PREDICATE CALCULUS OR PREDICATE LOGIC

09/08/2023

Introduction:
1. In mathematics and computer programs, we encounter statements involving
variables such as “x > 10”, “x = y + 5” and “x + y = z”. These statements are
neither true nor false, when the values of the variables are not specified.

2. The statement “x is greater than 10” has 2 parts. The first part, the variable x, is
the subject of the statement. The second part “is greater than 10”, which refers to
a property that the subject can have, is called the predicate.

3. Notation:

Denote “x is greater than 10” by the notation P(x), where P denotes the
predicate “is greater than 10” and x is the variable.
P(x) is called the propositional function at x.

Once a value has been assigned to the variable x, the statement P(x) becomes a
proposition and has a truth value.

For example, P(x)=x>10 the truth values of

P(15)=15 > 10 is T
P(5)=5 > 10 is F .

4. NOTE:
The statements “x = y + 5” and “x + y = z” will be denoted by P(x, y)
and P(x, y, z) respectively.

5. Defn:The logic based on the analysis of predicates in any

statement is called predicate logic or predicate calculus.

Domain or Universe of discourse:

UOD or Domain of a predicate variable is the collection of all possible
values that the variable may take.

(ie):Many mathematical statements assert that a property is true for all values of a
variable in a particular domain, called the universe of discourse. Such a statement is
expressed using a universal quantification. The universal quantification
of P(x) is the statement.
QUANTIFIERS

1. UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER
2. EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER

UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER

P(x) is true for all values of x in the There exists at least one x (or an x) such
universe of discourse that P(x) is true

Notation: (x)P(x) or ∀xP(x) Notation: ∃ xP(x).

Read: “ for all x, P(x)” or “ for every x, Read: “ For some x, P(x) ”
P(x)”

The symbol ∀ is called the universal The symbol ∃ is called the existential
quantifier quantifier

Eg:If P(x) = x2 <10 , where the universe
consists of the positive integers 1,
2, 3 and 4, then ∀ x P(x) = P(1) Ʌ P(2) Ʌ
P(3) Ʌ P(4) .
the truth value of ∀x P(x) = T Ʌ T Ʌ T Ʌ F
= F.
Eg: When P(x) = x2 > 10 , where the
universe of discourse consists of the
positive integers not exceeding 4, then the
truth value of ∃ xP(x) is T,
since P(1) v P(2) v P(3) v P(4) is true as
P(4) is true

NEGATION OF A QUANTIFIED EXPRESSION:

Let P(x) is the statement “x has studied computer programming” .

∀xP(x)= every student (in the class) has studied computer programming

The negation of this statement is “There is a student in the class who has not studied
computer programming”.
Symbolically: ∃ P(x).

Thus , ~ ∀(x)P(x) = ∃ (x)~P(x).

Similarly, ∃ xP(x) means that “there is a student in the class who has studied
computer programming . The negation of this statement is “Every student in
this class has not studied computer programming”, which is denoted by
∀ x ~P(x).

Thus, ~ ∃ (x)P(x) =∀(x)~P(x).

FREE AND BOUND VARIABLES

(1) Bound variable: When a quantifier is used on a variable x or when we have to

assign a value to this variable to get a proposition, the occurrence of the variable
is said to be bound or the variable is said to be a bound variable.
(2) An occurrence of a variable that is not bound by a quantifier or that is set equal to
a particular value is said to be free.
(3) The part of the logical expression or predicate formula to which a quantifier is
applied is called the scope of the quantifier.
Examples:

VALID FORMULAS AND EQUIVALENCES

Let A and B be any two predicate formulas defined over a common universe of
discourse E. When each of the variables appearing in A and B is replaced by
any element (object name) of the universe E, if the resulting statements have
the same truth values, then A and B are said to be equivalent to each other over
E and denoted as A ≡ B or A ↔ B over E.
 INFERENCE THEORY OF PREDICATE CALCULUS

1. Three basic rules Rule P, Rule T and Rule CP of inference used in statement
calculus can also be used in predicate calculus.

2. The indirect method can also be used in predicate calculus.

3. We need some additional rules for predicate calculus such as

➢ Rule US
➢ Rule ES
(Used to eliminate quantifiers (∀ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∃) )
➢ Rule UG
➢ Rule EG
(Used to include quantifiers (∀ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∃) )

Note:
• US stands for Universal Specification
• UG stands for Universal Generalization
• ES stands for Existential Specification
• EG stands for Existential Generalization
Problem 1:
Let us consider the following argument.

All humans are Mortal

Socrates is a human
Therefore Socrates is a mortal.
Let us use the notations,
H(x) : x is a human
M(x): x is a mortal
s: Socrates
\
Problem 3:

Show, by indirect method of proof, that

Exercise:
Show that the conclusion

follows from the premises