Compressible Effects

If density fluctuations are significant, compressible effects needs to be accounted for, but the
question is what significant means. Anderson suggests that fluctuations in the order of 5%
(∆ρ/ρ > 0.05) could be used as a threshold value. The question is still what that means.

Let’s try to figure out...

The compressibility for isothermal process is defined as

  
1 ∂ρ
τT = (1)
ρ ∂p T

      
1 ∂ρ RT ∂ p 
τT = = {p = ρRT, T = const} =
ρ ∂p T p ∂p RT T

and thus

1
τT = (2)
p

We are trying to find an estimate of ∆ρ/ρ. Using the equation of state with constant tempera-
ture, ∆ρ/ρ can be expressed in terms of pressure

 
∆ρ ∆p RT 1
= = τT = = τT ∆p (3)
ρ RT p p

If we assume that compressible effects are not significant and use Bernoulli’s equation to get an
estimate of the pressure fluctuations generated by a flow

1 2
∆p ≈ ρ∞ U∞ (4)
2

With τT = 1/p∞ , we can rewrite Eqn. 4 as

2 2
 
∆ρ 1 1 2 ρ∞ U∞ U∞
≈ ρ∞ U∞ = {p∞ = ρ∞ RT∞ } = = (5)
ρ∞ p∞ 2 2ρ∞ RT∞ 2RT∞

√
The speed of sound in the freestream is obtained as a∞ = γRT∞ , which gives

2
 ∆ρ γU∞2 γ 2
≈ = M∞ (6)
ρ∞ 2a2∞ 2

For air (γ = 1.4) and ∆ρ/ρ∞ < 0.05 we get M∞ < 0.27

3
Entropy
First law of thermodynamics:

de = δq − δw (1)

For a reversible process: δw = pd(1/ρ) and δq = T ds

 
1
de = T ds − pd (2)
ρ

Enthalpy is defined as: h = e + p/ρ and thus

   
1 1
dh = de + pd + dp (3)
ρ ρ

Eliminate de in Eqn. 2 using Eqn. 3

     
1 1 1
T ds = dh − pd  − dp + pd
 ρ ρ  ρ

dh dp
ds = −
T ρT

Using dh = Cp T and the equation of state p = ρRT , we get

dT dp
ds = Cp −R (4)
T p

Integrating Eqn. 4 gives

ˆ 2  
dT p2
s2 − s1 = Cp − R ln (5)
1 T p1

For a calorically perfect gas, Cp is constant (not a function of temperature) and can be moved
out from the integral and thus

2
    
T2 p2
s2 − s1 = Cp ln − R ln (6)
T1 p1

An alternative form of Eqn. 6 is obtained by using de = Cv dT Eqn. 2, which gives

ˆ 2  
dT ρ2
s2 − s1 = Cv − R ln (7)
1 T ρ1

Again, for a calorically perfect gas, we get

   
T2 ρ2
s2 − s1 = Cv ln − R ln (8)
T1 ρ1

Isentropic Relations
Adiabatic and reversible processes, i.e., isentropic processes implies ds = 0 and thus Eqn. 6
reduces to

   
Cp T2 p2
ln = ln
R T1 p1

Cp γ
=
R γ−1

   
γ T2 p2
ln = ln ⇒
γ−1 T1 p1

 γ/(γ−1)
p2 T2
= (9)
p1 T1

In the same way, Eqn. 8 gives

 1/(γ−1)
ρ2 T2
= (10)
ρ1 T1

3
Eqn. 11 and Eqn. 10 constitutes the isentropic relations

 γ  γ/(γ−1)
p2 ρ2 T2
= = (11)
p1 ρ1 T1

4
Specific Heat Relations
For thermally perfect and calorically perfect gases

dh
Cp =
dT (1)
de
Cv =
dT

From the definition of enthalpy and the equation of state p = ρRT

p
h=e+ = e + RT (2)
ρ

Differentiate Eqn. 2 with respect to temperature gives

dh de d(RT )
= + (3)
dT dT dT

Inserting the specific heats gives

Cp = Cv + R (4)

Dividing Eqn. 4 by Cv gives

Cp R
=1+ (5)
Cv Cv

Introducing the ratio of specific heats defined as

Cp
γ= (6)
Cv

Now, inserting Eqn. 6 in Eqn. 5 gives

R
Cv = (7)
γ−1

2
In the same way, dividing Eqn. 4 with Cp gives

Cv R 1 R
1= + = + (8)
Cp Cp γ Cp

and thus

γR
Cp = (9)
γ−1

3
 ∂Ω

n
V
Ω

V·n

Figur 1: Generic control volume

Governing Equations
The governing equations stems from mass conservation, conservation of momentum and con-
servation of energy

The Continuity Equation

”Mass can be neither created nor destroyed, which implies that mass is conserved”

The net massflow into the control volume Ω in Fig. 1 is obtained by integrating mass flux over
the control volume surface ∂Ω

‹
− ρv · ndS
∂Ω

Now, let’s consider a small infinitesimal volume dV inside Ω. The mass of dV is ρdV . Thus,
the mass enclosed within Ω can be calculated as

2
 ˚
ρdV
Ω

The rate of change of mass within Ω is obtained as

˚
d
ρdV
dt Ω

Mass is conserved, which means that the rate of change of mass within Ω must equal the net
flux over the control volume surface.

˚ ‹
d
ρdV = − ρv · ndS
dt Ω ∂Ω

or

˚ ‹
d
ρdV + ρv · ndS = 0 (1)
dt Ω ∂Ω

which is the integral form of the continuity equation.

The Momentum Equation

”The time rate of change of momentum of a body equals the net force exerted on it”

d
(mv) = F
dt

What type of forces do we have?

• Body forces acting on the fluid inside Ω

– gravitation
– electromagnetic forces
– Coriolis forces

3
 • Surface forces: pressure forces and shear forces

Body forces inside Ω:

˚
ρf dV
Ω

Surface force on ∂Ω:

‹
− pndS
∂Ω

Since we are considering inviscid flow, there are no shear forces and thus we have the net force as

˚ ‹
F= ρf dV − pndS
Ω ∂Ω

The fluid flowing through Ω will carry momentum and the net flow of momentum out from Ω
is calculated as

‹ ‹
(ρv · ndS)v = (ρv · n)vdS
∂Ω ∂Ω

Integrated momentum inside Ω

˚
ρvdV
Ω

Rate of change of momentum due to unsteady effects inside Ω

˚
d
ρvdV
dt Ω

Combining the rate of change of momentum, the net momentum flux and the net forces we get

˚ ‹ ˚ ‹
d
ρvdV + (ρv · n)vdS = ρf dV − pndS
dt Ω ∂Ω Ω ∂Ω

4
combining the surface integrals, we get

˚ ‹ ˚
d
ρvdV + [(ρv · n)v + pn] dS = ρf dV (2)
dt Ω ∂Ω Ω

which is the momentum equation on integral form.

5
The Energy Equation

”Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only change in form”

E1 + E2 = E3

E1 : Rate of heat added to the fluid in Ω from the surroundings

– heat transfer
– radiation

E2 : Rate of work done on the fluid in Ω

E3 : Rate of change of energy of the fluid as it flows through Ω

˚
E1 = q̇ρdV
Ω

where q̇ is the rate of heat added per unit mass

The rate of work done on the fluid in Ω due to pressure forces is obtained from the pressure
force term in the momentum equation.

‹ ‹
E2pressure = − (pndS) · v = − pv · ndS
∂Ω ∂Ω

The rate of work done on the fluid in Ω due to body forces is

˚ ˚
E2body f orces
= (ρf dV ) · v = ρf · vdV
Ω Ω

‹ ˚
E2 = E2pressure + E2body f orces
=− pv · ndS + ρf · vdV
∂Ω Ω

The energy of the fluid per unit mass is the sum of internal energy e (molecular energy) and
the kinetic energy V 2 /2 and the net energy flux over the control volume surface is calculated

6
by the following integral

‹
V2
 
(ρv · ndS) e +
∂Ω 2

Analogous to mass and momentum, the total amount of energy of the fluid in Ω is calculated
as

˚
V2
 
ρ e+ dV
Ω 2

The time rate of change of the energy of the fluid in Ω is obtained as

˚
V2
 
d
ρ e+ dV
dt Ω 2

Now, E3 is obtained as the sum of the time rate of change of energy of the fluid in Ω and the
net flux of energy carried by fluid passing the control volume surface.

˚ ‹
V2 V2
   
d
E3 = ρ e+ dV + (ρv · ndS) e +
dt Ω 2 ∂Ω 2

With all elements of the energy equation defined, we are now ready to finally compile the full
equation

˚ ‹   ˚ ˚
V2 V2
   
d
ρ e+ dV + ρ e+ (v · n) + pv · n dS = ρf · vdV + q̇ρdV
dt Ω 2 ∂Ω 2 Ω Ω
(3)

The surface integral in the energy equation may be rewritten as

‹ ‹
V2 p V2
     
ρ e+ (v · n) + pv · n dS = ρ e+ + (v · n)dS
∂Ω 2 ∂Ω ρ 2

and with the definition of enthalpy h = e + p/ρ, we get

‹
V2
 
ρ h+ (v · n)dS
∂Ω 2

7
Furthermore, introducing total internal energy eo and total enthalpy ho defined as

1
eo = e + V 2
2

and

1
ho = h + V 2
2

the energy equation is written as

˚ ‹ ˚ ˚
d
ρeo dV + ρho (v · n)dS = ρf · vdV + q̇ρdV (4)
dt Ω ∂Ω Ω Ω

Summary
The integral form of the governing equations for inviscid compressible flow has been derived

Continuity:

˚ ‹
d
ρdV + ρv · ndS = 0
dt Ω ∂Ω

Momentum:

˚ ‹ ˚
d
ρvdV + [(ρv · n)v + pn] dS = ρf dV
dt Ω ∂Ω Ω

Energy:

˚ ‹ ˚ ˚
d
ρeo dV + ρho (v · n)dS = ρf · vdV + q̇ρdV
dt Ω ∂Ω Ω Ω

8
Governing Equations on Integral Form
Eqns. 1 - 3 are the integral form of the continuity, momentum and energy equations, respecti-
vely. These equations may be rewritten with the corresponding equations on differential form
as a result.

˚ ‹
d
ρdV + ρv · ndS = 0 (1)
dt Ω ∂Ω

˚ ‹ ˚
d
ρvdV + [(ρv · n)v + pn] dS = ρf dV (2)
dt Ω ∂Ω Ω

˚ ‹ ˚ ˚
d
ρeo dV + ρho (v · n)dS = ρf · vdV + q̇ρdV (3)
dt Ω ∂Ω Ω Ω

Governing Equations on Differential Form

Conservation of Mass
Apply Gauss’s divergence theorem on the surface integral in Eqn. 1 gives

‹ ˚
ρv · ndS = ∇ · (ρv)dV
∂Ω Ω

Also, if Ω is a fixed control volume

˚ ˚
d ∂ρ
ρdV = dV
dt Ω Ω ∂t

The continuity equation can now be written as a single volume integral.

˚  
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) dV = 0
Ω ∂t

Ω is an arbitrary control volume and thus

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = 0 (4)
∂t

2
which is the continuity equation on partial differential form.

Conservation of Momentum
As for the continuity equation, the surface integral terms are rewritten as volume integrals using
Gauss’s divergence theorem.

‹ ˚
(ρv · n)vdS = ∇ · (ρvv)dV
∂Ω Ω

‹ ˚
pndS = ∇pdV
∂Ω Ω

Also, if Ω is a fixed control volume

˚ ˚
d ∂
ρvdV = (ρv)dV
dt Ω Ω ∂t

The momentum equation can now be written as one single volume integral

˚  
∂
(ρv) + ∇ · (ρvv) + ∇p − ρf dV = 0
Ω ∂t

Ω is an arbitrary control volume and thus

∂
(ρv) + ∇ · (ρvv) + ∇p = ρf (5)
∂t

which is the momentum equation on partial differential form

Conservation of Energy
Gauss’s divergence theorem applied to the surface integral term in the energy equation (Eqn.
3) gives

‹ ˚
ρho (v · n)dS = ∇ · (ρho v)dV
∂Ω Ω

3
Fixed control volume

˚ ˚
d ∂
ρeo dV = (ρeo )dV
dt Ω Ω ∂t

The energy equation can now be written as

˚  
∂
(ρeo ) + ∇ · (ρho v) − ρf · v − q̇ρ dV = 0
Ω ∂t

Ω is an arbitrary control volume and thus

∂
(ρeo ) + ∇ · (ρho v) = ρf · v + q̇ρ (6)
∂t

which is the energy equation on partial differential form

Summary
The governing equations for compressible inviscid flow on partial differential form:

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = 0
∂t
∂
(ρv) + ∇ · (ρvv) + ∇p = ρf
∂t
∂
(ρeo ) + ∇ · (ρho v) = ρf · v + q̇ρ
∂t

The Differential Equations on Non-Conservation Form

The Substantial Derivative
The substantial derivative operator is defined as

D ∂
= +v·∇ (7)
Dt ∂t

where the first term of the right hand side is the local derivative and the second term is the
convective derivative.

4
Conservation of Mass
If we apply the substantial derivative operator to density we get

Dρ ∂ρ
= + v · ∇ρ
Dt ∂t

From before we have the continuity equation on differential form as

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = 0
∂t

which can be rewritten as

∂ρ
+ ρ(∇ · v) + v · ∇ρ = 0
∂t

and thus

Dρ
+ ρ(∇ · v) = 0 (8)
Dt

Eqn. 8 says that the mass of a fluid element with a fixed set of fluid particles is constant as the
element moves in space.

Conservation of Momentum
We start from the momentum equation on differential form derived above

∂
(ρv) + ∇ · (ρvv) + ∇p = ρf
∂t

Expanding the first and the second terms gives

∂v ∂ρ
ρ +v + ρv · ∇v + v(∇ · ρv) + ∇p = ρf
∂t ∂t

Collecting terms, we can identify the substantial derivative operator applied to the velocity
vector and the continuity equation.

5
    
∂v ∂ρ
ρ + v · ∇v +v + ∇ · ρv +∇p = ρf
∂t ∂t
| {z } | {z }
= Dv =0
Dt

which gives us the non-conservation form of the momentum equation

Dv 1
+ ∇p = f (9)
Dt ρ

Conservation of Energy
The last equation on non-conservation differential form is the energy equation. We start by
rewriting the energy equation on differential form (Eqn. 6), repeated here for convenience

∂
(ρeo ) + ∇ · (ρho v) = ρf · v + q̇ρ
∂t

Total enthalpy, ho , is replaced with total energy, eo

p
ho = e o +
ρ

which gives

∂
(ρeo ) + ∇ · (ρeo v) + ∇ · (pv) = ρf · v + q̇ρ
∂t

Expanding the two first terms as

∂eo ∂ρ
ρ + eo + ρv · ∇eo + eo ∇ · (ρv) + ∇ · (pv) = ρf · v + q̇ρ
∂t ∂t

Collecting terms, we can identify the substantial derivative operator applied on total energy,
Deo /Dt and the continuity equation

   
∂eo ∂ρ
ρ + v · ∇eo +eo + ∇ · (ρv) +∇ · (pv) = ρf · v + q̇ρ
∂t ∂t
| {z } | {z }
= De o =0
Dt

6
and thus we end up with the energy equation on non-conservation differential form

Deo
ρ + ∇ · (pv) = ρf · v + q̇ρ (10)
Dt

7
The Governing Equations on Differential Non-Conservation Form

Continuity:

Dρ
+ ρ(∇ · v) = 0 (1)
Dt

Momentum:

Dv 1
+ ∇p = f (2)
Dt ρ

Energy:

Deo
ρ + ∇ · (pv) = ρf · v + q̇ρ (3)
Dt

Internal Energy Formulation

Total internal energy is defined as

1
eo = e + v · v
2

Inserted in Eqn. 3, this gives

De Dv
ρ + ρv · + ∇ · (pv) = ρf · v + q̇ρ
Dt Dt

Now, let’s replace the substantial derivative Dv/Dt using the momentum equation on non-
conservation form (Eqn. 2).

De
ρ − v · ∇p +  ·
ρfv + ∇ · (pv) =  ·
ρfv + q̇ρ
Dt

Now, expand the term ∇ · (pv) gives

De  + p(∇ · v) = q̇ρ ⇒ ρ De + p(∇ · v) = q̇ρ

ρ −v·
∇p

+
v· ∇p

Dt 
Dt

2
Divide by ρ

De p
+ (∇ · v) = q̇ (4)
Dt ρ

Conservation of mass gives

Dρ 1 Dρ
+ ρ(∇ · v) = 0 ⇒ ∇ · v = −
Dt ρ Dt
Insert in Eqn. 5

 
De p Dρ De D 1
− = q̇ ⇒ +p = q̇
Dt ρ2 Dt Dt Dt ρ

De Dν
+p = q̇ (5)
Dt Dt

Compare with the first law of thermodynamics: de = δq − δw

Enthalpy Formulation

 
p Dh De 1 Dp D 1
h=e+ ⇒ = + +p
ρ Dt Dt ρ Dt Dt ρ

with De/Dt from Eqn. 5

     
Dh D 1 1 Dp D 1
= q̇ − p  + + p 
Dt Dt ρ ρ Dt Dt ρ

Dh 1 Dp
= q̇ + (6)
Dt ρ Dt

3
Total Enthalpy Formulation

1 Dho Dh Dv
ho = h + vv ⇒ = +v·
2 Dt Dt Dt

From the momentum equation (Eqn. 2)

Dv 1
= f − ∇p
Dt ρ

which gives

Dho Dh 1
= + v · f − v · ∇p
Dt Dt ρ

Inserting Dh/Dt from Eqn. 6 gives

 
Dho 1 Dp 1 1 Dp
= q̇ + + v · f − v · ∇p = − v · ∇p + q̇ + v · f
Dt ρ Dt ρ ρ Dt

The substantial derivative operator applied to pressure

Dp ∂p
= + v · ∇p
Dt ∂t

and thus

Dp ∂p
− v · ∇p =
Dt ∂t

which gives

Dho 1 ∂p
= + q̇ + v · f
Dt ρ ∂t

If we assume adiabatic flow without body forces

4
 Dho 1 ∂p
=
Dt ρ ∂t

If we further assume the flow to be steady state we get

Dho
=0
Dt

This means that in a steady-state adiabatic flow without body forces, total enthalpy is constant
along a streamline.

5
The momentum equation without body forces

Dv
ρ = −∇p
Dt

Expanding the substantial derivative

∂v
ρ + ρv · ∇v = −∇p
∂t

The first and second law of thermodynamics gives

∇p
T ∇s = ∇h −
ρ

Insert ∇p from the momentum equation

∂v
T ∇s = ∇h + + v · ∇v
∂t

Definition of total enthalpy (ho )

 
1 1
ho = h + v · v ⇒ ∇h = ∇ho − ∇ v·v
2 2

The last term can be rewritten as

 
1
∇ v·v = v × (∇ × v) + v · ∇v
2

which gives

∇h = ∇ho − v × (∇ × v) − v · ∇v

Insert ∇h in the entropy equation gives

2
 ∂v
T ∇s = ∇ho − v × (∇ × v) − 
v· ∇v

+ +
v· ∇v

∂t

∂v
T ∇s = ∇ho − v × (∇ × v) +
∂t