UCSP REVIEWER

GROUP 4

Kinship - Refers to human relationship, that is, a person's relationship by blood or marriage to
another person or others. It creates a network of social relationships that are basic and essential
in the lives of most humans in most societies.

Kinship by Marriage - A legally and socially sanctioned union, usually between a man and a
woman, that is regulated by laws, rules, customs, beliefs, and attitudes that prescribe the rights
and duties of the partners and accords status to their offspring

Types of Marriage

Monogamy - is a relationship with only one partner at a time, rather than multiple partners. A
monogamous relationship can be sexual or emotional, but it's usually both. Many modern
relationships are monogamous. But even if they want to be with just one partner, some people
have trouble staying monogamous. This can lead to infidelity, separation, breakups, and
divorce.

Polygamy - is a type of marriage to more than one spouse at a time. It exist between 2 forms
polygny where one man is married to several women, and polyandry, where one woman is
married to several men. This term originated in the late 1700s. Broken down, poly means many
and -gyn means woman, which signifies that polygyny means one man with many women.
Polygamy is the opposite of monogamy, where one person marries one spouse. Polygamy is
rare throughout most of the world. In the U.S., having spouse like relationships with more than
one person under the same roof was criminalized in 1882

Polygyny - is the most common type of Polygamy Marriage. This is where one man is married
to several women. It is divided into two types: Sororal Polygny and Non-Sororal Polygny

Types of Polygyny

Sororal - is the practice of one man being married to multiple biological sisters at the same
time. Whether the husband and the co-wives (a group of women married to one man) live under
the same roof or in different homes, the eldest sister is considered the head wife.

Non-Sororal Polygyny - is the practice of one man being married to at least two women at the
same time, but the co-wives are not related to each other.

Polyandry - Polyandry is when a female mates with two or more different males (the male
equivalent, one male mating with multiple females, being called ‘polygyny’). Monandry on the
other hand is when a female only mates with a single male. True monandry, therefore, requires
that a female becomes completely unreceptive after an initial copulation, or remains receptive to
only one individual. Until recently, monandry was viewed as the most typical form of female
sexual behaviour.

Types of Polyandry

Fraternal Polyandry - When several brothers share the same wife

Non-Sororal Polyandry - In this type of polyandry the husband does not need to have any
close relationship in marriage. The wife goes to spend some time with her husband.

Exogamy - also called out-marriage, custom enjoining marriage outside one's own group. In
some cases, the rules of exogamy may also specify the outside group into which an individual
must marry

Endogamy - It is a group of marriages in which life partners are to be selected within a group.
The marriage within the group may be one of the following: (Caste, Class, Tribe, Race, Village,
Religion etc.) Today, however, it is maintained not by laws but by other dynamics, most
importantly perhaps by the presence and power of informally segregated social networks in the
organization of people’s lives. Although the racial endogamy is slowly declining it still continues
to this day.

Kinship by Ritual - Describes important relationships outside of blood and marriage. Ritual
kinships are a type of kinship related to affinity. Relationships that would be considered ritual
kinships are god-parents or compadrazgo, close family friends and informally ''adopted''
children.

Godparent - Is a person who has pledged to help with the upbringing of a child, especially in a
religious way. In some denominations of Christianity, when a child is baptized, they are
sponsored by (usually two) adults who pledge to help in this way. Those adults are the child’s
godparents, and the child is their godchild. Godparents are often related to their godchildren (an
aunt might be her nephew’s godmother, for example), but they don’t need to be. Godparents
also often pledge to become the godchild’s guardian if needed (in the event that the child’s
parents die).

Adopted Children - Are the children who have one set of biological parents, and a different set
of psychological parents. Adoption is the social, emotional, and legal process in which children
who will not be raised by their birth parents become full and permanent legal members of
another family while maintaining genetic and psychological connections to their birth family.

Close Family Friend - People who are not related to you but are your very close friends and
are as important to you as your family.

Family - is a group of two or more persons related by birth, marriage, or adoption who live
together; all such related persons are considered as members of one family.

Household - A household is a group of people who live together in a single-family dwelling such
as a house or apartment.

Types of families basis on Marriage

Monogamous Family - This type of family only have one husband and one wife.

Polygamous Family - This type of family has more than one spouse. Usually having multiple
wives.

Polyandrous Family - This type of family usually has one woman but having multiple number of
husbands.
Types of families basis on the Nature of Residence

Family of Patrilocal Residence - Is most commonly used with herding and farming societies.
It’s where the married couple lives with the husband’s father’s family. By living with the
husband’s family, it lets all the men, (the father, brothers, and sons) continue to work together on
the land.

Family of Matrilocal Residence - Is most familiar among horticultural groups. It’s where the
couple moves to live where the wife grew up; usually found with matrilineal kinship systems.

Family of Bilocal Residence - In this type of family after marriage the married couple change
their residence alternatively. Sometimes the wife joins in her husband’s house while at other
times the husband resides in the wife's house. That is why this type of family is also known as
family of changing.

Types of Family based on size or structure

Nuclear Family - refers to the core members of a family, usually parents and children.

Single Parents - Are Divorced parents, Widowed parents, Non-married parents who split up,
Parents who are single by choice.

Extended Family - An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family of
parents and their children to include aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins or other relatives, all
living nearby or in the same household. Particular forms include the stem and joint families.

Mixed Family - A blended family or stepfamily forms when you and your partner make a life
together with the children from one or both of your previous relationships.

Types of Familiy Basis on the Nature of Relations

1. Consanguine family
2. Conjugal family

Conjugal family - is a family that consists of a married couple and their children. To be more
specific, a conjugal family includes two adult spouses and their unmarried, minor children.
Moreover, a conjugal family may sometimes only include the married couple; this happens if the
couple doesn’t have children or if the children are married and have their own family.

Consanguine family - The term consanguine basically means related by blood. Therefore, we
use the adjective consanguine people who are biologically related to each other. People who
are related through adoption or marriage are not consanguine. A consanguine family is a family
that extends beyond the conjugal family. In addition to the married couple and their children, this
family consists of grandparents, aunts, uncles or cousins, all living in the same household. In
other words, it consists of blood relatives in addition to the immediate family. Consanguine
family is often used as a synonym for extended family.

Unilineal Family - A unilineal family is a family in which ancestry is traced through only one line,
either through the mother's side or the father's side. In other words, each person in the family is
related to the same ancestor.
Patrilineal Family - Something patrilineal is related to your relationship with your father, or to
your family's line of male descendants. For example, your father, his father, his father's father,
and so on. A genetic condition that spreads in a patrilineal way might be passed from your
grandfather, through your dad, and finally to you.

Politics of Kinship - The kinship relations may extend to political affiliation you or your family
have either Political Dynasty or Political Alliance

Political Dynasty - This happens when there is a succession of from the same family or clan
that maintains their power for generations. The political dynasty ends when all members of the
family either lost the election or have been removed from power.

Political Alliance - Unlike Political Dynasty where the members of the family join their force. A
political alliance is more of a collaboration of political parties that aims to have the same goal in
the government. Political Alliances form because the opposition of ideologies. People with the
same ideologies stick together to form an alliance.

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GROUP 2
BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION

Human evolution is the evolutionary process leading to the appearance of modern day humans.
It is characterized by a number of morphological, developmental, physiological, and behavioral
changes that have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of humans
and apes. In Human evolution, the term Homo is used to determine the species of human
beings. According to Anthropologists, the direct ancestors of the Homo species are Hominids.

BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION - "Physical Transformation"

CULTURAL EVOLUTION - "Cultural Development"

CHARLES ROBERT DARWIN - He was a Naturalist and Biologist known for his Theory of
Evolution and Process of Natural Selection

GRACILE AUSTRALOPITHECINES

AUSTRALOPITHECUS ANAMENSIS Australopithecus anamensis was the earliest

australopithecine species. They were found in some locations in northern Kenya.

AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFARENSIS - is the most represented australopithecine species. Its

remains were seen at Tanzania and Ethiopia. It is a small hominid. Its teeth were somewhat
large compared to its body size. It has a small brain, about 400 cubic centimeters. Its arms and
legs were about the same length. was the first discovered in the species of gracile
australopithecines.

AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFRICANUS - Australopithecus Africanus was coined by Professor

Raymond Dart which means southern ape of Africa. Like A. afarensis, it has a small build.
ROBUST AUSTRALOPITHECINES

AUSTRALOPITHECUS AETHIOPICUS were the earliest and somewhat the least known of the
robust australopithecines. Some of its fossils were found in northern Kenya and Ethiopia dating
between 2.3 million and 2.7 million years ago.
AUSTRALOPITHECUS ROBUSTUS was a new Australopithecine species discovered by
Robert Broom. It has larger teeth, a massive jaw and a flatter face than A. africanus. It died out
after a million years ago.

AUSTRALOPITHECUS BOISEI was discovered by a paleoanthropologist named Louis Leakey

in western Tanzania. It is named after a benefactor named Charles Boise. It has enormous
molar teeth and expanded premolars, a thick and deep jaw, and thick cheek bones. It lived
between about 2.3 and 1.3 million years ago.

HOMO SPECIES - Hominids have a brain larger compared to the Australopithecus species
which appeared about 2.3 million years ago. It is classified to our genus, Homo. It is divided into
two species, The Homo habilis and the Homo rudolfensis. These two species were found in
parts of Kenya and Tanzania. Both have lived at the same time as the Australopithecus boisei.
HOMO HABILIS The Homo habilis appeared around 2.3 million years ago. It has a larger brain
and reduced the size of molars and premolars compared to the Australopithecus. It has the
presence of long arms just like the Australopithecus.

HOMO HABILIS The Homo habilis appeared around 2.3 million years ago. It has a larger brain
and reduced the size of molars and premolars compared to the Australopithecus. It has the
presence of long arms just like the Australopithecus.

HOMO ERECTUS The Homo erectus was the first hominid species that was distributed in the
"Old world". It was seen in parts of Africa and in Asia. It was discovered by Eugene Dubois
which he called Pithecanthropus erectus at first which means erect ape man. Homo erectus
Had smaller teeth than the other Homo genus. The brain averages 895-1040 cc in size larger
than the fossils found of Australopithecines. Paleoanthropologists agree that Homo erectus
evolved into Homo sapiens but somehow have different sayings about when the transition
occurred. They have been found in many parts of the Old world. Homo sapiens may have lived
earlier than the neandertals. They lived 100,000 years ago.

CULTURAL AND SOCIOPOLITICAL EVOLUTION NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION (NEW STONE

AGE)

Around 10,000 BCE, humans began to cultivate certain animals like sheep, cows, and goats.
This was a change from the system of hunting and gathering that have sustained and made
humans survive from earliest times. In this time period, permanent settlements were
established. It is sometimes called the agricultural revolution.

DEMOCRATIZATION - It is the transition to a more democratic political regime. Democracy

means a system of government in which all the people of a state or polity are involved in making
decisions about its affairs, typically by voting to elect representatives to a parliament or simiar
assembly. It became very popular and many countries now have transitions into a democratic
political system because of four causes:
1. Wealth or Money
2. Social Equality
3. Culture
4. Foreign Interventions

EARLY CIVILIZATIONS AND THE RISE OF THE STATE

The early civilization started in the Indus valley in South Asia. A lot are thinking that it started in
Egypt but most archeologists declare that the early civilization at Indus Valley. The people of this
Indus Valley civilization did not build massive monuments like others. The Indus valley have two
or twin cities called Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The ruins of two ancient cities, Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro and the remnants of many other settlements, have revealed great clues to this
mystery. Harappa was, in fact, such a rich discovery that the Indus Valley Civilization is also
called the Harappan civilization.

Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a center of power or for depictions of
people in power in Harappan society. But, there are indications of complex decisions being
taken and implemented. For instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artifacts as
evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks. These are the major theories:
1.There was a single state, given the similarity in artifacts, the evidence for planned settlements,
the standardized ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw
material.
2. There was no single ruler but several: Mohenjo-daro had a separate ruler, Harappa another,
and so forth.
3. Harappan society had no rulers, and everybody enjoyed equal status.

States were formed during the early civilizations. Each civilizations have first or primary states.
For Egypt, Abydos; Mesopotamia, Uruk; Indus Valley, Harappa; North China, Shang; Peru,
Moche; Mesoamerica, Monte Alban. These first states tend to focus on processes that create
and institutionalize a state in a situation where a state did not exist before.
In the medieval period (500-1400 CE) in Europe, there were a variety of autho forms throughout
the region. These included feudal lords, empires, religious authorities, free cities, and other
authorities. According to Barkley (1991), "Political scientists, sociologists, and anthropologists
began studying the state formation processes in Europe and elsewhere in the 1600s-beginning
significantly with Max Weber.

TIMELINE OF AGRICULTURAL INNOVATION

YEAR INNOVATION

10000 BCE Neolithic Revolution begins in SOuthwest Asia and other areas. Climate
Change resulted in longer dry seasons and the end of a 100,000 year ice
age. Abundance of wild grains enabled hunter and gatherers to settle in
villages. DOmestication of dogs begins in Asia and North America.

9500 BCE The "Founder Crops" of agriculture appear: Wheat, Barley, Peas, Lentils,
Bitter Vetch, Chickpeas and flax.

8000 - 6000 BCE Nomadic hunter-gatherers begin to grow food and domesticate animals:
Rice in China, 7,500 B.C.E Squash in Mexico, 7,000 B.C.E Wheat in
Mesopotamia, 8,500 B.C.E, Cattle in SW Asia and India, 7,000 B.C.E
Domestication of Sheep, Goats and Pigs in SW Asia. Irrigation Systems
Introduced

7000 - 6000 Domestication of cattle begins in Southwest Asia, Pakistan and India
BCE
 6000 - 3000 BCE Domestication of cattle begins in Southwest Asia, Pakistan and IA
wooden plow, the ard, used in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Permanent
Villages established in the Fertile Crescent. Farming established on the
banks of the Nile River.

5000 - 3000 BCE Domestication of horses begins in Ukraine, donkeys in Egypt, and Water
Buffalo in China. Corn (Maize) production in Mexico.

3000 BCE Irrigation systems and dams built on the Nile River. Crop production
increases trade and spread of agriculture. Potatoes domesticated in Peru.

2000 BCE Iron plow developed in China

1000 BCE Manure used as fertilizer. Iron Plows widely used in China and Southwest
Asia

500 BCE Mouldboard plow with a V - shaped iron cutting edge developed in China

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GROUP 5

Political Organization
● A political organization is any entity that is involved in the political process. formulation
and administration of public policy.
● Political organization includes political institutions, political parties, political groups.
● Political organizations are engaged in political activities aimed at achieving clearly
defined political goals, which improve the political system, benefit the interests of their
members.

4 Principal Types of Political Organization

1. Bands
● Bands are societies that are composed of fairly small and nomadic groups of people.
● Less than a hundred people but occupies a large territory.
● In a band, the local group or community is the largest group that acts as a political unit.
● A formal and permanent leader typically does not exist.
● Bands have informal leaders. This person is characterized to be a proficient hunter or a
person most accomplished with rituals. Leadership for bands stems not for power but
from influence.

2. Tribe
● Tribal organizations are a distińct people, dependent on their land for their livelihood who
are largely self- sufficient, and not integrated into the national society. It is perhaps the
term most readily understood and used by the general public.
● The term tribe is used to refer to the whole society but a tribal political system does not
permit the entire society to act as a unit, all the communities in a tribal society may be
linked only occasionally for some political purpose.
● Tribes are typically larger than bands.
● Tribe is the presence of multilocal integration.
 3. Chiefdom
● A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies
usually based on kinship.
● Have more defined political organization. It has some formal structure that integrates
more than one community to a political unit.

CHIEF
● It is sometimes hereditary and permanent. The chief's job is to distribute the goods,
supervise religious ceremonies, and direct military activities.
● It is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or 'houses'. These
elites form a political-ideological aristocracy relative to the general group.

4. State
● A state is an autonomous political unit, encompassing many communities within its
territory and having a centralized government with the power to collect taxes, draft men
to work or war, and decree and enforce laws.
● According to Max Weber, a state is a compulsory political organization with a centralized
government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain
territory.

There are a lot of political theories of state function. Here are some examples:

Anarchy- the state is inherently an instrument of domination and repression, no matter who is in
control of it. Classless society- every member of the state has equal access to everything.

Pluralism- views society as a collection of individuals and groups, who are competing for
political power. They then view the state as a neutral body that simply enacts the will of
whichever groups dominate the electoral process.

Authority and Legitimacy

● An authority is a person or organization having power or control in a particular, typically
political or administrative, sphere.
● Having authority means the power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce
obedience.
According to Max Weber there are three types of legitimate rule (authorities):
1. Traditional authority
2. Charismatic authority
3. Rational authority

1. Traditional Authority - It derives from long-established customs, habits and social

structures. Occurs when power passes from one generation to another then it is known
as traditional authority. The legitimacy of the authority comes from tradition.
2. Charismatic Authority - The charisma of the individual or the leader plays an important
role. Charismatic authority is that autority which is derived when the leader claims that
his authority is derived from a "higher power" or "inspiration", that is superior to both the
validity of traditional and rational legal authority and followers except this and are willing
to follow this higher or inspired authority, in the place of the authority that they have
hitherto following
3. Rational Authority - It is that form of authority which depends for its legitimacy on
formal rules and established laws of the state, which are usually written down and are
often very complex. the power of the rational legal authority is mentioned in the
constitution.

FORMS OF LEGITIMIZING GOVERNMENT

DEMOCRACY - Government legitimacy is derived from the popular perception that the elected
government abides by democratic priciples in governing, and thus is legelly accountable to it's
people.

COMMUNISM - The legitimacy of a Communist state is derived from having wanna civil war, a
revolution, or from having one on election.

CONSTITUTIONALISM - The political legitimacy of constitutionalism derived from popular belief

and acceptance that the actions of the government are legitimate because they abide the law
codified in the political constitution.
MONARCHY - Establishes the political legitimacy of the rule of the monarch (king or queen);
legitimacy also derives from the popular perception (tradition and custom) and acceptance of
the monarch as the rightful ruler of nation and country.
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SOCIAL SCIENCE (GROUP 1)
- the study of human behavior and society at a variety of levels

CULTURAL DIVERSITY
● Culture plays a major role in our day to day living. It refers to "that complex whole which
encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols,
knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of society".
● While culture has the capacity to bond the members of a society together, it is also a
source of differences that exist between people in society and between societies in the
globe due to diversity in language, dress and traditions, food preference, etc.
● Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting
change. These forces are related to both social structures and natural events, and are
involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within current structures,
which themselves are subject to change.

SOCIAL DIFFERENCES
● Social stratification categorizes groups of people into a hierarchy on the basis of wealth,
status, or power.
● Society has various manifestations of social differences based on unique social
characteristics or qualities like social class, gender, age, educational attainment,
occupation, and the like. In sociology, social differences are usually equated with social
stratification, this describes the relative social position of persons in a given social group,
category, geographical region or another social unit. As a whole, social stratification
describes power relations in the economic context.

POLITICAL IDENTITIES
● The world is visibly divided into different countries. Each country has its own political
system to run its government. A government is a system by which a state or community
is controlled so as to put order.
● Every country in the world is ruled by a system of governance to rule its people or
constituents; in the process people affiliate themselves and define their political identity
as they relate to other peoples of the world from other countries.

ANTHROPOLOGY
● It is the holistic “science of man”. A study of human beings and their ancestors through
time and space in relation to physical character, environmental social relations and
culture. It has two broad fields: Physical Anthropology and Cultural Anthropology.
● Physical Anthropology also called “Biological Anthropology”, it mainly concerns how
humans emerged and evolved through time, a study of the human origin such as
genetics race evolution fossils and primates, where we observe our ancestors and
closest relatives, this is under the study of human paleontology. The second concern is
how human beings differ biologically, this is under the study of human variation.
● On the other hand, Cultural Anthropology mainly concerns the difference of cultures from
time to time, a study of the living people, their religion, social system, language, clothing,
food, beliefs and tradition, and there are three main branches. First, Archeology which
studies past human life and cultures through tangible/material remains. They help to
reconstruct the life and culture of the humans in the prehistoric time. Second, Linguistics,
 which is the study of language, its evolution, connection to other languages and other
societies. Lastly, Ethnology which refers to study of recent or present cultures.

SOCIOLOGY
● Study of relationships among people. It is the study of society, patterns of social
interaction, social life, social change, and social causes and consequences of human
behavior.
● A perspective called the sociological Imagination, an idea of C. Wright Mills in “The
Promise”. “The sociological imagination enables us to grasp the connection between
history and biography within society”. In the sociological imagination, history means what
is happening or the events in time. while biography means the personal experience of
individuals. Both of which can influence one another. History or the events happening
can influence the Biography or personal experience and vice versa.

There are 2 major approaches to examine human society:

1. From a macro-level perspective, and
2. micro-level perspective.

Macro-sociology examines the social structure, the social institutions, social organization and
social groups while the micro-sociology places more emphasis on the role of the individuals in
society. Macro-sociology uses the structural functionalist perspective and the conflict
perspective in examining the larger social structure while micro-sociology uses symbolic
interactions between or among individuals in society.

POLITICAL SCEINCE
● Political science deals with systems of government and the analysis of political activity
and political behavior. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics which is
commonly thought of as the determining of the distribution of power and resources.
Political science is a very big discipline that's why it is divided into subfields

Understanding the focus of Anthropology, Sociology, and Political Science through a

transdisciplinary approach to learning would not be enough, but emphasizing the interlink or the
interplay of the three will be the approach to be used in examining a social issue in society. By
transdisciplinarity, it permits a learning strategy that crosses many disciplinary boundaries to
create a holistic approach to learning and a better appreciation of the learning experience.

•Disciplinary: Epistemologies, assumptions, knowledge, skills, methods within the boundary of

a discipline. eg. Physics, History, Psychology
•Multidisciplinary: Using the knowledge understanding of more than one discipline, eg Physics
and History, Biology and Architecture
•Interdisciplinary: Using the epistemologies/methods of one discipline within another eg
Biochemistry, Ecophilosophy Astrophysics
•Transdisciplinary: Focus on an issue such as pollution, poverty or hunger both within and
beyond discipline boundaries with the possibility of new perspectives.
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GROUP 3

SOCIETY - All societies are organized around conflict, unequal division of labor, and important
decision-making for the whole group. Modern societies are expected to provide protection, law
and order, economic security, and a sense of belonging to their members.
A group is where people have the chance to interact with other people and think of themselves
as belonging together. The group exists as long as individuals are interested in belonging to it.

Muzafer Sherif - a well-known social Psychologist

Common motives and goals

● An accepted division of labor, i.e. roles

● Established status (social rank, dominance) relationships
● Accepted norms and values with reference to matters relevant to the group
● Development of accepted sanctions if and when norms were respected

Groups within Society: Primary

According to Charles Horton Cooley, A primary group is a small social group whose members
share personal and lasting relationships.

Members of the primary spend a great deal of time together, engage in a wide range of activities
and leisure time together and feel that they know one another well.

1. FAMILY - Families spend a significant amount of time together, allowing the members to
support, comfort, and encourage one another. Families are connected for a lifetime and
are significant to each member’s personal growth.
2. FRIENDS - They often spend a lot of time experiencing different adventures together,
chatting about personal stories and simply enjoying each others’ company.
3. LOVE RELATIONSHIPS - A couple in a love relationship is first brought together as a
result of mutual physical and emotional attraction. They spend a significant amount of
time together, whether that involves learning about one another or collectively sharing
new experiences

Groups within Society: Secondary

Secondary groups are large clusters of people who have a mutually shared purpose, often
aiming to complete tasks. They are much less likely to be an influence on an individual’s identity.
It sometimes involves weak emotional and interpersonal ties compared to the primary group.

● SCHOOL/CLASS - A classroom consists of students and a teacher, in which the teacher

is in charge of creating a structure and environment that helps the students to learn.
Much less of being emotional with each other.
● WORKPLACE - The goal of the structured environment in the workplace is to fulfill a
predetermined assignment
● INGROUPS - An ingroup is a group wherein people feel that they are a part of the social
group. It is a social category or group with which you identify strongly.
● OUTGROUPS - It is where a social group with which an individual does not identify to be
a part of it. It is a social category or group with which you do not identify.

Factors that create the identity of an individual in the ingroup or outgroup

Race: Asians vs. Caucasians
Culture: Filipinos vs. Chinese
Gender: Males vs. Females
Age: Teenagers vs. Senior Citizens
Religions: Muslims vs. Infidels
INGROUP FAVORITISM
● Ingroup favoritism refers to the fact that under certain conditions people will prefer and
have an affinity for one’s in-group over the out-group.
INTERGROUP FAVORITISM
● Intergroup aggression wherein groups try to harm another person because they feel that
they are a part of the outgroup.
OUTGROUP DEROGATION
● It is the phenomenon in which an outgroup is perceived as being threatening to the
members of an ingroup.
REFERENCE GROUP
● A reference group is a group to which we compare ourselves. It serves as a standard by
which we measure our behaviors and attitudes. Reference groups are used in order to
guide our behavior and attitudes and help us to identify social norms.
● Reference groups are used in order to evaluate and determine the nature of a given
individual or other group’s characteristics and sociological attributes. It is the group to
which the individual relates or aspires to relate psychologically. It acts as a frame of
reference if an individual wants to be part of a reference group.
●
TYPES OF REFERENCE GROUPS

INFORMAL REFERENCE GROUP

● it is based on the group's shared interests and goals. Members react on a personal level.
Examples are family and friends.
FORMAL REFERENCE GROUP
● Formal reference groups have a specific goal or mission. Examples are employee
unions.
MEMBERSHIP REFERENCE GROUP
● groups that are in agreement with regard to attitudes, norms, and behaviors.
Disclaimant Reference Groups
● groups we do not agree with in regard to attitudes, norms, and behaviors.
Aspirational Reference Groups
● a group an individual doesn’t belong to but aspires to become a part of the future.
Dissociative Reference Groups
● a group an individual doesn’t belong to and disapproves of in regard to attitudes, norms,
and behaviors.

Networks
The social network is a theoretical construct useful in the social sciences to study relationships
between individuals, groups, organizations, or even entire societies. It is a social structure that
exists between actors (individuals and organizations) Social networks were divided into three
levels of analysis: Micro, Meso, and Macro

MICRO

The smallest level of analysis of social networks. It explains that a social network typically starts
with an individual.

The micro level is divided into 4 levels:

Dyadic Level - A social relationship starts with two individuals

Actor Level - A social relationship starts with three individuals
Triadic Level - The smallest unit of analysis in a social network is an individual in their social
setting
Subset Level - May focus on distance and reachability, cliques, cohesive subgroups, or other
group actions or behavior.

Meso

The level analysis begins with a population size that falls between the micro and macro levels.
Organizations- a group of people that has a distributive task for a collective goal
Scale-Free Networks - a scale-free network is a network whose degree distribution follows a
power law, at least asymptotically. In network theory, a scale-free ideal network is a random
network with a degree distribution that unravels the size distribution of social groups.

Macro
It analyzes and generally traces the outcomes of interactions, such as economic or other
resource transfer interactions over a large population.