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Research Methods and Statistics: Prof. (DR.) Anubhuti Sharma
Research Methods and Statistics: Prof. (DR.) Anubhuti Sharma
11. Critical: The process adopted and the procedures used must
be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
Dimensions
of
Research
A- The Purpose of the study
i)Exploration
ii)Descriptive
iii)Explanation
B- Idiographic and Nomothetic
C- The use of research
i)Basic (Fundamental)
ii)Applied research
a)Action research
b)Social impact
c)Evaluation research
D-Time dimension in research
i)Cross sectional research
ii)Longitude research
a)Time series
b)Panel study
c)Cohort analysis
The idiographic approach often focuses on the micro, while the nomothetic
approach is used to understand the macro. One would typically use qualitative
methods like participant observation, interviews, and focus groups to conduct
idiographic research.
Quantitative methods such as large-scale surveys and statistical analysis of
demographic or historical data would be used to conduct nomothetic research.
Research Process
Scientific Research
Identity
Identity refers to the assignment of numbers to the values of each variable in
a data set. Consider a questionnaire that asks for a respondent's gender with
the options Male and Female for instance. The values 1 and 2 can be
assigned to Male and Female respectively.
Arithmetic operations can not be performed on these values because they are
just for identification purposes. This is a characteristic of a nominal scale.
Magnitude
The magnitude is the size of a measurement scale, where numbers (the
identity) have an inherent order from least to highest. They are usually
represented on the scale in ascending or descending order. The position in a
race, for example, is arranged from the 1st, 2nd, 3rd to the least.
This example is measured on an ordinal scale because it has both identity and
magnitude.
Equal intervals
An interval scale is any range of values that have a meaningful
mathematical difference but no true zero. In a race, the 1st position may
complete the race in 20 secs, 2nd position in 20.8 seconds while the 3rd
in 30 seconds.
A variable that has an identity, magnitude, and the equal interval is
measured on an interval scale.
Absolute zero
Absolue zero is a feature that is unique to a ratio scale. It means that there
is an existence of zero on the scale, and is defined by the absence of the
variable being measured (e.g. no qualification, no money, does not
identify as any gender, etc.
Levels of measurement
Research Problem
FORMULATING THE
RESEARCH hypothesis
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
A research hypothesis is a statement of expectation or prediction that
will be tested by research. Before formulating your research
hypothesis, read about the topic of interest to you. From your reading,
which may include articles, books and/or cases, you should gain
sufficient information about your topic that will enable you to narrow
or limit it and express it as a research question. The research question
flows from the topic that you are considering. The research question,
when stated as one sentence, is your Research Hypothesis.
1. Independent variables
An independent variable is a singular characteristic that
the other variables in your experiment cannot change.
Age is an example of an independent variable. Where
someone lives, what they eat or how much they exercise
are not going to change their age. Independent variables
can, however, change other variables. In studies,
researchers often try to find out whether an independent
variable causes other variables to change and in what
way.
2. Dependent variables
A dependent variable relies on and can be changed by
other components. A grade on an exam is an example of a
dependent variable because it depends on factors such as
how much sleep you got and how long you studied.
Independent variables can influence dependent variables,
but dependent variables cannot influence independent
variables. For example, the time you spent studying
(dependent) can affect the grade on your test
(independent) but the grade on your test does not affect
the time you spent studying.
When analyzing relationships between study objects,
researchers often try to determine what makes the
dependent variable change and how.
3. Intervening variables
An intervening variable, sometimes called a mediator variable, is a
theoretical variable the researcher uses to explain a cause or
connection between other study variables—usually dependent and
independent ones. They are associations instead of observations. For
example, if wealth is the independent variable, and a long life span is a
dependent variable, the researcher might hypothesize that access to
quality healthcare is the intervening variable that links wealth and life
span.
4. Moderating variables
A moderating or moderator variable changes the relationship between
dependent and independent variables by strengthening or weakening
the intervening variable's effect. For example, in a study looking at the
relationship between economic status (independent variable) and how
frequently people get physical exams from a doctor (dependent
variable), age is a moderating variable. That relationship might be
weaker in younger individuals and stronger in older individuals.
5. Control variables
Control or controlling variables are characteristics that
are constant and do not change during a study. They
have no effect on other variables. Researchers might
intentionally keep a control variable the same
throughout an experiment to prevent bias.
For example, in an experiment about plant
development, control variables might include the
amounts of fertilizer and water each plant gets. These
amounts are always the same so that they do not affect
the plants' growth.
6. Extraneous variables