the other.
o Mutualism - iis a symbiotic relationship in which
two organisms mutually benefit from each other.
o Parasitism - is the form of symbiotic relationship
where one party or symbiont (i.e., the parasite)
benefits to the detriment of the other (the host)
TYPES OF PARASITES
1. BASED ON HABITAT
a. Ectoparasites – parasites that live outside the host’s
body (e.g., fleas, lice). Invasion of the body by
ectoparasites is called infestation.
b. Endoparasites– parasites that live inside the body of
the host (e.g., helminthes or worms). Invasion of the body
by endoparasites is called infection and is the result of
entry and multiplication of the parasite within the host.
2. BASED ON ABILITY TO LIVE
INDEPENDENTLY OF THE HOST
a. Facultative parasites– parasites that can live
independently of the host (i.e., free living). These
parasites do not have to live inside a host to complete
their life cycle.
b. Obligate parasites– parasitesthat must live inside a host
(e.g., Plasmodium, Leishmania, hookworms). Majority of the
parasites that infect humans are
obligate parasites.
3. BASED ON MODE OF LIVING
a. Permanent parasites– parasites that remain in a host
from early life to maturity (e.g., Plasmodium)
b. Intermittent parasites– parasites that simply visit the
host during feeding time (e.g., non pathogenic parasites)
c. Incidental parasites– parasites that occur in an unusual
host (e.g., dog tapeworm in humans)
d. Transitory parasites– parasites whose larva develops in
a host while the adult is free living (e.g., Echinococcus
granulosus or dog tapeworm).
e. Erratic parasites– parasites that are seen in an
unusual organ, different from that which it ordinarily
parasitizes (e.g., Ascaris lumbricoides in the lungs or
kidneys).
 TYPES OF HOSTS MODES OF TRANSMISSION FOR PARASITES

ACCIDENTAL OR INCIDENTAL HOST INGESTION OF CONTAMINATED FOOD &

WATER (FECAL - ORAL ROUTE)
- Host other than the normal one that is harboring a
parasite. o Acquiring disease through ingestion of food or
water contaminated by cysts or feces.
DEFINITIVE HOST o Intestinal protozoa

- Host in which the adult sexual phase of parasite ENTERING THE BODY THROUGH SKIN
development occurs. PENETRATION FROM THE SOIL

RESERVOIR HOST o They hatch in soil, releasing larvae that mature

into a form that can penetrate the skin of
- Host harboring parasites that are parasitic for humans
humans.
and from which humans may become infected.
o Hookworms and strongyloids
INTERMEDIATE HOST
BITE OF A BLOOD-SUCKING INSECT
VECTOR
- Host in which the larval/asexual phase of parasite
development occurs. o Transmission of bacteria or virus when insects
bite a host.
TRANSPORT/PARATENIC HOST
o Malaria
- Host responsible for transferring a parasite from one
INHALATION OF EGGS
location to another.
o Swallowing or breathing in tiny (microscopic) eggs
VARIOUS SOURCES OF PARASITIC
INFECTIONS that are common and contagious.

Sources of Parasitic Example o Pinworm, also known as the Enterobius

Infections
contaminated soil Ascaris lumbricoides,
Trichuris trichiura,
Strongyloides stercoralis, and
human hookworms
water the viable cysts of the
parasitic amoebae and
intestinal flagellates
food containing the parasite's fish tapeworm
infective stage Diphyllobothrium latum,Raw
pork is the source of
Trichinella spiralis and
Taenia Soliumaw, raw beef
is the source of taenia
saginata.
blood sucking insect the female Anopheles
mosquito for the malaria
parasite Plasmodium
domestic or wild animal the hydatid cyst of the dog
harboring parasite tapeworm Echinococus
granulosus.
another person and his or the pathogenic amoeba
her clothing, bedding, Entamoeba histolytica,he
environment pinworm Enterobius
vermicularis, and the dwarf
tapeworm Hymenolepis nana.
one's self (auto-infection) Hymenolepis nana, Enterobius
vermicularis, and
Strongyloides stercoralis..
vermicularis
TRANSPLACENTAL TRANSFER
o Infection may occur by transplacental passage of
parasites during disruption of the placental barrier at
the time of delivery
o Toxoplasma gondii
TRANSMAMMARY TRANSFER (MOTHER’S
MILK)
o Maternal viral infection is the mode of transmission,
breastfeeding.
o Ancylostoma caninum
SEXUAL INTERCOURSE
o Transmission of diseases by sexual contact.
o Trichomonas vaginalis
VARIOUS MECHANISMS BY WHICH
PARASITES PRODUCE DISEASE IN HUMAN
TRAUMA OR PHYSICAL DAMAGE
o Direct physical damage caused by the parasite in
the organ it parasitizes or at the point of entry
of the parasite.
o Ex: Entry of hookworms, Malaria
 LYTIC NECROSIS
o Enzymes and other substances produced by
many parasites causing harm to the host
tissues.
o Enzymes produced enable parasite to
penetrate tissues.
o Ex: Parasitic Protozoan (Entamoeba histolytica)
STIMULATION OF HOST TISSUE REACTION
o Animal parasites provoke host tissue reactions.
o In the form of cellular proliferation and infiltration
at the site of the parasite entry or may involve
systemic increase in certain types of cells
o Ex : Schistosoma japonica (lead to cancer of
liver)
TOXIC AND ALLERGIC PHENOMENA
o Parasites produce proteins or other
metabolites
o Lead to hypersensitivity or allergic reactions
due to stimulation of antibody production.
o Ex: Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm) -
allergic reaction in the anus; pruritus ani
OPENING OF PATHWAYS FOR ENTRY OF
OTHER PATHOGENS INTO THE TISSUES
o Presence of the parasites and the damage they
produce to the tissues may favor the entry and
proliferation of other organism
o Ex : Infection with pinworm that leads to intense
itchiness of the anus.
PROPER WAY OF COLLECTING AND
HANDLING SPECIMENS FOR LABORATORY
DIAGNOSIS
01 Use appropriate equipment and containers for collection.
02 Collect specimens at the right time of day, depending on the
parasite being tested for.
03 Store specimens properly (e.g. refrigerated) until they can
be processed in the lab.
04 Label specimens clearly with patient information.
05 Transport specimens to the lab as soon as possible,
following appropriate protocols for biohazard materials.
VARIOUS TYPE OF PROCEDURES USED FOR
LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS OF PARASITIC
INFECTIONS OF HOST
01 Microscopy: Direct examination of a specimen
02 Antigen detection tests: Detect specific antigens produced by
the parasite in the host's blood, urine, or other bodily fluids.
03 Serology: Blood tests that detect antibodies produced by the
host in response to a parasite infection.
04 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): A molecular biology
technique that amplifies parasite DNA in a specimen, making it
easier to detect.
CHAPTER 12: PROTOZOA
Definition of Terms
o Infective stage – refers to the stage of the
parasite that enters the host or the stage that
is present in the parasite’s source of infection.
o Pathogenic stage – refers to the stage of the
parasite that is responsible for producing the
organ damage in the host leading to the clinical
manifestations.
o Encystation – process by which trophozoites
differentiate into cyst forms.
o Excystation – process by which cysts
differentiate into trophozoite forms
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PROTOZOA
o The Kingdom Protozoa consists of single celled
eukaryotic organisms that are spherical to oval or
elongated in shape.
o Not all protozoa are parasitic
o Reproduction among the protozoa is relatively
simple.
o Majority of protozoa divide by means of binary
fission
o Asexual reproduction is achieved through a
process called merogony or schizogony.
o Due to their small size, protozoan infections are
most often diagnosed through microscopic
examination of body fluids, tissue specimens, or
feces.
 INTESTINAL AND UROGENITAL and is passed out with the patient’s
feces.
PROTOZOA
✓ Laboratory Diagnosis
1.SUBPHYLUMSARCODINA: o Diagnosis of intestinal amoebiasis is
ENTAMOEBAHISTOLYTICA confirmed by the finding of trophozoites
in diarrheic stools or cysts in formed
Important properties and life cycle
stools.
o is an intestinal and tissue ameba and is the only ✓ Treatment
known pathogenic. o The drug of choice for symptomatic
o life cycle consists of two stages—the non-motile intestinal amoebiasis or hepatic abscess is
cyst (infective stage) and the motile trophozoite metronidazole.
(pathogenic stage). ✓ Prevention And Control
o The most important preventive measure
is the observance of good personal
hygiene. This includes proper
handwashing, especially for food handlers.

2. SUBPHYLUMMASTIGOPHORA: GIARDIA
LAMBLIA (GIARDIAINTESTINALIS)

Important properties and life cycle

✓ Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
o Giardia lamblia or Giardia duodenale is an
o The parasite is primarily transmitted by
intestinal protozoan that was initially known as
the fecal oral route through ingestion of
Cercomonas intestinalis.
the cyst from contaminated food and
o It divides through binary fission.
water. Water serves as the major
source of infection of the parasite.
✓ Epidemiology And Pathogenesis
✓ Disease: Amoebiasis
o Giardia lamblia has a worldwide distribution
o Acute intestinal amoebiasis - presents as
through contaminated water sources.
bloody, mucus containing diarrhea
✓ Disease: Giardasis
(dysentery) accompanied by lower
1. Asymptomatic carrier state
abdominal discomfort, flatulence (release
2. Giardiasis (Traveler’s diarrhea)
of gas), and tenesmus (feeling of
✓ Laboratory Diagnosis
incomplete defecation)
o Diagnosis is made by the demonstration
o Extraintestinal amoebiasis - occurs when
of the cyst or trophozoite (or both) in
the parasite enters the circulatory
diarrheic stools.
system. The most common extraintestinal
✓ Treatment
form of amoebiasis is the amoebic liver
abscess. This is characterized by right o As per recommendation of the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention in
upper quadrant pain, weight loss, fever,
the United States, the primary choice of
and a tender, enlarged liver. Abscess
treatment for G. lamblia infection are
found on the right lobe of the liver may
metronidazole, tinidazole, and nitazoxanide.
penetrate the diaphragm and cause lung
✓ Prevention And Control
disease (amoebic pneumonitis).
o Asymptomatic carrier state - occurs o The main preventive measure involves
avoidance of fecal contamination of water
under the following conditions: (a) if the
supplies through proper waste disposal.
parasite involved is a low virulence strain;
(b) if the parasite load is low; and (c) if
the patient’s immune system is intact. In
these cases, the patient presents with
no symptoms but the parasite reproduces
CHAPTER 13: CESTODES o Prompt treatment of infected persons.

o Commonly known as tapeworms, these parasites TAENIA SOLIUM

are flat and consist of three distinct regions–the
(PORK TAPEWORM)
head, neck, body (proglottids).
o The head contains an organ of attachment called IMPORTANT PROPERTIES AND LIFE CYCLE
the scolex, which may consist of either hooks,
o Cause of Infection: Ingestion of improperly cooked
suckers, or sucking grooves.
pork, food, and contaminated water with human
o The body is divided into multiple segments (hence,
feces.
the name tapeworm) called proglottids. A series
o Infection stages: Eggs and Larvae
of proglottids is called strobila.
o Host: Pigs and Humans
o All cestodes are hermaphroditic
Life Cycle of the Pork Tapeworm
INTESTINAL CESTODES

TAENIA SAGINATA

(BEEF TAPEWORM)

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES AND LIFE CYCLE

o Cause of Infection: Infection with beef tapeworm

is acquired by ingestion of improperly cooked or
raw beef containing the infective larva called
cysticerus.
o Definitive host: Humans

Life Cycle of the Beef Tapeworm

EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PATHOGENESIS

o Taenia Saginata infection is prevalent in

communities where beef is routinely eaten,
especially undercooked beef.
o Adult worms produces less damage in the small
intestines.

DISEASES

o Taeniasis: majority of patients are asymptomatic.

o Symptoms: diarrhea, abdominal pain, loss of
appetite along with weight loss, body malaise,
itching in anal region (pruritus ani).

LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS

o Examination of fecal specimens from infected

patients.

TREATMENT

o Praziquantel

PREVENT AND CONTROL

o Proper waste disposal and practices.

o Adequate cooking of beef.
o Freezing of beef meat for approx. 10 days.