001 2011 4 B

# 2006 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Revised edition 2010
Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
INS1501/1/2011±2014
98646664
3B2
Karin Mod style

CONTENTS
Study unit Page

INTRODUCTION (viii)
PART A 1
BACKGROUND 1
Introduction 2
1 CONTEXT FOR STUDYING INFORMATION SCIENCE 3
1.1 The subject 4

1.2 Other people 4
1.3 Other objects 5
1.4 Systems 5
1.5 Other elements 6
2 INFORMATION IN THE WORLD 8
2.1 Direct experience 8

2.2 Indirect experience 9
Definitions 10
Self-assessment 11
PART B 13
THE CONCEPT OF INFORMATION
Introduction 15
3 THE INFORMATION PHENOMENON 16
3.1 Meanings of the concept of information 17

3.1.1 Information-as-process 18
3.1.2 Information-as-knowledge 18
3.1.3 Information-as-thing 19
3.2 Information users and use 22
3.2.1 The term `ùser'' 22
3.2.2 The user and the information cycle 22
4 CENTRAL CONCEPTS 24
4.1 Percepts 25
4.2 Knowledge 25
4.3 Data 26
4.4 Relationship between percepts and data 27
4.5 Meaning 28
4.6 Information 29
4.7 The knowledge-information relationship 30
4.8 Communication 32
4.9 Other related concepts 33
4.10 The knowledge spectrum 34
INS1501/1/2011±2014 (iii)
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5 TYPES OF INFORMATION 38
5.1 Genetic information 38

5.2 Phenomenological information 39
5.3 Transmitted information 40
5.4 Recorded information 41
5.5 Information-as-process 42
5.6 Information-as-knowledge 43
5.7 Machine information 44
Definitions 45
Self-assessment 47
PART C 49
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF STORAGE, RETRIEVAL AND TRANSFER
OF INFORMATION
Introduction 51
6 IMPORTANT MEANS DEVELOPED FOR STORING, RETRIEVING

AND TRANSFERRING INFORMATION 52
6.1 Language 52
6.2 Invention of writing 54
6.2.1 What makes a writing system successful? 54
6.2.2 Why did writing systems develop? 54
6.2.3 Invention of the alphabet 54
6.3 Written documents 55
6.3.1 Recording medium 55
6.3.2 Codex 55
6.3.3 Manuscripts 55
6.4 Invention of printing 56
6.4.1 First information explosion 56
6.4.2 Effects of printing 56
6.4.3 The struggle to control print: the power of information 57
6.4.4 Development of a commercial infrastructure 57
6.5 Mass media 57
6.6 Computers 59
6.7 Convergence of information technologies 59
6.7.1 The ``global village'' 60
6.7.2 New forms of communication technology 60
Definitions 61
Self-assessment 61
PART D 63
INFORMATION SCIENCE
Introduction 65
7 INFORMATION SCIENCE AS A DISCIPLINE 66
7.1 Information Science and information 66
(iv)
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7.1.1 The objective of Information Science 66
7.1.2 What do we study in Information Science? 66
7.1.3 The information cycle 66
7.2 Definitions of Information Science 67
7.3 Distinctive characteristics of Information Science 68
7.4 Origins and development as a discipline 69
7.4.1 Development of Information Science as a discipline 69
7.4.1.1 A history of storage and retrieval of information 70
7.4.1.2 Information Science as a specialised discipline 71
7.4.2 Trends and events in emergence of Information Science 72
8 INFORMATION SCIENCE AS A PROFESSION 74
8.1 Library Science and Information Science 74
8.1.1 The main function of Applied Information Science 74
8.1.2 Librarianship 74
8.1.3 Similarities and differences between Library Science and Information
Science 74
8.1.4 Applied Information Science 75
8.1.5 Information Science 75
8.2 The Information Science profession 76
8.3 The lifecycle of information 77
9 STUDY AREAS OF INTEREST TO INFORMATION SCIENCE 79
9.1 Central problem areas in Information Science 79
9.2 Criteria for Information Science 80
9.3 Theoretical approaches to information 81
9.4 The research process 82
10 UNIVERSE OF KNOWLEDGE 84
10.1 Infrastructure of the universe of knowledge 84
10.1.1 Humanities 84
10.1.2 Social sciences 84
10.1.3 Natural sciences and technology 85
10.2 The DDC system 85
10.3 Affiliated disciplines 86
10.3.1 Philosophy 87
10.3.2 Communication Science 87
10.3.3 Linguistics 88
10.3.4 Semiotics 88
10.3.5 Behavioural sciences 89
10.3.6 Systems Theory 89
10.3.7 Mathematics 89
10.3.8 Computer science 90
10.3.9 Artificial Intelligence 90
Definitions 91
Self-assessment 93
INS1501/1 (v)
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PART E 95
INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE AND INFORMATION POLICY
Introduction 97
11 THE INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE 98
11.1 Information systems 98
11.2 Infrastructure 98
11.3 Nature of the information infrastructure 99
12 COMPONENTS OF THE INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE 101
12.1 Publishers 101
12.2 The distribution network 101
12.3 Broadcasting 102
12.4 Information and library services 102
12.5 Data industry 103
12.6 Telecommunication 103
12.7 Information technology 103
12.8 Internet 104
12.9 Research 104
12.10 Information professionals 104
13 INFORMATION POLICY 106
13.1 What is a policy? 106
13.2 Purpose and relevance of an information policy 106
13.3 Information as a national resource 106
13.4 Free flow of information 107
13.5 Information ethics 108
Definitions 110
Self-assessment 110
PART F 113
INFORMATION AND SOCIETY
Introduction 115
14 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INFORMATION AND SOCIETY 116
14.1 Role of information in society 116
14.2 Humans and information 118
14.3 Information and worldview 120
14.4 Development of the information era 120
15 INFORMATION SOCIETY 123
15.1 Definitions of `ìnformation society'' 123
15.2 Three stages of the information society 124
15.3 Characteristics of the information society 127
15.4 Implications for a developing country 129
15.4.1 Developing countries and the information society 129
(vi)
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15.4.2 South Africa and the information society 130
15.5 Significance of the information society 130
16 INFORMATION LITERACY 133
16.1 Definitions of `ìnformation literacy'' 133

16.2 The literacy continuum 134
16.2.1 Preliteracy 134
16.2.2 Secondary orality 135
16.2.3 Illiteracy 135
16.2.4 Literacy 135
16.2.5 Library skills 137
16.2.6 Computer skills 137
16.2.7 Information literacy 138
16.3 Hierarchies of human and information needs 140
16.4 Lifelong learning and continuing education 142
Definitions 142
Self-assessment 143
APPENDIX A Additional information 144
APPENDIX B Mind map instructions 155
BIBLIOGRAPHY 157
INS1501/1 (vii)
INTRODUCTION
Module INS1501
Welcome to Module INS1501, Introduction to information science. Due to time
constraints for studying this module, we can give only an overall view of the subject and
certainly will not be able to discuss all the nuances of contemporary information
science. Therefore we would like to encourage you to pursue the particular topics that
interest you when you go on to study more advanced and specialised Information
Science courses, and to make good use of the many books and articles available on this
field of study.
The information covered in this study guide is introductory and obviously cannot
include everything you need to know. You will have to do more than merely study the
given information you will need to supplement and create your own study material right
throughout your studies. This means that you will not simply receive knowledge: instead
you will be learning from your own experience and thinking by creating knowledge as
well.
It is essential for you to start building your own information science glossary from first-
level studies onward and to be practically involved in information-related environments
from the start.
Structure of the study guide:
. The focus on central concepts is important because you need to understand and be
able to apply the correct concept or concepts where applicable within the discipline
of information science, as well as within the context of the information professions in
general.
. Activities are included in most of the study units and self-assessment (evaluation)
questions are included at the end of each main part. Some activities will be more
challenging than others, which will give you a chance to determine the complexity of
your studies.
. Appendix A contains additional information that may enhance your understanding of

certain matters. Appendix B has instructions on how to design your own mind maps.
. We strongly recommend further reading to broaden your insight into the various
matters under discussion.
. At times you will find an instruction to ``see or read for example a certain author or
authors'' in the text. These instructions are optional and it remains your choice
whether you read further on certain topics.
The structure of the main parts of the study guide are organised according to the
following diagram:
(viii)
INTRODUCTION
TO
INFORMATION
SCIENCE
PART A PART B PART C PART D PART E PART F

BACKGROUND THE CONCEPT HISTORICAL INFORMATION INFORMATION INFORMATION
OF OVERVIEW SCIENCE INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIETY
INFORMATION OF STORAGE, & INFORMATION
RETRIEVAL & POLICY
TRANSFER OF
INFORMATION
Once you have worked through the study material, activities and self-assessments, you
should be able to fulfil the outcomes. The first-level modules as a whole form the first
building block or step on which the rest of the levels build. It is therefore important not
to discard your first-level study material after passing the examinations.
Start collecting reading material on the various topics, especially those that interest you;
and remember to keep on adding to your growing glossary as your studies progress.
Keeping your glossary up to date will be a very good way not only of becoming familiar
with the meanings of concepts that you come across all the time, but also of building up
your own list of subject-related terminology (whether directly or indirectly related to the
discipline).
The purpose and outcomes of Module INS1501

The purpose of this module
is to
. give you insight into the theoretical framework
of information science
. introduce you to core concepts necessary for an

evaluative understanding of the information
phenomenon and the knowledge universe
. help you to identify and explain the nature and

components of the information infrastructure
. supply you with the background to assess the

importance of information policies and
information literacy in the context of a
developing country
. enable you to connect these matters with the

significance and implications of an information
society and social responsibility
INS1501/1 (ix)
Outcomes of this module
After studying this module you
will be able to
. discuss the nature and development of
information science as a scientific field of
study and define its key concepts
. define and put into context the core concepts

necessary for discussing the information
phenomenon
. identify and explain the nature and components

of the information infrastructure, and evaluate
the importance of information
. identify the characteristics of an information

society and develop an understanding of its
significance in a social context
. define information literacy and explain its

development and changes
Icons
b
The following icons are used in the study guide to indicate specific functions:
ACTIVITY: This icon indicates that you are required to complete certain activities
that will assist you with your studies.
j SELF-ASSESSMENT: If you answer the self-evaluation questions indicated by this

icon, you will be able to assess the degree of success you
have achieved in mastering the study material.
e DEFINITION: This icon indicates a definition for a specific term. This is not done for
all key terms because you are expected to find definitions on your
own as part of the process of building your own glossary.
(x)
PART A
Background
Contents
PART A BACKGROUND
Introduction
STUDY UNIT 1 CONTEXT FOR STUDYING INFORMATION SCIENCE
1.1 The subject
1.2 Other people
1.3 Other objects
1.4 Systems
1.5 Other elements
STUDY UNIT 2 INFORMATION IN THE WORLD

2.1 Direct experience
2.2 Indirect experience
Definitions
Self-assessment
INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of Part A is to give you general background on the context for
studying Information Science (Study Unit 1), as well as information in the world (Study
Unit 2), as a frame of reference for studying Information Science.
In Study Unit 1 we look at the subject or academic discipline that formally studies
information, most often called Information Science. Although all subjects or disciplines
are composed of elements called `ìnformation'', Information Science is the only one that
does not simply deal with information but studies information itself. It is in fact the
nucleus of the subject field and is not treated as a marginal phenomenon of study. Of
course, Information Science cannot confine itself to information and nothing else. It is
impossible to understand anything in isolation, because to begin to understand any
phenomenon we also need to place it in context (that is, correlate it with other items).
Study Unit 2 looks at information in the world from the perspective of a sensory
experience of information. Fourteen key points are used as examples of our direct and
indirect experience of information.
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STUDY UNIT 1
Context for studying information
science
Once you have worked through this study unit you should be able to explain in an
introductory way what we mean by the field of study called Information Science, as well
as explain its frame of reference. Information science is in part concerned with indicating
the role and place of information in society and the world. To accomplish this, the
subject field of information science focuses mainly on three variables, namely human
beings, information and communication. These three variables are closely related in the
sense that people cannot exist successfully without communication, and that which is
communicated is information.
Information science is therefore the science that studies the human being and the way
he or she communicates information within the milieu of the information phenomenon.

Therefore this includes a focus on the various problems that people experience in the
communication of information and that influence them in their decision making,
problem solving and task performance. People are involved in these processes not only
as creators of information, but also as direct or indirect communicators of this

information to other humans as information users.
We can make three basic deductions:
(1) A person depends on information for recreation, task performance, decisionmaking
and problem solving.
(2) For these purposes, people generate their own information (according to their own
frame of reference, level of knowledge and experience) and receive information
directly from other people or indirectly from various information sources.
(3) Certain problems arise when we collect, repackage* and use this information. These
problems include too much information, irrelevant information, dated information,
duplicated information, language problems, information that is not correctly
organised, and the unsystematic nature of information. The result of these problems
is that information cannot be effectively communicated, which can in turn result in
people not being able to do their work properly. [* to repackage is to package a
b
product in a new or different container or way, a new design or image.]
ACTIVITY 1
(a) Think of practical examples relating to the above context.

(b) Create a schematic representation of the communication of information.
(c) How do you think information science differs from other subjects or disciplines
that are also concerned with information?
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It is the task of the information scientist to look at these problems in a scientific manner
and to solve them in order to give the information user access
. to the right information
. at the right time
. in the right package
. for the right person
. so that the right decision can be made
A frame of reference is the connection or context in which discussions take place. It is

also the background against which phenomena are viewed. This is especially important
in first-level studies. To determine the frame of reference, we need to clarify basic
assumptions or generalisations made for the sake of finding the main things to discuss
among a myriad of details. There are always exceptions when we generalise, but that
matter is for later levels of study where critical evaluation becomes paramount.
Information Science is accepted as a science against the background of a standardised
view of science. This implies a generally accepted worldview or approach to reality. We
use the following elements to actualise this image of the world the subject, other people
and other objects, as well as systems, and phenomenology, empiricism, and atomism.
They are relevant to Study Unit 2, which deals with the topic of information in the world.
The following four elements will be explained: the subject, other people, other objects,
and systems. Phenomenology, empiricism and atomism will also briefly be referred to
under other elements.
1.1 THE SUBJECT
. A living, conscious and functioning person who is aware of being in the world is
called a subject.
. The subject is aware of things happening in his or her mind and body. Only the
subject has direct access to private inner awareness because no one else can know
directly what another person feels or thinks.
. For example, at most you can only deduce indirectly from your friend's action what he
or she may be going to do (e.g. if you see him or her packing a suitcase you might
guess that he or she is going on holiday, or if you hear him or her groaning that he or
she is in pain).
. You cannot therefore directly experience your friend's (the subject's) thoughts or
pain.
1.2 OTHER PEOPLE
. Our worldview tells us two things: (1) as a subject I know more about myself than
about other people and (2) other people exist and they are like me in certain ways.
. We become aware of other people through our senses we observe their external
characteristics directly (e.g. whether they are male or female, tall or short) and we
make deductions about what goes on inside them based on the assumption that they
are similar to us. We make these deductions on the grounds of their behaviour (e.g.
based on what they do and do not do, we may decide they are lazy, or clever,
dishonest or honest).
4
. We call this approach the behaviourist approach. Even though it is not always a
reliable way of acquiring knowledge, it is in general use. Its results are usually
accepted because in our everyday life, other methods are difficult to apply in practice.
(Note: In this context we may refer to the difference between scholarly or scientific
knowledge and scientifically untested knowledge that is sometimes referred to as ``folk''
knowledge.)
1.3 OTHER OBJECTS
. Besides other people, the subject has sensory awareness of other things in the world
(we use ``world'' as a comprehensive name for everything we experience through the
senses and of which we are aware).
. The nonhuman world, consisting of living objects such as plants and animals as well
asinanimate objects (water, mountains, rivers, earth, etc), exists independently of
human beings and is generally referred to as the world of nature.
. All things that are external to the subject are called objects because the subject can
observe objects through the senses. This includes products of culture objects created
by people by transforming natural resources (e.g. making a chair out of wood from a
tree or making machinery from minerals such as iron).
. These products are things that people make to enable them to adapt to their
environment.
Therefore people have experience of themselves and of other objects in their world, and
they know some of these objects better than others. If you encounter something
unfamiliar or something you do not understand, you will typically compare or equate it
with something with which you are familiar. We call this method reductionism, for
example when we try to explain the functions of something, we might compare the
mechanics of the universe to the workings of a watch, or compare the human eye to a
camera, or even compare the human brain to the electronic computer. Therefore we
compare something that in many respects remains a mystery to us to something that is
thoroughly understood by experts and that we may understand more easily.
This brings us to an important problem with reductionism, namely that, even though the
objects in an analogy are similar in some respects, there are still differences in other
respects. The reason is simply that they are different objects to begin with and not the
same thing. An analogy has the benefit of illuminating similarities in objects, but the
moment we try to equate the ways in which things differ, the results may mislead us into
thinking that something complex can be reduced to something simple and can therefore
be fully understood.
Similarities between components of objects are at best superficial. Superficial

comparison does not allow for actual differences. In our search to find out the nature of
a particular object, the differences between objects are as important to us as the
similarities.
1.4 SYSTEMS
. The world consists of more than objects. There are also events, which comprise
processes and they have two main dimensions:
INS1501/1 5
(1) They have a beginning and an end that is the temporal dimension (relating to
time).
(2) They have a certain position or locality that is the spatial dimension(relating to
three-dimensional space).
. Objects must exist before events can take place, for example two things, a boy and a
ball, are necessary before the event of ``the boy kicks the ball'' can take place.
. Objects in the world exist in particularrelationships with one another. Events or

processes occur when objects influence one another and interaction takes place.
Objects that influence one another are collectively called a system. A system consists
of objects in mutual relationships.
. The environment within which a system functions could also influence the system.
The study of system functioning is called operations research.
. The systems approach plays a large role in the prevailing view of reality of many
academics and scientists. People are also systems. An example is the interaction of
objects such as limbs and muscles that enables an event such as walking to take
place.
. Examples of information systems are the human nervous system and digestive system,
as well as archives, libraries and museums.
1.5 OTHER ELEMENTS
We will only very briefly refer to phenomenology, empiricism and atomism. We are
interested in the influence of the terminology from these approaches on our vocabulary
and research methodologies, especially in the human and social sciences.
. Phenomenology is the view that people do not know objects as such (things in
themselves) but only phenomena or appearances as observed through the senses. We
cannot experience a nonhuman object outside our range of perception. The
information phenomenon that we deal with in information science involves
information as it occurs within people's sensory perception.
. Empiricism has both behaviourism and phenomenology affiliated to it. According to

the empiricist approach, knowledge is based on sensory perception. A sense datum
(plural: sense data) is a unit of perception. A sense datum is regarded as a given in our
perception, and what people perceive of it is called a sensation. Our knowledge of
objects on earth and in space is based on the sense data that we receive about them.
Metaphysical objects are those outside our empirical,sensory or physical reality, and
they do not enter the subject's sensory perception (e.g. angels). The implication is
that the subject has no sense data about them and thus no knowledge about them,
although the subject may believe that they do exist.
. Atomism is part of an attempt to understand ourselves and the world through the
breaking up of objects into smaller units. This method is known as analysis(and the
act of combining these units is called synthesis). For example, matter is composed of
atoms that can be subdivided even further; what humans perceive through the senses
is broken into units called sense data or percepts; sensory sensations are carried by
impulses; auditory (hearing) information is divided into individual sounds which can
be represented by letters and combined to form words and sentences.
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INS1501/1 7
STUDY UNIT 2
Information in the world
Information science will ideally make you proficient in solving logistical problems
experienced in the handling of information, not only on a personal level, but also on an
organisational level. For this to be effective we first have to understand how human
beings directly and indirectly experience information in their world. The main outcome
of this study unit is that you will be able to identify and describe the broad ways in
which human beings experience information, and to relate the sensory view to the
information phenomenon.
This study unit explains only one view of experiencing information, namely the sensory
view. According to this view, information is like a stream of impulses that impact on our
senses and are organised in our brains. This physical basis of experiencing information is
a useful place to begin a study of the information phenomenon, which you will
encounter in Part B.
We can identify 14 main points that describe how we experience information. These 14
points are grouped according to the two broad ways of experiencing information,
namely through direct or indirect experiences.
2.1 DIRECT EXPERIENCE
(1) Direct experience by way of the senses. Humans have always obtained information
from their environment by way of the senses: by sight, hearing, smell, taste and
touch (feeling and sensation). This is referred to as information based on direct

experience. We also get information about our internal condition (feelings of thirst,
or pain) and physical condition through our senses, which is called the
somatosensory ability (sensory stimuli coming from the skin and internal organs
and the perception of these stimuli).
(2) Sensory experience. We become informed on the basis of sensory experience, and
the change that information brings about in our minds is called knowledge.
(3) Meaning/content. We often act on the basis of knowledge, and therefore on the
information that is received via the senses. The meaning/content of knowledge and
information can also be called a message. Therefore a message in your mind can be
called ``knowledge''.
(4) People cannot function without knowledge. We cannot exist without our senses
and the information that is conveyed to the brain via these senses. This dependence
enforces the idea that information is an essential part of being human.
(5) Collective memory. People have, from the earliest times, built up knowledge in their
collective memory based on direct experience. In time it became necessary to store
this knowledge outside people's minds and this process is known as recording.
8
(6) Record of information. Early examples, such as the clay tablet and papyrus scroll,
contain writing and are called records of information. Two elements of a record are
(a) the information known as the message or content and

(b) the conveyor of the information or message, called the medium.
(7) Functions of records of information(e.g. books). People are no longer dependent
on unreliable memories. Recorded knowledge, and therefore also information,
continue to exist even though those who originally possessed it may no longer be
alive.
This brings us to information based on indirect experience.
2.2 INDIRECT EXPERIENCE
(1) Indirect experience through a recorded message.We can observe a record such as a
book through the senses as directly as we would observe a tree. The message in the
book, though, is a record of the writer's knowledge. The reader can, through the
record, get an idea of what the author knew or imagined. Medium(plural: media)
literally means in the middle, something that comes between the reader and direct
sensory experience. The reader does not have direct experience of an event
recounted by an author/writer, but only an indirect experience through the recorded

message (e.g. in books or online journal articles).
(2) Information based on indirect experience. In much earlier times, information derived
directly from nature played a decisive role in people's lives. This changed as time
progressed and information based on indirect experience became increasingly
important. Today many records are available in an increasing array of formats
(books, newspapers, magazines, photographs, sound recordings, films, etc), which
are also becoming increasingly integrated. The growing dependence on indirect
experience means that direct experience seems to provide a decreasing percentage
of the source of information. This changed balance of dependence between direct

and indirect experience differs in developing and developed countries. A major
example of indirect or mediated (media-based) experience is the information
broadcast by radio and television.
(3) Natural/not human-made and human-made information. Direct and indirect

information or experience can also be referred to as natural or not human-made as
opposed to human-made information. Any knowledge based on observation can be
faulty, for example mistaking a stick for a snake (natural information), but human-
made information can lead to even greater faulty knowledge. Reading a text is a far
more complex activity than looking at a tree, and an author or writer may mislead
the reader, either deliberately (disinform) or unintentionally (misinform).
(4) Human-made information based on not human-made information. Human-made

information, such as when you write ``The rose is red,'' is based on information that
is not really all human-made you saw an object called a rose and it seemed red to
you before you wrote that the rose is red (of course, how we know what the colour
``red'' looks like is learnt).
(5) The use of imagination. You can also use your imagination and write, ``The rose is
black.'' If we accept that black roses do not exist naturally, you still based your
statement on sensory experience that made the statement possible. The reason is
that you have learnt through the senses about what is called a rose and also what
INS1501/1 9
black things look like. Combining these elements in an imaginative way, you came
up with your statement.
(6) The contribution of the brain. Now we can see that, besides the information that
reaches the mind via the senses, the brain is able to make combinations that are not
encountered in observable reality. The mind is capable of more than merely

combining elements we can decide on the grounds of sensory observation whether
someone who wrote, did or said something, is honest/dishonest, stupid/clever,
reasonable/unreasonable, etc.
(7) The subject-object model and the mind-body model. Finally, the models used are
the subject-object model and the mind-body model. The subject is the person who
observes and thinks, that is who observes the sensory reality from his or her point of
body, and the senses are part of the

view. A quality that the subject consists of is the
body. Another characteristic of the subject is the mind the mind cannot exist and
function without physical components such as the brain and the senses. Usually,
the subject is equated with the mind, and objects are seen as things outside the
mind of the subject, i.e. the subject's body, other people, and other animate (e.g.
animals, insects) and inanimate (e.g. rocks, chair) things in the environment.
( Note: You are welcome to read Farradane 1979 and 1980 for more detail.)
Thus, initially the only information to which people had access was based on direct
sensory experience. Words (spoken language) came later; written language, with its
resultant records of information and therefore indirect sensory experience, came even
b
later.
ACTIVITY 2
(a) What are the broad ways in which we experience information?

(b) List a few examples for each way as identified in the previous question.
(c) Identify sources of information other than the senses.
e DEFINITIONS
context: text surrounding a word or passage that help to explain its full meaning;
surrounding conditions which are the circumstances or events that form the
environment within which something exists or takes place; data transfer structure [in
its new high-technology sense] a data structure used to transfer electronic data to and
from a business management system.
empiricism: the belief that knowledge is based on sensory perception; the theory or
philosophy that states that knowledge can only be gained through experience,
experiment and observation, thus experiment as a basis for knowledge.
phenomenology: study of phenomena in philosophy it is the science or study of

phenomena, things as they are perceived, as opposed to the study of being, the nature
of things as they are; philosophical investigation of experience investigation and
description of conscious experience in all its varieties without reference to the
question whether that which is experienced is objectively real or not.
rationalism: the theory that an individual's actions and beliefs should be based on
reason (logic, sensible, form opinions, able to think, make judgements) rather than on
intuition or the teaching of others.
10
system: a set of interconnected or interrelated parts forming a complex whole; parts
functioning as a unit (e.g. mechanical, electronic, electrical parts); a way of working; a
method or arrangement of organisation or classification. (e.g. filing system, Capitalist
system); the mind or body is regarded as a set of interconnected parts forming a
system; society as system and the network of institutions that control it; and
interrelated body of theories or doctrines, a connected view of some branch of
knowledge.
j SELF-ASSESSMENT
(a) Look up the word rationalism in a dictionary and compare it with empiricism as a
different way of gaining knowledge.
(b) List all the terms that you think characterise the empirical frame of reference for
studying information science.
(c) Look up the words phenomenology, empiricism and atomism, and relate them to
how we perceive, experience and know our world and ourselves.
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PART B
The concept of information
Contents
PART B THE CONCEPT OF INFORMATION

Introduction
STUDY UNIT 3 THE INFORMATION PHENOMENON
3.1 Meanings of the concept of information
3.1.1 Information-as-process
3.1.2 Information-as-knowledge
3.1.3 Information-as-thing
3.2 Information users and use
3.2.1 The term `ùser''
3.2.2 The user and the information cycle
STUDY UNIT 4 CENTRAL CONCEPTS

4.1 Percepts
4.2 Knowledge
4.3 Data
4.4 Relationship between percepts and data
4.5 Meaning
4.6 Information
4.7 The knowledge-information relationship
4.8 Communication
4.9 Other related concepts
4.10 The knowledge spectrum
STUDY UNIT 5 TYPES OF INFORMATION
5.1 Genetic information
5.2 Phenomenological information
5.3 Transmitted information
5.4 Recorded information
5.5 Information-as-process
5.6 Information-as-knowledge
5.7 Machine information
Definitions
Self-assessment
14
INTRODUCTION
Part B introduces information as a concept. In considering its various, and often very
different, meanings, as well as the information phenomenon, you will recognise in the
definitional approaches many of the ways that people experience information. A good
exercise is to identify these ways whenever you come across them.
When you have worked through Part B you should be able to discuss some of the
meanings of information, list some of the meanings that the concept of information can
have, and identify some of the contexts in which the concept information is used.
In Study Unit 3, we discuss the main contexts and meanings of the concept of
information as part of the information phenomenon. The concept of information is used
in a wide variety of contexts and with a variety of meanings in everyday speech, and is
looked at in relation to the information user and the information cycle.
Study Unit 4 deals specifically with central concepts and their definitions, distinctions
and relations. Many concepts you come across will be defined and discussed, especially
the central concepts of percept, knowledge, data, meaning, information, and
communication.
Study Unit 5 expands on Study Units 3 and 4 by focussing specifically on the different
types of information.
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STUDY UNIT 3
The information phenomenon
When we talk about the information phenomenon (something that is perceived) we

refer to thephysical or material dimension of information. Always remember, however,
that information has value because of its capacity to carry meaning . The volume of
information has increased so rapidly over the past 60 years that more and more expertise
is required to use it effectively. It is the information phenomenon with which we as
information scientists are primarily concerned.
The increased focus on the material dimension of information and the availability of
better technological aids for the creation, processing and distribution of information do
not necessarily mean that people are better informed. The available documents and
information must be utilised before information can be used and turned into knowledge.
Information scientists study ways of helping people to use information effectively.
We see, then, that there are many different ways in which the concept of information
can be used, each with a different meaning. We have tried to group these meanings into
three main categories:information-as-process, information-as-knowledge and
information-as-thing. At this point, do not try to narrow down the meaning beyond
these categories, but take note of the range of meanings that this concept can have. The
meanings will become clear as you work through the study material.
In this study unit therefore, we focus specifically on the information phenomenon, that
is, information as it exists in society today. We do not merely research and study the
information phenomenon to acquire pure knowledge, but ultimately do so with a view
to its professional application in practice. The realm of information therefore includes all
theoretical and practical elements. This realm would then also include that of archives,
libraries, museums, and information and record management (you will come across
these as you progress through the curriculum of your chosen degree). It includes all
aspects and forms of the information phenomenon, thus embracing much more than the
information infrastructure. The information phenomenon is one of the defining features
of the world today. The creation, packaging and use of information have increased at
such a pace over recent years that it is often referred to as an information explosion.
We introduce you to key concepts in the field of information science, such as
knowledge, communication and information, and the many meanings of the concept of
information. We suggest some of the ways of defining this concept that are relevant to
the field of information science. The exponential increase in information seems to have
resulted in a new type of social system the information society. The information society
differs significantly from previous societies and has certain characteristics that
distinguish it from the others. (In Part F we discuss these characteristics as well as the
relevance of the information society, the literacy continuum and the different levels of
literacy that have developed.) From the earliest times, people have made use of
information to help them survive. As different technologies were developed, such as the
alphabet and writing, new skills evolved so that people could gain the maximum benefit
from these technologies. Today we need a wide range of skills, and someone who
commands all these skills is described as information literate.
16
It should be clear to you by now that the main concern remains information as well as
the use of the concept of information. By virtue of being human, we are necessarily
concerned with information. Information has always been an essential part of our
environment. You will also note in the study unit on central concepts that information
itself relates to many different concepts. Information is a phenomenon and is therefore
something that people experience. Since information relates to several concepts,
information is found in more, and sometimes less, concrete forms (read for example
Boulding 1956 and Buckland 1991).
3.1 MEANINGS OF THE CONCEPT OF INFORMATION
This module as a whole is concerned with information, and this paragraph aims to
identify what is understood under information as a concept.
The word `ìnformation'' is derived from the Latin in, which means `ìn or inside'',
and formere, meaning ``shape or form''. Etymologically and literally ``to inform''
means to give form to something.
A person's image of the world and outlook on life can be changed by information
reaching the brain. Information gives form to the human image of reality in this sense. In
other words, if you do not know something, it cannot give form to or influence your
knowledge, thoughts or opinions.
First we have public or social information that can be exposed and, secondly we can
distinguish private and secret information (often referred to as `ìntelligence'' in a
security context).
Information science is chiefly concerned with human users of information. So here we

restrict information to human beings, and we focus on utilising (to make use of, find a
practical or effective use) information for divergent (different, separate) purposes. In this
context, information is most often described as an input that human beings can process
intellectually and/or cognitively, with a view to possible behaviour.
Examples of such behaviour are recreation, research, decision making, education,
innovation and development. In order to give you an idea of the range of meanings that
b
the concept of information can have, you should do the activity below.
ACTIVITY 3
Can you define `ìnformation'' in such a way that all the following statements would
refer to the same concept?
(1) Information is facts.
(2) Information is data that have been organised to convey meaning.
(3) Information is money.
(4) Information reinforces what I already know.
(5) Information helps me come to a decision when I am uncertain.
(6) Information can change my beliefs and expectations.
(7) When I study or read informative books it changes my view of the world.
(8) Books contain information.
INS1501/1 17
The statements in Activity 3 indicate the range of meanings that the concept of
information can have. Although some of them are similar, it is impossible to formulate a
definition that will cover all these meanings. In this study unit we will take a closer look
at some of the meanings.
There are many different definitions of information. We will not restrict ourselves to only
one, but instead show how to understand the concept of information by indicating some
of the ways in which it is used. The definitions may not be completely satisfactory, and
their uses may often be indistinct, but our discussion will help you identify, sort and
label useful concepts. You should then be able to form some idea of the range of
meanings that you will encounter in your reading on the subject.
Buckland (1991:3) suggests that there are three principal uses of the word information:
information-as-process, information-as-knowledge and information-as-thing (compare

to Study Unit 5).
3.1.1 Information-as-process
. Information in the sense of information-as-process is often used as a synonym for
communication. When one person is communicating with another, the person

communicating the data is transferring his or her understanding of the data (together
with the actual data) to the other person (the recipient). When the data have been
received and understood the person becomes informed.
. Being informed is therefore the result of communication or information transfer. What
a person knows changes when she or he is informed. Once the new information is
fitted into the person's existing framework, it becomes part of his or her knowledge.
. In general, information will only be ``stored'' in human memory when it has become
associated with some prior structure of understanding or knowledge. It can then form
part of a person's knowledge. Information can be rejected, added onto existing
knowledge without changing it, complete a gap in the recipient's existing knowledge
structure, or transform an existing knowledge structure.
. Information-as-process can affect elements in the environment. Information is not

just affected by its environment but is itself an actor that influences other elements in
the environment. The process approach states that information is neither objective nor
subjective, but a process. (Read for example Braman 1989; Buckland 1991.)
3.1.2 Information-as-knowledge
. Information-as-knowledge refers to the meaning of the message. The concept of

information is also used to refer to the knowledge communicated in information-as-
process. The knowledge communicated may be about a fact, event or subject.
. People often state that information reduces uncertainty and information-as-

knowledge would apply here. In this sense, information can, however, also increase
uncertainty. For example, if you know absolutely nothing about a subject you cannot
feel uncertain about it. It is only when you have some information that you may feel
uncertain.
. Information-as-knowledge cannot be measured or assessed because it is intangible.

One cannot measure it or touch it in any direct way, since it is conceptual. In this
18
sense, then, information is the message contained in a physical form. The underlying
meaning of the symbols or data is the information.
. Some of the main variations of this approach are:
Ð Information is the reduction of uncertainty as a result of communication. The
uncertainty is due to a problematic situation in which a person needs to take
action but does not have enough knowledge to act rationally.
Ð Information is that which modifies a person's knowledge structure.
Ð Information is a meaningful message from an informant that may influence the
recipient in decisions and actions. (Read for example Buckland 1991; Wersig
1997.)
3.1.3 Information-as-thing
. The concept of information also refers to objects such as data and documents. They
are referred to as information because they are regarded as informative.
. Variations of the meaning of information-as-thing. In this sense the concept of
information can be used to mean:
Ð the physical form which is used for transmission, for example a book
Ð the symbols (such as words) which are used for communication
Ð the unit of the physical carrier (e.g. a book) and its semantic elements (e.g. words,
sentences)
Ð the written or spoken surrogate of knowledge
. Information-as-thing is of special interest to us in Information Science. Information
systems deal with information-as-thing. The intention is that users will become
informed (information-as-process) and that there will be an imparting of knowledge
(information-as-knowledge). But what is stored, what is handled, what is operated
on is information-as-thing. (Read for example Buckland 1991; Farradane 1979;
Wersig 1997.)
Two aspects of information-as-thing are the defining of information as a resource and

information as a commodity. There are certain difficulties attached to accounting for
information in economic terms (see for example Braman 1989; Le Roux 1983). The
value of information does not depend on quantity, but on quality and applicability that
are not measurable. What is valuable and important to one person is not necessarily
valuable to someone else. It depends on the purpose for which the information is
needed. A further problem is that information, unlike other commodities, is not
consumed by people it is utilised.

Another implication for defining information in economic terms is that information is
only seen as valuable when it is needed and applied. According to this view, information
has no intrinsic value. Only when money is paid for information can it be measured in
relative monetary terms. Information only has monetary value to a person or organisation
when others are not allowed to use it. There is thus no generally accepted norm or unit
by which the value of information can be expressed or measured.
INS1501/1 19
The advantage of seeing information as a commodity is that it recognises the economic
value of information. The meaning of the expression `ìnformation is power'' becomes
obvious in this context. If a person or organisation has sole possession of a particular
body or piece of information, that information may enable whoever holds it to achieve
certain objectives.
The aspects of information as a resource and information as a commodity are

summarised below.
3.1.3.1 Information as a resource
. When information is defined as a resource, we are seeing it as something useful,

something that can be used to advantage.
. The underlying assumption of this type of definition is that information, like physical
resources (e.g. coal), can be processed and treated like a commodity.
. The problem of defining information as a resource is that information, unlike other
physical resources (e.g. gold or coal), does not become less if it is used (not
consumed). The reason for this is that information is not like other resources because
it is not a physical but an intellectual resource. It has to be possessed intellectually
before it can be of any use.
. The advantage of defining information as a resource is that it emphasises the uses
people make of information rather than its effect on people or society. (Read for
example Braman 1989.)
3.1.3.2 Information as a commodity
. Information-as-thing can also be seen as a commodity, something that can be sold

because it has economic value. When information is defined as a commodity, it is
seen as a product that has been processed.
. Information processing includes these steps: creation, generation, processing,

storage, transportation, distribution and seeking. Each step increases the value of the
information.
. Information differs from other products or commodities in the following ways:
Ð It is not used up or consumed like material goods, no matter how many times it is
used.
Ð It is non-transferable. Physical goods are transferred from A to B but information
remains with A even if transferred to B.
Ð Information accumulates.
Certain information is more valuable than other information: in defining information as a
commodity, we realise that certain information has greater economic value than other
types (valued according to its economic significance).
20
b ACTIVITY 4
Decide whether the following definitions/statements describe information as

information-as-process, information-as-knowledgeor information-as-thing, or none
of these:
(1) The structure approach is a philosophical one and states that the structures of
the world are information even if we are unable to perceive them or even be
aware of them. According to this theory, information has all the characteristics of
physical objects (Wersig 1997:222).
(2) Information is the perception of reality of the outside world. Information is based
on percepts that enable people to observe and discover the underlying structure
of the physical world.
(3) I suggested that `ìnformation'' should be defined as any physical form of
representation, or surrogate of knowledge, or of a particular thought, used for
communication ... I advanced this definition because such `ìnformation'' is the
only external element available as physical object in the communication chain,
but that ... does not, by itself, relate to the originator to the effect of such
information on the recipient (Farradane1979:13).
(4) The effect approach states that information is a specific effect of a specific
process. The effect is usually on the recipient as a result of the process of
communication. Variations are: (i) information is a change of knowledge or the
person's view of the world and (ii) information is the reduction of uncertainty
(Wersig 1997:222).
(5) When information is defined as a resource it can be seen as discrete and separate
entities that come in pieces and are unrelated to bodies of knowledge (Braman
1989:235-236).
(6) Information is that which modifies a subjective knowledge structure (Wersig
1997:222).
(7) Information is a process within the human mind when a problem and data are
brought together (Wersig 1997:222).
(8) Information is a set of actions by which something is purposively transferred
(Wersig 1997:222).
(9) When information is regarded as a resource the information must be available,
the information must be possessed intellectually, and it must be possible to apply
the information (Le Roux 1983:84).
(10) Information is inseparable from its organisation and the way it is stored.
(11) Information can be seen as something that can be sold because it has economic
value.
(12) Information is a product that is processed. This process includes the following
steps: creation, generation, processing, storage, transportation, distribution and
seeking.
(13) Information is often thought to be the same as facts (e.g. the President of South
Africa in 1997 was Nelson Mandela). When the term `ìnformation'' is used in
this way, it does not necessarily mean that there is any implied or actual use of
the fact. Everyone possesses facts about events and objects for which there is no
immediate need. A fact may arouse your interest and make you aware, but that is
often the extent of your concern. Unless the fact is placed in a context, it remains
just a fact and nothing else (Debons, Horne & Cronenweth 1988:3). We are
constantly bombarded with information in the form of facts, and our efficiency
depends on what we do with it: what we ignore, what we accept, how we store
it and how we use this store in the future.
INS1501/1 21
3.2 INFORMATION USERS AND USE
It is important to understand how the information user as part of the information cycle
makes sense of information. There will be frequent reference to the user or information
user in your studies; these are important key terms in information science. The reason
why we use the term user rather than consumer is that information does not decrease
with use, because it is not ``consumed''. The user is the person who wants to use the
information and he or she is the end user, and not the information intermediaries
(librarian, archivist, etc).
3.2.1 The term `ùser''
The subject/person, and therefore the user, is the only element in the information cycle
that can make sense of the information as well as ascribe meaning to it. Without the
user, phenomenological information remains potential. Sensory sensations caused by an
object are transformed into percepts, and turned into meaningful experience by the user
the process of informing. (You need to make sure that you are familiar with the
terminology and matters covered in Parts A and B.)
3.2.2 The user and the information cycle
(Note: Refer to Study Unit 8.3 in Part D.)
We cannot fully understand the information phenomenon and information application

without referring to users. The information cycle, in this sense, begins and ends with the
user. The majority of people are reached by the mass media. The users convey
information directly and indirectly to others, which increases the influence of the
transmitted and recorded information of the information infrastructure further than the
user. Especially in contemporary society, we tend to increase our knowledge more and
more with transmitted and recorded information not only from travellers' tales and
elders' experience anymore. Here a major factor is the technological way of transmitting,
capturing and making information available. Some of the most important products of
information technology are discussed in Part C under the historical overview of the
storage, retrieval and transfer of information.
A user who is experienced in information technology can get information easily and
quickly. The emphasis in the contemporary approach to computers is shifting towards
user convenience rather than performance only, which was the emphasis with the first
computers. This means less use is being made of intermediaries (think of the
implications for traditional information services). Information-technology products are
now being made for ordinary users rather than for experts only.
The public's preferences are taken into account when these products are designed and
marketed. At present it is the `ìntervention'' of the technological apparatus or hardware
that still makes it necessary to help users through guidance and even training. (You will
work on user studies, information retrieval systems and information technology in detail
as you progress with your studies to second and third level, in both theory and
application.)
Availability is the factor determining whether information is used or not. To be able to

establish effective information and retrieval systems, information professionals and
practitioners need to
. know how users think, and search for and use information
22
. know the characteristics and apparatus of the media plus the abilities and preferences
of users
. be able to present information in the correct form
The information needs to meet certain requirements: it should be relevant, usable,

accurate, clear, understandable, timely, etc. With the surplus of information available
today, it can be time-consuming to find even a small percentage of what is available on
a certain subject. The information era depends not on encyclopaedic or comprehensive
knowledge but on two-fold features of `òperational'' knowledge:
(1) Users have to know where and how to obtain the required information.
(2) They must know how to use the knowledge.
There will always be a demand for information: we need it for our existence and survival,
and for (hopefully) improving our quality of life. In this context, the user justifies the
b
existence of information and also justifies the study of the information phenomenon.
ACTIVITY 5
To what extent, in your opinion, is the supply of information products and services
based on user needs, or on what the market makes available?
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STUDY UNIT 4
Central concepts
sensation aware of
stimuli
knowledge interpret
stimuli
percepts
As you work through this study unit you have to think about how you understand and
use concepts such as information and knowledge. These concepts have a very specific
meaning in the field of information science, and it is important that you have a clear
understanding of them because they are core concepts in this field of study. You will no
doubt find that most of these concepts also relate to other subjects or disciplines for
which you may be registered and that the context of a field of study often determines the
viewpoint from which a concept is understood and applied. You should be able to
define, describe, and distinguish between the various key concepts and point out their
interrelations.
The central concepts and their meaning, as well as the interrelationships of the central
concepts must be understood, and are discussed in the rest of this study unit. These
concepts are:
(1) perception (percepts)
(2) knowledge
(3) data
(4) meaning
(5) information
(6) communication
You will quickly notice that it is not always possible to clearly distinguish between
24
concepts because these are interwoven (especially when considering context) with one
another.
4.1 PERCEPTS
Percepts are stimuli from inside or outside conveyed to one's brain via the senses. Our
knowledge of the world around us comes through our senses, namely taste, smell, sight,
hearing and touch. An example of a percept is the feeling of being cold. The subject
conveys percepts (sense impressions) to the mind via the senses. They are caused by
external or internal stimuli or sensations (originated outside or inside a person):
. Perception is the source of our knowledge about the external or outside world
(sensory reality outside the subject/person). All day and every day we receive
perceptions through our senses.
We tend to ignore information that is irrelevant to our needs and we act on
information that is relevant and useful. For example, when you are driving in heavy
traffic, you may perceive the colour and shape of the car ahead of you but you will
probably ignore this information. You will take note only of things that affect your
safety, such as the distance between you and that car, the speed at which it is
travelling, the brake lights that come on or the driver's signal for a turn. Other
information is stored in your memory and may be used at a later date.
. Apperception is the source of our knowledge of internal or somatic conditions (within
the body, e.g. pain or hunger; somatic relates to the body).
The subject's awareness of stimuli in the brain is referred to as sensation. The moment
these stimuli are interpreted, percepts are created in the brain. They are called
knowledge once these percepts have been connected. Seen this way, percepts are the
components of knowledge and their origins are external as well as internal to the
b
knowing subject/person.
ACTIVITY 6
List the main attributes of percepts.
4.2 KNOWLEDGE
The terms ``knowledge'' and `ìnformation'' are often used interchangeably to mean the
same thing. However, in this module we differentiate between these two important
concepts. Knowledge consists of percepts that are organised in such a way that they
form a system. Thus, it is based on systematised, interpreted percepts and requires an
organised framework.
Each person has what is called a cognitive framework or worldview. This cognitive
framework informs people's understanding of all aspects of their lives and the world, as
well as their activities/actions. Knowledge includes everything that is in the mind
(mental), such as opinions, assumptions, insights and fantasies. In other words,
everything that influences a person's behaviour is accepted as true by that person/
subject, irrespective of whether it is in fact true.
This framework or worldview is an organised framework that people use both

consciously and unconsciously in perceiving, understanding, analysing and responding
INS1501/1 25
to all social and physical phenomena. Knowledge can be seen as synonymous with
image or the view of the universe held by the subject, that is his or her image of the
world (see for example Boulding 1956 and 1961).
. Knowledge differs from information in that it requires an organised and coherent

framework, or structured ``mental storehouse of ideas or thoughts.'' When a person
receives information in the form of data or percepts, it becomes knowledge once it has
been internalised by the person and worked into his or her framework. It may change
or alter the person's framework or worldview or it might confirm something already
known. Information that a person has worked on in some way becomes knowledge.
Thus, when a person writes a book, that book contains his or her knowledge but it is
information for someone else. The knowing subject is required for knowledge to come
about and exist. If that someone who ``knows'' does not externalise or embody that
knowledge outside the body through, for example, speech, drawings, gestures or
writing, it is lost when that subject or person dies. Knowledge is a personal or private
possession existing in the mind of someone and only available to that specific person.
. Knowledge also forms a dynamic unity. Information in the form of physical records,
organised to form a coherent whole, reflects a body of knowledge. Libraries, for
example, organise information records according to a classification system. This
classification system attempts to categorise the totality of human knowledge (refer
also to Study Unit 10 in Part D dealing with the universe of knowledge). In the field
of Information Science, knowledge is conceived of as comprehensive, so that it forms

a dynamic unity. It is not restricted to recorded knowledge; oral and electronic forms
of knowledge are included. Knowledge is conceived in the widest possible sense but
is at the same time a dynamic whole (read for example Dick 1995 and 2002).
. Information and knowledge are most often seen as being on a continuum, which
offers a simpler way of explaining relations. Someone who transmutes information
into knowledge may then transform this knowledge into new information. Knowledge
differs from information `` in the degree of connectedness, perspective [and] human

value'' (my emphasis) (Swan in Dick 1995:103).
b ACTIVITY 7
List some of the ways in which knowledge and information differ.
Optional Activity
Identify other approaches to knowledge you can start by consulting Dick (2002).
4.3 DATA
Percepts (sense data), similar to data, do not form a system on their own. A datum
(singular) and data (plural) are bits or fragments which, when placed in a context,
acquire additional meaning and can inform people. For example, the numeral one is a
datum that has little meaning in isolation. It becomes a meaningful piece of information
if I state that my grandchild is one year old. Similarly, the word ``blue'' on its own
conveys little. However, if I state that my eyes are blue it becomes more meaningful.
26
There is still a strong tendency to associate data with numbers (numerical) and figures
because computers use binary encoding (0 and 1) to represent data and also because a
computer can be used to do calculations. As we have seen with the example on blue
eyes, data can be nonnumerical as well. The simple nature of data makes it easy to
process them by one's mind and by machines (e.g. electronic computers). This way they
are placed in meaningful contexts.
Data are created by society. Data are products of our symbolic system, for example
numbers and letters that are organised according to established rules and conventions.
Data are made by people because data do not exist like trees or grass without the
involvement of people. Data originate in a subject's mind, while percepts originate
outside the mind. For example, when you arrange numbers and letters (symbols) in a
particular way, these letters and numbers become data. The symbols STP176GP are data
in the context of a car registration number in Gauteng province in South Africa. In
another context they may mean nothing or something totally different.
To summarise, the attributes of data are as follows: they are unprocessed bits of
information; carry no meaning; comprise statistics and questionnaires and are the raw
material of information (components or building blocks).
4.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERCEPTS AND DATA
Percepts and data are the particulars of knowledge and information. We have already
determined the following:
DATA
. are components of information that exist outside the mind but were originally
created by a subject
. can be seen in context once connected with one another, and the data elements
become even more meaningful when they form information (Example: a letter or
a word in isolation could be called data, but a phrase reflects information and a
sentence would definitely comprise information.)
. are human-made words and numbers do not originate, like rocks, without the
involvement of human beings; thus, data originate in the subject's mind.
. Numbers and words can be recorded by one person and then be read by others.
Stated another way, the mind has externalised numbers and words and placed
them in context so that the data have become information.
. This information, once read by others, can then be turned into knowledge (the
subject plays a larger role in the origin of data than in that of percepts).
. Or, the computer can process externalised data into information that can then be
read by someone else and turn it into knowledge.
So the question is how data and information enter the subject's mind. The following
summary of percepts makes it clear:
INS1501/1 27
PERCEPTS
. Percepts are components of knowledge.

. Percepts originate outside the mind, or outside the subject.
. Regarding percepts about a rock for example, the subject merely observes the
rock the subject plays a smaller role in the origin of percepts than in the origin of
data.
. Percepts reach the mind as sensations.
. Information in a recorded message form (e.g. a book) is observed as data (bit by
bit) by the senses as ink or carbon marks on a background such as paper. Thus,
just as we become aware of a rock through percepts, we know in the same way
about a text via percepts.
. We can therefore identify two kinds of percepts: those of (1) natural objects
(not human-made, e.g. a rock) and those of (2) human-made objects (e.g. a
text).
. Human-made objects (when percepts are turned into knowledge) need more
mental interpretation than natural objects. This is most valid for information
records that use symbols (e.g. letters).
. We find many of these records in archives and libraries. Articles in museums tend
to be (1) partially natural (e.g. a stone artefact), (2) completely natural (e.g. a
skeleton) or (3) human-made (e.g. the first printed book or firearm). The latter is
mainly human-made, but the material or substances used (e.g. cotton or wood
for producing paper) are natural.
4.5 MEANING
From the discussion so far we know that data that are systemised are more meaningful
than when each datum is observed in isolation. Thus, when a message (a set of signs
created by a person/source) is created through spoken or written data, it implies that
one can attach meaning to it. The meaning of a word is what is understood by it. There
are three basic types of meanings:
(1) Conventional meanings (2) Subjective meanings (3) Neologisms

. stereotyped . e.g. when a subject . a newly created
meanings associates a certain word exists
. what is word with a specific because its creator
generally understood experience in his or wanted to create a
by the word her life, and the particular
meaning differs from meaning; has no
the conventional conventional
meaning meaning as yet
b ACTIVITY 8
Write down two or three examples for each type of meaning from your own
environment and experience.
28
Data can have different meanings depending on the order in which they are presented
(e.g. a ``light lantern'' refers to a lantern that is easy to carry around because it has a low
mass, and a ``lantern light'' refers to the light created by the shining lantern to increase
visibility). The sequence of words can make sentences describe different events (e.g.
``the dog bites the man'' and ``the man bites the dog''). These are fairly simple examples.
It gets more complex when we consider a text. When we speak of information and
knowledge, meaning is presupposed. There are different levels to consider regarding a
text and its meaning:
. An author, or source, gives his or her text a certain meaning it contains what he or she
wanted to say and the information he or she wanted to convey to other people.
. When others read that text, they attribute to the text a meaning that may differ, to a
lesser or greater degree, from what the author had in mind.
We can deduce from the above that what an author writes, and what the reader
understands by it, depends on their respective memories, insights, experiences, sensory
and linguistic abilities, etc. We ascribe meaning to give or make sense. The ideal
situation for scientific text is that the meanings assigned to the text by the author and by
the reader, should differ as little as possible. The main reason is that the concern for the
reader of a scientific text should be with establishing meaning. This way the reader can
determine what the author wants to communicate.
(Note: In contrast, literary text (poems, novels) invites multiple interpretations, that is
the allocation of meaning.)
Even though an information medium conveys multiple meanings or messages, and
unanimous agreement on exactly what is understood by a word is not always reached, it
remains important to find a broad consensus on the meanings of words. The reason is
that it would otherwise become impossible to communicate or convey information
b
successfully through language.
ACTIVITY 9
Choose and look up any words in different dictionaries and thesauri, and compare
how they are defined, explained, their synonyms, and the examples used to illustrate
their usage.
4.6 INFORMATION
There is a wide range of definitions of information. Information can be regarded as:
. a near synonym for fact
. a reinforcement of what is already known
. something one did not know before
. the raw material from which knowledge is derived
. something useful in some way to the person receiving it
. something used in decision making
. something that changes a person's beliefs or expectations
. something that reduces uncertainty in a particular situation (see for example Debons
et al 1988; MacGarry 1993)
INS1501/1 29
Human societies are built on information it has always been an essential part of our
environment. From the earliest times people have increased their chances of survival by
storing and passing on information. Data that are structured in such a way that they
convey a message form a meaningful system or a coherent whole. Two aspects of the
concept of information need to be taken into account in this module:
(1) Firstly, the term `ìnformation'', is used to indicate data that have been assembled in
a form that is capable of communication (e.g. knowledge that has been

communicated verbally or recorded by means of writing).
(2) Secondly, when information is successfully communicated, it changes (e.g.

increases) the person's knowledge (or confirms what the person already knows)
and it can reduce uncertainty in a particular situation. The message would comprise
information for that person. Information exists as an entity that can be a resource or
commodity and sold for a profit. But it can also be something that a person
internalises into his or her framework of knowledge and it can change the way a
person perceives reality. Receiving and comprehending a message could therefore
change a person's/subject's mental state, his or her image of the world, and even
reduce ignorance.
The term `ìnformation'' can be used in a number of contexts and with different
transmitted or recorded information(most concrete or
meanings. We usually refer to
tangible type) when we mention information, especially in the context of the
information professions. In Study Unit 5, we distinguish between the different types of
information (transmitted, recorded, genetic, phenomenological, as process, as
knowledge, and machine information).
Remember that all types of information outside the mind are potential information
recorded information, for example, has the potential to inform people and potentially
change their image of reality. The message can only inform after it has been experienced
through the senses (e.g. reading the text), and the mind has formed percepts of it.
To summarise the attributes of information: data processed into meaning; linked to a

living organism; does not stand separate from a carrier; comes into being in a lifecycle;
b
variety of definitions.
ACTIVITY 10
Comment on the following statement: ``Successfully communicated information

changes your knowledge by increasing it, or confirms what you already know and can
reduce or increase uncertainty.''
Optional activity
Write notes on the following characteristics of information: its nature, value,
conservation, scope, media, information technology, and utilisation.
4.7 THE KNOWLEDGE-INFORMATION RELATIONSHIP
There are various views on the knowledge-information relationship in library and

information science theory (as identified in Dick 2002: 50±51). The ones you will come
across most often in the literature are the following:
30
KNOWLEDGE-INFORMATION
RELATIONSHIP
Dichotomous ± basically different, mutually

exclusive, either/or stance
Equivalent ± little distinction, near identity, of

the same kind
Hierarchical ± coordinate: same level, different

form: subordinate ± one term encompasses the
other
Continuous ± fluid, dynamic relationship, i.e.

information is transmuted into knowledge,
leading to new information
The following table aims to help you discover the relationship between information and
knowledge by indicating differences and similarities. Again, keep in mind that such a
table does not imply that it is always possible to clearly separate the two concepts. You
can expand the table as you work through the study material and read from other
sources.
INFORMATION KNOWLEDGE
. exists outside the subject's mind . mental (exists in the mind) private
public . created by the subject; dependent on
. is ultimately created by the subject percepts, data and information
. it is not lost when one dies can (reaching the mind via the senses)
continue to exist in other people's . is lost when someone dies if it has not
minds or in concrete records been externalised into a physical form
. externalised knowledge (deduced . can be internalised information
from behaviour, memories, the (understood, communicated
concrete) information)
. not all things that have the potential of . not all knowledge is expressed, thus
informing someone becomes never turned into information for
knowledge (e.g. writing a book no one various reasons explicit knowledge
ever reads, a flower blooming unseen) (can be expressed) & tacit dimension
(cannot be expressed)
A few deductions can be made from the above. Knowledge and information form a
continuum when a person/subject observes something through the senses, that person
can understand it by ascribing meaning to it, and convert it into knowledge. Here
information has been successfully communicated not only to the senses but also to the
mind. Knowledge is in this case information that is internalised and understood. Not all
knowledge is expressed or turned into information, and not all information becomes
knowledge; thus knowledge is not necessarily information and information is not always
knowledge.
INS1501/1 31
4.8 COMMUNICATION
All the central concepts imply the existence of a medium or intermediary substance. A
person ascribes a fairly fixed meaning to his or her own knowledge. However, the
moment that knowledge is externalised and becomes potential information, the meaning
becomes variable and complicates successful communication or establishment of like-
mindedness.
In this study unit, communication refers to communication between people (transfer of

meaningful information). It is concerned with the connection between different objects
or entities, or between parts of the same system:
. intercommunication communication between objects or subjects (e.g. between two

people)
. intracommunication takes place within the same object or subject (e.g. when
experiencing pain)
The other central concepts we have discussed thus far (percepts, knowledge, data,
meaning and information) were considered as nouns. As we shall see shortly in the
definition of communication, the concept of communication as a verb ( communicate)
accentuates activity or process. It concerns the transfer of information. Communication
can be defined as the transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills, and such by
the use of symbols words, pictures, figures, graphs, etc. According to Berelson and
Steiner (in Blake & Haroldsen 1975: 3),
`Ìt is the act or process that is usually defined as communication''.

In other words, communication is the act of transferring knowledge, attitudes and skills
from one person to another. In order for communication to take place, messages need to
be transmitted in a form that can be understood by the receiver. Messages are received
through the senses and interpreted by the mind. Meaning can be affected by the social
and cultural background of the recipient of the message.
Communication can be represented as follows:
Source > channel > recipient
The source encodes a message by putting it into symbols, for example into spoken or
written words. A channel is used to transmit the message. The channel can be the sound
waves of speech, the written words in a book or a more complex chain of transfer. The
recipient then decodes the message. The result of communication is to transfer
information from source to recipient. If information is not transferred then
communication has not taken place. Communication is a dynamic, interactive, two-way
process. Communication can take place if a source has information and emits it, if a
recipient wants information and accepts it, and if an appropriate channel is available to
both. Communication takes place within a social context. In fact, the existence of
society gives rise to the communication of information.
(Note: Refer to Appendix A the general communication model and its explanation are
included. The model serves as a good example here.)
32
A definition of communication normally includes all the ways in which one organism or
even mechanism can influence another. For the purposes of this module, we give
preference to a more specific or limited meaning of communicating, which includes the
following:
. transfer and reception of a message
. comprehension of the message at the destination
. the ideal of successful communicating as the establishment of like-mindedness, that
is an identical comprehension by the source and destination of information (which
does not imply that they need the same opinion on it)
Communicating has occurred because the message has been successfully transferred.
To inform someone, a message must be communicated and, as we saw with information
and knowledge, a message might not necessarily be conveyed (e.g. a book not read by
anyone). As with potential information, communication often also refers to potentially
as well as partially successful communication. Even though information transfer can be
better described with the word communicating, you will find that in information practice
the word communication is almost always used.
b ACTIVITY 11
Illustrate the relationship between the central concepts of data, percepts, knowledge,
information, meaning and communication by making use of a mind map. If you prefer,
you can use examples from your own cultural, social and natural environment.
You need to consult the instructions on mind maps in Appendix B before
attempting your own mind map.
4.9 OTHER RELATED CONCEPTS
We discuss only a handful of concepts. Each study unit contains its own key concepts
that you can add to your growing glossary.
. Culture. Culture is a difficult and complex concept for which numerous definitions
exist. In this study guide, we define culture as the complex whole acquired by a
human being as a member of society. It is not inborn but it is gained through normal
social interaction, the education process, records and mass media. It includes
knowledge, values, beliefs, attitudes, religion, technology, concepts of self and the
universe, and language. It evolves in order to provide and transmit the knowledge,
tools, habits and beliefs that permit people to adapt to changing environments.
Culture is not static, but constantly changes and develops. Virtually all aspects of life
are influenced by culture. We take our culture so much for granted that it is often
difficult to understand why others of a different culture do things differently (e.g.
marriage customs).
. Technology. Technology is an important aspect of culture. Technology includes all

the ways in which people use tools, inventions and discoveries to enable them to
survive and control the environment better. As an important part of culture,
technology advances and develops in response to needs experienced by a society.
Advances in technology stimulate innovation in its utilisation. For example, new
applications are constantly being found for the computer.
INS1501/1 33
b ACTIVITY 12
(a) Identify five things that are different in your culture when compared with other
cultures.
(b) List five technological inventions and developments that have been important to
our society over the past 50 years.
. Decision making. It is a process whereby an individual or a group of people make a

choice between alternatives. It is a process of elimination based on information.
Decision making is therefore based on the information available to you.
. Innovation. It is a new product accepted or rejected by people. This process implies a

decision that has to be made based on information about the product. Information
needs to be available in the production of a product. In this way, information plays a
double role in innovation.
. Symbols. The meaning of a symbol is something that is agreed upon by a social

group. A symbol is something used by a social group to represent an object, idea or
process. It is deliberately used to denote something else. The social group agrees on
what the symbol will stand for. The meaning of a symbol depends entirely on the
social group that uses it. For example, the word ``dolphin'' is used in Standard English
to mean a small whale-like creature, but it is also used as a slang term to denote a
BMW 3-series car. The relationship between the symbol and what the symbol stands
for is usually an arbitrary one. Some examples of symbols are letters, numbers and
words.
The following are characteristics of symbols:
Ð They are the property of a group and not of an individual.

Ð They enable people to have a shared understanding of something.
Ð Thus, if I use symbols that evoke the same response in you as they do in me, then we
are able to communicate.
Ð Symbols serve as stores of meaning within a culture.
Ð They are a unifying force within social groups.
OPTIONAL ACTIVITY
Existing words are now often being used in new senses because of high
technology, and because of the proliferation of personal computers and increased
use of e-mail and the Internet. This is reflected in the most recent editions of
dictionaries.
Look up the following words: backbone, context, cookie, domain, icon,

mouse, and virus. Write down their traditional and new usage.
You can start by making use of Encarta concise English dictionary. 2001.
London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Microsoft Encarta; and MSN Encarta
http://encarta.msn.com
4.10 THE KNOWLEDGE SPECTRUM
How do all these concepts link up? Percepts, data, information and knowledge can be
34
seen as linked, one leading to the other, each the result of actions in the one preceding
it. Just be aware that the links are not as linear as presented here but the presentation
does help to explain the relationship.
The Knowledge Spectrum (Debons et al 1988:5)
(as expressed in judgment) wisdom

Values
?
(recorded experience given physical representation) knowledge

Intellect
?
(awareness given representation) information

?
cognitive-driven segment
? awareness
data-driven segment
?
data
?
rules and formulations
?
symbols (representation of event)
?
Event
The above knowledge spectrum can be explained as follows:
. An event, occurrence or some condition or change takes place in the world or within
oneself. This state or change has to be perceived through our senses and represented
symbolically in some way if we are to deal with it. We invent symbols (words,
numbers, graphs, pictures) to represent the event. When we use rules to organise the
representation, it is called a datum or data.
. Data can be transformed into information. We perceive data when they stimulate one
or more of our senses. When we are exposed to such stimuli, we become aware of
data about the event. Once we have become aware of the data, we are informed, that
is, aware of some occurrence. So being informed means being aware of some
occurrence. We can respond to the information in a number of ways: store it in our
memory or jot it down on a piece of paper. This physical or cognitive representation of
data of which we are aware is known as information.
. Information can be transformed into knowledge. When we interpret and understand
the information, higher cognitive processes are involved. This interpretation and
understanding enables us to apply the information to those things that require
resolution. It enables us to analyse, resolve and put things in their proper perspective.
Once we have understood and interpreted the information we have knowledge.
. Knowledge can be transformed into information. We can externalise knowledge by
repackaging it in the form of books, talks, film and so on. It then becomes available as
data and information to others. Once we have access to externalised knowledge, we
INS1501/1 35
can build on and expand it. The transformation of percepts into data into information
into knowledge characterises human competence at dealing with events. Each step is
part of a hierarchy representing progressively more complex cognitive (thinking)
functions. The goal of this information system is to ultimately increase the store of
human knowledge in respect of the universe of events of which we are a part (see for
example Debons et al 1988).
The information process is not new. All living species survive by using their senses to
collect information about their environment. This information is processed and stored
and subsequently translated into actions that are advantageous to their well-being and
survival. Humans are, however, unique in that they have storage systems in the form of
language, books and other permanent records, through which they can store and
retrieve information when needed and build on past experience.
An information system makes the transformation of data to information possible. An

information system is only a part of a much larger system: the knowledge system. This
system helps us describe the transformations that take place within human social
networks whose goal is to increase the sum of human wisdom (e.g. scientists deriving
data from theories and experiments, leading to information about specific events).
Others can become informed through the sharing of this information in journals or at
conferences for example. In this way an understanding of a phenomenon can emerge.
Such an understanding leads to greater knowledge of related events. The ambiguity of
the terms implicit in the knowledge spectrum often makes it necessary to establish
standards for the use of terms, which is desirable for the development of professional
skills oriented to information and information systems (Debons et al 1988: 6±7).
(Note: Refer to Appendix A for a representation of the knowledge system.)

Karl Popper offers us a practical structure for placing natural and human-made objects.
You will also find it useful when trying to make sense of the relationship between
percepts, data, knowledge, information, etc. He uses a threefold structuring of reality
(see diagram below):
World 1 World 2
The world of things, The world of conscious
the physical reality Ð experience, the mental
corresponds to the reality Ð corresponds
description of to description of
percepts knowledge
World 3
The world of products
of the mind, eg
recorded messages
that depends on
exchange between
physical mental
data
realities Ð
& information
36
b ACTIVITY 13
In which of Popper's worlds would you place each of the following: libraries, rocks,
magazines, dreams, digital videodiscs, and museum exhibitions? Keep in mind that
some might fit into more than one of the worlds.
NOTES
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INS1501/1 37
STUDY UNIT 5
Types of information
In the previous study unit we looked briefly at some of the important concepts with
which you need to be familiar for this module. We discussed the concepts of culture and
communication in order to place the other concepts into some kind of context. We dealt
with the concepts of percepts, data, information and knowledge. Finally, we related the
concepts to one another to illustrate that they form a continuum. We have simplified the
explanations for the sake of clarity; but of course in reality things are far more
complicated. In this study unit we discuss the concept of information in greater depth.
This concept is central to our understanding of Information Science.
The many different contexts in which information is used allow us to distinguish

between seven different meanings of the concept. These meanings typify information as
genetic, phenomenological, transmitted, recorded, as process, as knowledge and as
machine information. The types will only be explained briefly, chiefly because this
explanation will serve as an introduction to something you will encounter in increasing
depth in your studies ahead. It will also alert you to the contexts in which you might
interact with information, as well as giving the background to the variety of approaches
to information, especially in the sciences (natural and social).
5.1 GENETIC INFORMATION
Some things are hereditary, for example a peach pip will produce a peach tree and not
an apple tree. These are characteristics that are transmitted by living beings or organisms
from one generation to the next. Previous generations influence later generations
through the transmission of genetic information. The carrier of genetic information is
DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid) found in the cell nucleus.
We are concerned with information here in the sense that genetic information is
encoded and transferred (as genetic code). The relevance for information science is its
confirmation that all humans have inherited or inborn abilities (supplementing acquired
or learnt skills). There is a common misconception that the more information is available
to people, the more they can improve themselves (salvation approach). Yet, for people
to benefit from information records, they need certain inborn capacities. Correct and
applicable information is preferable to a random oversupply.
Other than the above, genetic information is of indirect interest to information science,
and `ìnformation'' is used metaphorically (i.e. when a word that usually indicates a
certain object is applied or transferred to another object including certain characteristics
of the transferred word). The reason is that genetic information is conveyed
mechanically, thus not dependent on any processing by the human mind to attribute
meaning. Bekker (1993:27±28) explains it as follows:
One could be inclined to think that phenomenological information in the sense of

sensory perception of nature is the oldest kind of information. Genetic information,
... however, is older. The information is in coded form and, in a sense, is `read' by
the cell. This determines which characteristics are transmitted from one generation
38
to the next. One could say that ìnformation' and `read' are used metaphorically
since genetic information is transferred mechanically- the subject has no control
over it. Interpretation in order to attribute meaning plays no role at all.
5.2 PHENOMENOLOGICAL INFORMATION
Empirical, perceptual, sensory, natural and direct information, received by a person/

subject from the environment, is called phenomenological information.
By using the sensessomeone can establish, for example through touch, that the bark of a
tree is smooth or rough. A person obtains phenomenological information through
percepts. It is natural information because the characteristics observed are `'natural''
rather than determined by humans. For example a tree exists as a given: the human mind
does not create the tree, but forms, records and interprets the percepts.
It is direct information because it is:
. obtained without mediation or the help of other people

. a direct connection between the percepts and the object
A person's image of the tree has to be compiled with the aid of percepts because, unlike
symbols, percepts do not indicate more than the existence of the tree and that it
possesses certain features. Phenomenological information is essential for people to
orient themselves in the world and includes objects, events, other people and the
person's own physical existence (body image).
There are potentially three reasons why phenomenological information increases:
(1) More events can be observed as time progresses.
(2) There are more people and perhaps more (or fewer) plants and animals (depending
on the advent of new species, or on adaptation or depletion).
(3) Inanimate nature may have decreased as a source of information natural raw
material (not human-made) are changed into other forms, which in turn can
become sources of information (human-made).
Therefore, as the world and people change, so does phenomenological information.

Changes are, of course, not as rapid as transmitted and recorded information, and
phenomenological information has not increased in any dramatic manner with the
progression of time. It is increased because technological discoveries, such as the
telescope or microscope, open up new worlds for humans to ``discover'' and observe.
Empirical information has therefore become more accessible and complicated

information about nature. Overspecialisation is countered or rather complimented by a
broader context to aid understanding of the specialisation area (allowing not only for
analysis but eventual synthesis). Thus, even if phenomenological information itself is
not increasing at a rapid rate, the demand for it is. The main reason is the increasing
awareness of unsolved problems and gaps in our knowledge that grows in proportion to
the information available.
The value of all this for Information Science:

. It is the basis of scientific knowledge.
. It forms a large part of our worldview and view of life (how we function as individuals
and as part of a group).
. Transmitted and recorded information are fundamentally phenomenological
INS1501/1 39
information concerning the medium and certain aspects of the content (e.g. see a
painting, hear a song).
Our discussion of the information phenomenon made it clear that it deals with
information as manifested in human sensory experience. Bekker (1993:27) explains it as
follows:
Transmitted information is distributed in transitory form but can be recorded when

received. For example, a sound recording on tape can be made of a radio broadcast
and a video recording on tape of a television broadcast. Recorded and transmitted
information inform people when they see marks, for example, on paper and on a
screen, or hear sounds, for example, on the telephone or radio. Information is hence
sensorily perceived, especially through the eyes and ears. Recorded and
transmitted information are relatively recent phenomena. Since the earliest times,
both man and animal obtained information from the environment by using their
senses. Direct perception involves, for example, the observation of a tree or a goat.
In this way, food was acquired and dangers avoided. Ever since those times,
mankind's behaviour has been influenced by information. In a sense, recorded and
transmitted information are kinds of phenomenological information. Just as a
person sees a green tree against the background of the blue sky, so text is perceived
as black marks on white paper. Phenomenological information, for example from
nature, exists independently of mankind to a certain degree, while recorded and
transmitted information is (sic) man-made to a greater degree.
b ACTIVITY 14
Relate the explanation of phenomenological information to previous references on the

information phenomenon in Part B.
5.3 TRANSMITTED INFORMATION
Observing a tree involves phenomenological information, and the tree makes no effort or
deliberate attempt to convey information to someone. Face-to-face transfer of
information (when one person speaks to another to explain something) is called
communicating.
The deliberate transfer of information concerns us here the source or transmitter of

information sends or transmits information to the destination. The receiver and/or
destination do/does not, however, always receive it. The degree to which information is
successfully transferred (whether the destination understands the message as intended
by the source) cannot always be determined.
Information technology (such as computers and telecommunications) is in general used

the most to transmit information, such as telephone calls, radio and television
broadcasts and electronic mail (e-mail). The term process media can be used in this
context because the information travels through a channel (e.g. a telephone wire).
Information can be pre-recorded and transmitted later, and it can be recorded after
transmission. Information that is recorded before or after transmission via some medium
is ordinary recorded information.
A large amount of information is conveyed to people and never recorded and is called
transmitted information. Although this information is transitory, it can still have a
profound influence.
40
Examples of this influence are:
. transfer of information between academics, scientists or researchers (e.g. during
conferences) a system of exchanging information often referred to as invisible

colleges
. radio and television transmissions that are the most influential ways of distributing
information called mass media (identical information reaching a large group of people
over a large area at almost the same time)
Transmitted information is a kind of phenomenological information, because

information is received in the form of sensory sensations (e.g. by seeing or hearing).
When observing a thing/object, or in face-to-face information transfer, the air
(airwaves) is the channel or medium that carries the information. When using language
(a human-made code) to transfer information, the transmitted information differs from
phenomenological information because the human being contributes more than nature.
Recorded information, thanks to information technology, is often transmitted.
Bekker (1993:26-27) states that `` Telematics (the joint application of computers and
telecommunications) is another reason why people today are more aware of
information. Transmitted information can be acquired quickly over short or long
distances and used in a very advantageous way. The value which is added to the
information could more than compensate for the cost of acquiring it. Besides face-to-
face transfer (for example, personal conversations), the normal postal service,
telephones, telefaxes, electronic mail, radio and television broadcasts, also play an
important role today in the dissemination of information.''
5.4 RECORDED INFORMATION
Phenomenological information and transmitted information are transitory. Regarding

human beings, one can say that phenomenological and transmitted information can be
stored in the memory, which is not always reliable.
Recorded information is created and used only by people. People can share sensory
experience with one another. If there were only spoken language people would still
learn from one another, by means of the spoken word and demonstration. This type of
culture develops slowly, because a great deal of knowledge (knowing that) and skills
(knowing how) is lost each time an experienced person dies an oral culture loses an
important and irreplaceable source of information.
Recorded information, then, differs from genetic or phenomenological information in

that it is not natural but human-made. It did not originate on its own someone decided
to create it.
Information records have two components:
(1) a physical carrier or medium (e.g. paper)
(2) a message or information (e.g. a sketch of an object to create this, the artist needs
paint and the skill to make the recording possible)
This differs from other objects such as the bones and implements dug up by
archaeologists, from which deductions are made these objects were not intended as
information records, but for another purpose entirely One can, however, become
informed through them.
INS1501/1 41
Users of information records are concerned with deciphering information. We can make
the following distinction:
. Information records are consciously created to inform others for example most items
in an office, archives and library collections.
. Objects of information ( excluding records of information) can inform people, but

were not created for this purpose for example, trees, skeletons, stones and implements
(e.g. items found in museums).
. Sources of information also include events, and they can be just as informative as
objects; people are seen as important sources of information they are the source of
transmitted, recorded and other phenomenological information.
Therefore records of information are a type of information object; information objects are
a type of information source; and information source can be used as a comprehensive
term in this context.
The creation of information records amounts to creating an artificial memory. This can
be called exosomatic memory (memory outside the body). Information records have
been extremely valuable to human beings: the knowledge of a generation, as reflected in
records, can now be collected and accumulated, conserved and passed on to the next; it
brought more rapid scientific and cultural development; and knowledge can be
transferred to others such transfer is more durable and accurate when knowledge is
reflected in records of information.
Information records (medium and content) are specifically dealt with in the AIS
(Applied Information Science) modules and will only be discussed briefly here.
Recorded and nonrecorded information are both mobile and can be transferred
electronically all over the world. The transferability of knowledge is promoted and its
influence increased. The transportability of information records means that not only is
one generation capable of influencing the next in the same geographical area, but also
that one cultural group can influence other cultures (trans-border information flow). In
contrast to phenomenological information, recorded information is indirect or second-
hand information. It is the importance and volume of recorded information that has
given impetus to the emergence of the information age. It is the most concrete of the
different types of information.
Many people tend to think of information as that which may be found in books and
similar information records. Some librarians consider non-fiction records and
particularly reference works as information, while works of fiction evidently also
inform users. Recorded information is seemingly concrete information. Strictly
speaking, what is expressed in records ought to be called potential information. As
such, recorded information does not inform. It is only when, for example, a text is
read by someone who is literate and who understands the language that the reader
is informed. The print is decoded into information. Recorded information has
increased significantly, especially during this century. This is one of the reasons
why information is so prominent today (Bekker 1993:26).
5.5 INFORMATION-AS-PROCESS
Information-as-process, is often distinguished from other kinds of information. This is

problematic because it is difficult to see how the nature of information-as-process
differs from genetic, phenomenological, transmitted and recorded information.
42
Information in the process of transfer is rather a condition in which all four types of
information can occur. As processes, information and communication give similar
problems, because they imply a static nature. The verbs informand communicate give
better expression to the process of transfer that takes place. Informatise is also a useful
term to use (inform is used in connection with individuals, and informatise with
reference to society see for example Bekker 1993).
A person/subject is informed when information is successfully conveyed from outside

the brain (from the rest of the body or the environment) into the brain. Information
changes into knowledge inside the mind. Mental activities (e.g. thinking, imagining,
remembering) are deliberate actions rather than mere consequences of having a brain. A
person comprises:
. a physical body (corporeal dimension)
. a mentaldimension as long as the body functions (is alive), mental activity is possible
Mind (mental) and body (physical) are mutually influential. To be able to transfer
information to the brain within the body, two systems are necessary:
(1) the sensory nervous system input channel for stimuli, internal information system
through which to receive messages
(2) the motor nervous system output channel, it is used to transmit messages (e.g.
when a subject decides to respond or do something).
In the subject literature, information as process is often regarded as a kind of

information. However, it involves the process of informing, and hence the process
of information transfer a condition in which all the kinds of information could be
[found]. To inform someone implies the successful transfer of information to the
brain from outside, that is, from the rest of the body or the environment. The
sensory nerves serve as the person's internal information system for receiving
messages. Stimuli received through the senses travel through the neurons to the
brain. This is an electrochemical process: the impulses in the neurons are electrical
stimuli and these impulses are transferred from cell to cell through chemical
changes (Bekker 1993:28).
5.6 INFORMATION-AS-KNOWLEDGE
The essence of the information phenomenon is the transformation of (potential)

information into knowledge:
inform = process
;
knowing = condition of informedness
Knowledge is more than being conscious or aware of information knowledge often
means something that can be used and can generate further knowledge without further
input from outside the mind. By itself, phenomenological (including transmitted and
recorded) information is practically useless. When sensory stimuli are transformed into
knowledge, information becomes valuable and useful. Without sensory experience, the
mind cannot function since there is nothing to form the thoughts therefore knowledge is
always knowledge about something.
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What is called recorded information is strictly speaking recorded knowledge externalised
and captured. It has the potential to inform someone and in this way becoming
knowledge for someone else. In this sense, Information Science ultimately deals with
knowledge (ideas, concepts, thoughts) and not information. Bekker (1993:29-30)
explains it as follows:
Strictly speaking what is called `recorded information' is recorded knowledge, that

is, knowledge which has been externalised in a concrete form. It has the potential
to inform someone and, in this way, also becomes knowledge for someone else
Jesse Shera underscores this point as follows: ``Librarians are dealing only
accidentally with things but primarily with ideas, concepts, and thoughts
The interdisciplinary nature of information science is indicated by
. the fact that information is public and socially accessible (social sciences)
. its concern with knowledge (what exists in the mind) indicating an affinity with the
humanities (or human sciences)
. the application of knowledge from the natural sciences embodied in information
technology (Another essential dimension of current Information Science is that it
finds affinity with the natural sciences and the formal sciences of logic and
mathematics.)
In the mind information becomes knowledge. This is consistent with the

etymological meaning of the term ìnformation': to give form to something The term
`knowledge' is used to include both truths and falsehoods. Becoming informed is a
process it has a specific duration. To know something is a disposition it does not
involve a time dimension. The subject may not yet know something one moment
but know it the next. To know is to be in a condition of being informed
'informedness'. On the one hand, knowledge often implies something that can be
used. On the other hand, a person may generate more knowledge from existing
knowledge without the addition of information from sources outside the mind
(Bekker 1993:29-30).
OPTICAL ACTIVTY
Discuss knowledge in the context of the following: perception, language, symbols
and thought.
5.7 MACHINE INFORMATION
We tend to speak of information in the context of machinery, especially since the
computer came into daily use. Computer terms are often misleading because of the
``humanising'' of the terminology. There is also an almost ingrained habit of associating
computer capacity with human intellectual ability. For example, computers are said to
have a ``memory'' (instead of ``storage and retrieval capacity''); or we speak of their
`àbility'' to do things, as if they were human.
44
Computers function according to programs, and do not have the freedom of changes in
behaviour. The use of the term information in the context of computers and other
machines is metaphorical, since it is a prerequisite that information be understood or
comprehended. Human beings can ascribe meaning to information. A machine cannot
do this in the same sense.
Mere causality must not be regarded as information transfer, and has nothing to do with
signs, meanings and mental processes. We can speak of causality in the study of
information when information becomes knowledge and has certain consequences.
Computers carry out activities that seem to coincide with, or differ from, what the human
brain does. Unlike human beings, computers do not have a mental dimension. It is
therefore only in a metaphorical sense that computers can be informed and possess
knowledge.
Machine information can be seen as a type of recorded information (e.g. electronically

recorded information). Ultimately it is people who make sense of the information and
can ascribe meaning to it (this excludes information transferred from machine to
machine).
Whereas genetic information is the oldest kind of information, machine information

may be viewed as the most recent kind. Since the computer came into everyday
use, it has been said that information can be fed into a computer, then processed
and stored, and transmitted to another computer Pure causality ± that A is the
cause of B-cannot be regarded strictly as information transfer. If the wind blows
and the leaves of a tree rustle, it is said that a causal relationship exists between the
wind and the tree. There is no claim that the wind transferred information to the tree
and that the rustling of leaves is caused by this information (Bekker 1993:28).
b ACTIVITY 15
Look up the meaning of metaphor and search for examples in the context of language,
thinking, and Information Science.
e DEFINITIONS
abstract: something which exists only as an idea or quality; concerned with ideas
and theory rather than with things which really exist or could exist; representing an
object by shapes and patterns rather than in the shape or form it actually has.
cognition: mental processes such as perception, reasoning, problem-solving; enables

people to experience and process knowledge and information.
cognitive : thought processes (reasoning, perception, intuition).
commodity: article of trade, has value.
communication: exchange of ideas, information, knowledge; contact verbally and

non-verbally; the act of transferring knowledge, attitudes and skills from one person to
another; includes electronic processes.
cultural heritage: includes language, customary behaviour, ideas of space and time,
goals, traditions, history and all the other elements that make up a society's intellectual
capital.
culture: the complex whole acquired by humans as members of society, including

knowledge, values, beliefs, attitudes, religion, technology, concepts of self and the
universe, and language; a particular group (often at a particular time) consists of
INS1501/1 45
corresponding and divergent customs, ideas, values (comprises whole experience of
everyday life); complex whole in a system that dictates behaviour, ideas, available
information and knowledge.
data: human-made; do not form a system on their own bits or fragments that, when
placed in a context, acquire additional meaning and can inform a person; components
of information; general term for information stored in a database.
information: a collection of facts or messages that have some meaning for the
person receiving them (meaning given to message); communicated knowledge;
cognitive state of awareness (to become aware); exists outside the mind (externalised
knowledge assembled in a form capable of communication); can change mental state
and image of reality; represented physically or cognitively (mentally).
information era: our present time in history, where society regards information as a
key product or resource, and where political decisions, economic development, quality
of life and social change depend on the use of information
intellectual: mental processes of abstract thinking and reasoning, rather than
emotions.
knowledge: systematised, interpreted percepts; forms a system; everything that is in
the mind; understanding beyond awareness; information that has been internalised by
the person and worked into his or her framework; information acquired through
learning and experience
meaning: sense in which a message is understood, or intended to be understood;
purpose, significant or not; interpretation possible.
percepts: stimuli from inside or outside conveyed to one's brain via the senses.
phenomenon: something (object or thing) that is perceived, experienced (a fact or
occurrence that can be observed); something that the senses or mind notice; the
philosophy of phenomena object of perception, i.e. something perceived or
experienced, especially an object as it is apprehended by the human senses as
opposed to an object as it intrinsically is in itself [Greek phainomenon ``that which

appears''].
representation: state, or process of being represented; image of something that is;
statement to present facts, opinions, performance; usually in a realistic rather than
abstract form
symbol: something used by agreement within a social group to represent an object,
idea or process
thinking: to form or have ideas in the mind; the act of using the mind to produce
``thoughts'', opinions, judgments; consideration, meaning, to remember; input of
information is stimulus to intellectual ideas and learned behaviour can result from
inspiration for example; thinking implies invention, expectations; hopes and to
imagine.
46
j SELF-ASSESSMENT
(1) Explain the widespread presence of information by describing how it has

become a central element in so many spheres of everyday life.
(2) How does a human being form his or her image of reality?
(3) What role does information and knowledge play in the realisation and change or
development of this image?
(4) Name a few examples that illustrate how your image may remain unaffected by
the impact of messages or information.
(5) Explain what you understand by the concepts information and knowledge, and
indicate how these two concepts are related to each other.
(6) Define and describe the key concepts.
(7) Distinguish between the key concepts and point out their interrelations.
(8) List the seven types of information as identified in this section, and indicate
which one of these is regarded as the type traditionally dealt with by information
professionals.
(9) Describe this type of information clearly.
(10) Explain the process of informing and the role of the information professional in
relation to the information user.
(11) Describe the relationship between information and meaning.
(12) Why is not all knowledge expressed or turned into information?
NOTES
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PART C
Historical overview of storage, retrieval
and transfer of information
Contents
PART C HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF STORAGE, RETRIEVAL AND

TRANSFER OF INFORMATION
Introduction
STUDY UNIT 6 IMPORTANT MEANS DEVELOPED FOR STORING,
RETRIEVING AND TRANSFERRING INFORMATION
6.1 Language
6.2 Invention of writing
6.2.1 What makes a writing system successful?
6.2.2 Why did writing systems develop?
6.2.3 Invention of the alphabet
6.3 Written documents
6.3.1 Recording medium
6.3.2 Codex
6.3.3 Manuscripts
6.4 Invention of printing
6.4.1 First information explosion
6.4.2 Effects of printing
6.4.3 The struggle to control print: the power of information
6.4.4 Development of a commercial infrastructure
6.5 Mass media
6.6 Computers
6.7 Convergence of information technologies
6.7.1 The ``global village''
6.7.2 New forms of communication technology
Definitions
Self-assessment
50
INTRODUCTION
After studying this study unit you should be able to
. outline the important means that human societies have developed for the storage,
retrieval and transfer of information
. state the significance of language for storing and transferring information
. briefly describe the invention of writing and state the importance of the alphabet
. discuss the importance and some effects of the invention of printing
. describe the various mass media and how they are used in the transfer of information
. briefly outline the relevance of the invention of the computer for information storage,
retrieval and transmission
. explain the significance of the convergence (coming together) of different
information technologies for information storage and transmission
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INS1501/1 51
STUDY UNIT 6
Important means developed for
storing, retrieving and transferring
information
Information science as a scientific field of study is discussed in Part D, where we identify

storage, retrieval and transfer of information as core issues of information science.
Information has always been important to human societies. New ways to store, retrieve
and transmit information are developed over time as new technological discoveries are
made and new needs arise. In this study unit, we shall give a brief historical overview of
the major technological developments. This overview should help you understand the
origins of information science and also that, although there have been enormous
technological changes over time, many of the historical means used for storing,
retrieving and transferring information are still used today.
OPTIONAL ACTIVTY
Think of the many ways that you get information and compare them with the ways
that your parents and grandparents stored, retrieved and transferred information
when they were younger.
You saw from this activity that there are numerous ways to store, retrieve and transmit
information. As you work through this study unit you will begin to understand the
significance of the historical development of various means to store, transmit and
retrieve information.
6.1 LANGUAGE
The first method that human societies developed for storing and communicating
information was language. Language comprises socially agreed upon sounds and
symbols that stand for and symbolise concepts. It requires social consensus
(agreement) about the meaning of words. We have no historical records for when
language developed, but every human society has developed a language. Any language
has to be learnt, but all human beings appear to have the inherent capacity for learning
and formulating language. We can deduce this from the fact that every human society
has a language.
Language enables people to encode messages containing information symbolically and

communicate it to others who understand the particular language. The ability to
communicate verbally is the most important factor for the development and transmission
of the culture. It means knowledge can be transmitted from one person to another and
52
from one generation to the next. Language, therefore, enables people to communicate
and transmit culture.
We are constantly overwhelmed by sensory information (information that we get
through our senses, e.g. sight). Language enables us to interpret this sensory
information, and in doing so, gives us some control over our environment. Language
helps us to store and transmit information. By naming something, we become aware of it
and can think about it. By naming something, we also decide which elements of our
sensory experience are important and which elements can be ignored. The environment
in which a society lives will influence its vocabulary. For example, Inuits (Eskimos) have
many words for snow because it is an important part of their environment, but one or
two words for it is sufficient in South Africa. Language reflects and defines reality for a
social group.
. Oral culture. During most of their existence people have had an oral culture. In fact
many cultures today are still oral cultures. This means that culturally valuable
information is transmitted and stored orally (by word of mouth). The most important
method used in an oral society to transmit the cultural heritage is through spoken
language. Different methods such as music, rhymes or even dancing may be used to
help people remember large and complex pieces of information. Stories are also an
important method for remembering important information. Formulas may also be used
as an aid to memory, for example proverbs. Fixed formulas in oral cultures serve some
of the purposes of writing. Many of these methods are still used today in literate
cultures; for example, we still teach our children proverbs (e.g. `à stitch in time saves
nine'').
. In a literate culture, spoken language still plays an important role in passing on the
cultural heritage, but this heritage also includes the vast range of recorded
documents. A literate society is no longer dependent on people's memories for the
transmission of their entire cultural heritage because they use written documents to
store and transmit valuable information.
The following are some problems of information storage and transfer in oral form:
. The transmission of information is transitory (short lived).
. People see, hear and understand the same object or event differently.
. There can be many misunderstandings during the transfer of information, owing to
language problems such as ambiguities (uncertainties), indistinct pronunciation and
careless formulation.
. Knowledgeable people play a vital role in storing and transferring information. The
death of a knowledgeable person can mean the loss of valuable information.
Language helps man to develop his capacity for thought. Language provides man
with a useful grasp of reality which improves his chances of survival and raises his
quality of life. The structure and vocabulary of a language influence the thoughts
and knowledge of language users. When a person uses the word `dog', for
example, to refer to a specific kind of object, all objects are implicitly classified (or
divided) into two groups, namely dogs and non-dogs. Jesse Shera (1972:33) says:
Language is not only a vehicle, but also a molder of thought ... far from being a
simple technique of communication, language is itself a way of directing the
perception of its speakers. It provides habitual modes for analyzing experience into
significant categories (Bekker 1993:31).
INS1501/1 53
6.2 INVENTION OF WRITING
Our main medium of communication, namely speech, is much older than writing. When
a written script was invented it revolutionised communication. Writing allowed
individuals to store and share information without meeting face to face. Writing also
made it possible to create a pool of available information for future use. It provided
b
human beings with an additional means of information storage and transfer.
ACTIVITY 16
Give five ways that you have benefited from writing.
Mnemonic aids are the forerunners of writing. People have always made marks that can
serve as an aid to memory and communication, for example the rock engravings and
quipus) made in Peru and the
paintings of the San people, the knots tied in string (
coloured, or threaded shells ( wampum) used by the American Indians. Writing systems
are a continuation and development of these systems.
6.2.1 What makes a writing system successful?
People developed various writing methods, including the Western alphabet, through the
gradual discovery of how to graphically represent speech and the various elements of
spoken language (read for example Olson 1994). The important feature of writing
systems is that they use conventional signs and symbols, such as numbers and letters, so
that all members of the cultural group understand them in the same way. For a written
script to be effective, the symbols need to be recorded (encoded) by the source and
received or read (decoded) by the receiver. A good correlation (connection or link)
between the spoken and written language is an essential requirement of a successful
writing system.
6.2.2 Why did writing systems develop?
Historically, the need for writing occurred because societies developed and grew in
complexity. The need to store information became greater as societies reached a certain
level of sophistication and complexity. There was the gradual emergence of a state, with
a common ruler and common interests, which led to the need for common resources. It
became essential to have records as transactions increased in complexity. Property
boundaries, taxes, payments for services and goods all needed to be recorded. Systems
of recording information developed in countries such as Egypt and China using
pictograms and hieroglyphics. These early systems had various disadvantages such as
the large number of symbols needed to represent language. What was required was a
writing system that allowed us to express language in some standardised
representational form such as the alphabet.
6.2.3 Invention of the alphabet
The alphabet is the most widely used method of representing a language in written form
today. The central role of an alphabet in the storage and communication of information
cannot be overstated. It essentially allows us to represent in written form many different
languages in a permanent and commonly understood form.
54
The alphabetic system has the following advantages:
. It is sufficiently flexible to be used for a large number of languages that have different
phonemes (units of sound).
. It is easy to learn and use and is readily adaptable.
. It embodies a key principle of the communication of information: the need for a
method to represent language in a permanent and generally understood form. The
alphabet and the numerical system enable us to encode and preserve valuable
information for future generations.
. The standardisation of symbolisation is very important in the production of
information documents and the exchange of information. The simplicity of the
alphabet, the limited number of its signs and the way they are used in different
languages make it easy to learn, read and write the alphabetical script. The use of the
alphabet makes it possible to create and reproduce texts economically.
6.3 WRITTEN DOCUMENTS
6.3.1 Recording medium
A system for representing information depends not only on the existence of the method
of representation (writing) but also on a suitable recording medium. Different societies
developed different media according to their needs, technological ability and what
materials were available. The important thing about recording media is that they should
be suitable for their purpose. A writing system can never be independent of the medium
in which it can be used. The medium, like the writing system, emerges out of social
necessity and environmental circumstances (what is available in the environment). In
the Middle East, for example, clay tablets that were easy to make became the medium on
which the earliest information records were written.
A smooth surface on which the symbols could be written was generally what was
needed. The most useful media are the most flexible and easily obtained and preserved,
such as paper. The invention of a suitable medium, such as papyrus, parchment and
eventually paper, gave impetus to the development and use of writing.
6.3.2 Codex
The codex is a manuscript in book form. The development of the book is an important
event in the history of information storage and retrieval. The codex form that first came
into use at the beginning of the 1st century is a perfect example of an information-
storage medium that is both effective and appropriate. It is easy to make, store and use.
The alphabet, the codex and paper were a powerful and successful combination as an
information storage and retrieval system (see for example Feather 1994:9-20).
6.3.3 Manuscripts
All the information records that existed before the 15th century in the West were written
by hand and are known as manuscripts. Manuscripts had the following characteristics:
. The copyist created each individual manuscript by hand.
. Each time a copyist reproduced a book by hand, he produced a document that was, to
a greater or lesser extent, unique.
INS1501/1 55
. Manuscripts took much longer to produce than printed books.
. The main texts that were copied in the West were religious texts.
6.4 INVENTION OF PRINTING
Printing is one of the most important inventions. The invention of movable typographic
printing by Johann Gutenberg in Germany was an important turning point in the
development of written records. The first European book printed was the Bible printed
from 14541455. Printing made books more widely available. It also meant that each
printed version was identical to the original and thus cut out variations due to mistakes
or alterations by copyists. This allowed a series of aids to the use of books to be
developed, such as the index, table of contents, pagination (numbering of pages in
sequence), paragraphs and headings.
6.4.1 First information explosion
Scholars, who before the invention of printing may never have seen more than 20 or 30
books in their lives, could now consult thousands of books in libraries. Printing resulted
in the first information explosion. Knowledge and information became cumulative
(enlarged) as each generation added to the store and recorded its findings and opinions
in a permanent and easily retrievable form.
6.4.2 Effects of printing
The effects of printing are too numerous to discuss in any detail here. We mention only a
few to highlight the effect that a new technological method of storing and transferring
information can have on a society:
. Printing, among other things, encouraged the establishment of modern science from
the 17th century onwards.
. Classical texts were first printed on a large scale in Latin but, as time went on, many
texts were published in the vernacular languages in Europe (e.g. English, Italian,
French). This encouraged the development of vernacular languages.
. The number of people who could read greatly increased because more books were
now available and many were written and printed in the vernacular languages.
. Libraries were founded to conserve, organise and retrieve books containing
information.
OPTIONAL ACTIVITY
If you are interested in reading further on this topic, a good source is:
Eisenstein, E. 1979.The printing press as an agent of change: communications and

culture in early modern Europe. 2 vols. Cambridge, Mass: Cambridge
University Press.
You may also read up on the history of the publishing industry in South Africa,
if interested.
56
6.4.3 The struggle to control print: the power of information
New mechanisms and institutions had to be devised to contain, exploit and control the
potential of print, such as publishers, printers and booksellers. Censorship by the church
and state were used to control what was available almost from the beginning. The
church had largely controlled the production and use of manuscripts and wished to
retain control over printed material as well. Those in power also exploited the new
medium to their benefit. The invention of printing, with its impact, demonstrates the
power of those who control and have access to information. Printing turned Western
Europe into a culture dominated by the printed word. Literacy, which had to be acquired
by learning, became the basic skill of the elite, while the more natural skills of seeing and
hearing were no longer regarded as the most important methods for information transfer.
6.4.4 Development of a commercial infrastructure
Another important thing to remember is that, from the beginning, the manufacture of
and trade in books was linked to commerce. The production of large numbers of books
required an infrastructure for producing, distributing and marketing these books to
people. This created another barrier (in addition to literacy) between information and
those who needed or wanted it: the ability to afford the books. The printing press was
partially mechanised in the 19th century and this brought the price of books and
newspapers down to more affordable levels. Widespread education in Europe and
Northern America also meant that people had the ability to read the printed word,
creating a large potential market for books. Large public libraries were established that
made books available to the general public free of cost or for a small fee. Even at its most
widespread, print has, however, never replaced the spoken word as the most common
and widely used method of communication and information transfer.
6.5 MASS MEDIA
During the latter half of the 19th century there was another great revolution in the
storage and communication of information. It was partly an attempt to overcome some
of the inflexibility and disadvantages of print by the invention of methods to convey
speech and visual images. We are talking about the technological developments of
photography, radio, cinema and television:
. Photographs. The first technological development was the ability to print visual
images through photographs. Although earlier methods such as lithographs were
developed, photographs were cheaper and far more accurate. Like printing,
photography overcame some of the barriers of time and place in the transmission of
information. With the use of digital cameras being widespread, such barriers seem to
have become almost obsolete. The problem digital photography has, though, is
common to all other digital media, because of the pace of development: the question
of dependable storage media and hardware that can ``read''.
. Radio. The recording of sound and the development of the wireless, or radio as it is
known today, and the telephone made possible the instant transmission of oral
information over distance. Today, radio is still the most accessible form of mass media
used in most of the world. By the mid-1920s broadcasting of speech and music was
established in the United States and Western Europe. This presented a serious
challenge to print. The broadcasters could make news accessible faster than
newspapers and also provide entertainment. Radio could also be used for educational
purposes. Broadcasting became a prime medium for politicians, advertisers and
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religious sects. The power of the new medium was recognised and acknowledged
everywhere. Many governments imposed regulations to control this medium. The
commercial success of sound broadcasting allowed manufacturers to produce large
numbers of radio receivers so the price was affordable to most people.
. Cinema. Another popular medium developed at the same time was cinema (films or
``movies''). Moving pictures were first made in the 1890s and a small industry for their
production and distribution was developed before World War I. By 1920, the industry
was centred in the United States and this country has continued to dominate the
cinema industry. Sound was added in 1927 to this new and powerful medium. Today
the cinema industry has been revolutionised by the use of computers.
. Television. Television is the most powerful of the mass media. Within 30 years of its
tentative beginnings in 1936, it grew to be the most universal mass medium. It may
well be the most powerful medium of communication and information invented. The
power of television lies in its immediacy. Like radio, it is open to abuse and misuse by
commercial interests and governments alike. Its power lies in its ability to convey
images immediately, whether these images are of soccer matches, elections,
assassinations or war. It requires a costly infrastructure and in most countries is
controlled by the state to some extent. A serious element of uncontrolled competition
entered the television industry in the late 1980s with the global spread of satellite and
cable systems. Television has hastened the development of monopolistic commercial
control of the communication of information.
Although many predicted the death of the printed word when the mass media were
invented, the mass media have supplemented rather than displaced print. They do best
what the printed word does badly or not at all. They have the advantages of
. visual and aural impact
. immediacy
. ease of access
. universality
Together the mass media have revived and extended the oral and visual culture that was
almost lost in the world of print. Even regular readers get much of their information from
other media; for example, people watch the news, a concert or tennis match on
television. On the other hand, an increasing number of books, video clips, newspapers
and magazines are becoming available online, which combines the visual and the
auditory with the written word.
The control of mass media by media giants can affect objectivity. The new media
undermined the primacy (most powerful role) of print. They were more accessible for
many people than the printed word. These media were soon seen to be as authoritative
as the printed word. The infrastructure of broadcasting and cinema are, however, so
expensive that only well-capitalised companies could truly compete on the mass market.
It was the large-scale capitalists who succeeded in production and distribution in the
film industry. The result was the media giants, who control much of the global
communications and information industry today (see Feather 1994).
Print and mass media democratised access to information. Print began the process of
democratisation of information in Europe by making information accessible to the
average person, but the mass media have the potential to complete that process
58
throughout the world. The following statistics (although more than 30 years old) should
give you some idea of the information explosion in the 20th century:
. Ninety per cent of all scientists and technologists who ever lived are alive and at work
today.
. In the first 500 years since Gutenberg, from 1450 to 1950, about 30 million printed
books were published in the world.
. In the last 25 years alone an equal number have appeared.
. More recently researchers have stated that the amount of information doubles every
20 months (see for example Annual review... 1998; Feather 1994).
6.6 COMPUTERS
Why is the computer so powerful? Attempts to use machines to do mathematical

calculations are almost as old as mathematics itself. For example, the abacus (counting
frame with beads) was widely used in China a thousand years ago and is still used
today. The basis of computing is the writing and application of logical programs.There
are, however, two additional functions that make the computer such a powerful tool:
(1) The storage capacity of the computer its ability to ``remember'' information and its
capacity to process the information that is held in its memory.
(2) The development of the linkage between computing and telecommunications
systems, which enables computers to ``talk'' to each other and thus access each
other's memory banks and processing power. It is this second function that made
the information and communication revolution of the past two decades possible.
Computer technology means that, for the first time, a machine is able to create and
supply information. The computer is equipped with the information-processing
functions of memory, computation, storage and control that greatly increase the human
ability to create and manipulate information. The computer has separated the production
of information from the person who creates it, so that the production of information
moves from human beings to machines (see for example Masuda 1981).
Access to computers costs money and the widespread image of instantaneous access to
information is somewhat deceptive. The computer industry is capital intensive, meaning
that it requires a great deal of money. Instant information is only available if the owners
of that information choose to make it available and the seekers are able to gain access to
it. Access to information is increasingly dependent on wealth and skills. Technology has
made more information available to more people than at any time in tens of thousands of
years of human history. The same technology has, however, made access to it more
difficult (Feather 1994:32-35).
6.7 CONVERGENCE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES
The convergence of information technologies has made them powerful. One of the most
important reasons why the new technology has had such an effect on modern society is
the rapid increase in microprocessing technology and the progressive convergence

(coming together) of all information technologies mass media, telecommunications and
computing in a single infrastructure of control at the highest level. A 1978 report
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commissioned by the President of France likened the growing interconnection of
information processing, communication and control technologies throughout the world
to an alteration in the `èntire nervous system of social organization'' (quoted in Beniger
1986:25). Increasingly, knowledge and access to information are the key factors in a
country's international economic strength. Knowledge has become the foundation of
the modern economy.
6.7.1 The ``global village''
In 1967, Marshall McLuhan predicted that as a result of the convergence of information
technology, the world will become a global village. People would be able to
communicate with one another, irrespective of where they are. Information would also
be available instantaneously, irrespective of where it originated. To some extent these
predictions have come true. People are able to communicate speedily and effectively,
irrespective of distance and time, through information technology (IT). A form of
cultural standardisation is also taking place as new communications carrying essentially

the same messages circle the globe. The ownership of the communication method leads
to the dominance of certain elite groups and societies over others and may result in a
form of cultural colonialism, that is intellectual domination by the most powerful and
wealthiest societies.
Computing is the most influential invention since printing. Computing has been
responsible for the most important changes in human communication since the
invention of printing. It enables a facility that writing and printing could not give
instantaneous communication on many different levels. Through the interlinking of
computers and telecommunication systems, individuals can communicate with one
another, can access vast stores of information and can themselves store information. The
form, time and place of output can be largely determined by the user rather than by the
provider. The technology has also become so user-friendly that most people can use it
without special training. It is the ease and universality of access that is the key to the
information technology revolution (see for example Feather 1998:206).
6.7.2 New forms of communication technology
Each time people develop a new form of communication technology, new ways of
organising, retrieving and transmitting information result. It may also make us more
aware of elements of the communication system. Writing gave us the ability to look at
and think about language differently. This helped to develop additional thinking skills to
those developed through oral transmission and storage of information. Mass media such
as television and radio re-emphasised the importance of aural and visual skills in
communication.
Computers and electronic communication enable us to store, search for and transmit
information in a variety of ways that are not possible when information is stored in fixed
textual form, such as books. Computers enable us to use a multimedia approach
incorporating video, sound and hyperlinks. Each new form of technology has provided
us with additional tools to store, retrieve and transmit information. These developments
have a definite impact on the information professions.
You will be studying information technology in depth at a later level of the curriculum.
60
e DEFINITIONS
alphabet: letters used to represent language, usually in a fixed order, used in writing a
language and representing its basic speech sounds; symbols for communicating a set
of symbols representing units used in communication, especially speech sounds or
words
convergence: coming together
information technology (IT): merger of computing technologies and

communication technologies that makes vast amounts of information and data
instantly available almost anywhere
language: formalised system of communication; understood by majority (symbols,

signs) socially agreed upon sounds and symbols which stand for and symbolise
concepts
mass communication: communicating the identical message to a large number of

people at the same time
mass media: the press (newspapers and magazines), films, radio and television
microretrieval: the retrieval of a piece of information in a document (e.g. an article in

a journal, or a chapter in a book)
mnemonic: something designed to aid the memory
oral culture: the primary (main) means of storing and transmitting culturally valuable
information by word of mouth
technology: all the ways in which people use inventions and discoveries to enable
them to survive and control the environment better
writing: a human system of establishing and transferring information with the aid of
conventional signs that symbolise language
j SELF-ASSESSMENT
(1) Write notes on the influence of printed records on the practice of information
science.
(2) We take much of the modern technology for granted. In which way do you use
communication technology in your life?
(3) What are the possible consequences of cultural standardisation, cultural
hybridisation, and the idea of a global village? Try to think beyond mere economic
implications.
(4) Draw a mind map to illustrate the development of the various means of
information storage, retrieval and transfer.
(5) If you are already registered for module AIS101D, compare the historical overview
in Study Unit 6 (Part C) to the development of the library.
NOTES
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62
PART D
Information Science
Contents
PART D INFORMATION SCIENCE

Introduction
STUDY UNIT 7 INFORMATION SCIENCE AS A DISCIPLINE
7.1 Information Science and information
7.1.1 The objective of Information Science
7.1.2 What do we study in Information Science?
7.1.3 The information cycle
7.2 Definitions of Information Science
7.3 Distinctive characteristics of Information Science
7.4 Origins and development as a discipline
7.4.1 Development of Information Science as a discipline
7.4.1.1 History of storage and retrieval of information
7.4.1.2 Information Science as a specialised discipline
7.4.2 Trends and events in emergence of Information Science
STUDY UNIT 8 INFORMATION SCIENCE AS A PROFESSION

8.1 Library Science and Information Science
8.1.1 The main function of Applied Information Science
8.1.2 Librarianship
8.1.3 Similarities and differences between Library Science and Information Science
8.1.4 Applied Information Science
8.1.5 Information Science
8.2 The Information Science profession
8.3 The lifecycle of information
STUDY UNIT 9 STUDY AREAS OF INTEREST TO INFORMATION SCIENCE

9.1 Central problem areas in Information Science
9.2 Criteria for Information Science
9.3 Theoretical approaches to information
9.4 The research process
STUDY UNIT 10 UNIVERSE OF KNOWLEDGE

10.1 Infrastructure of the universe of knowledge
10.1.1 Humanities
10.1.2 Social sciences
10.1.3 Natural sciences and technology
10.2 The DDC system
10.3 Affiliated disciplines
10.3.1 Philosophy
10.3.2 Communication Science
10.3.3 Linguistics
10.3.4 Semiotics
10.3.5 Behavioural sciences
10.3.6 Systems Theory
10.3.7 Mathematics
10.3.8 Computer science
10.3.9 Artificial Intelligence
Definitions
Self-assessment
64
INTRODUCTION
The concept of information is discussed in Parts A and B. You should remember that
there are many different definitions of information and that it is very difficult and limiting
to give you one definition. We prefer to give you several ways of understanding the
concept of information by indicating how it is used so that you can follow the
discussion on Information Science, because ultimately we are concerned with
knowledge.
In Study Unit 7 Information Science is dealt with as a scientific discipline. It is important

for you to know and understand the nature of Information Science as a scientific field of
study, to be able to define Information Science, identify and explain its main
characteristics, and understand its unique relationship to the concept of information.
You should be able to explain the origin and development of Information Science as a
scientific field of study and to identify and discuss trends and events that played a role in
the emergence of contemporary Information Science.
When you have worked through Study Unit 8 you should be able to explain the
relationship between Library and Information Science, distinguish between them and
explain Information Science as a profession.
From Study Unit 9 you should be able to identify and explain the central areas of study
in Information Science, show how they relate to the information phenomenon in general
and explain what scientific research means.
Study Unit 10 introduces you to the universe of knowledge as well as the disciplines
that are related to Information Science. You should be able to outline the infrastructure
of the universe of knowledge, relate it to other knowledge systems and divisions, and
describe the contributions of the affiliated disciplines to Information Science.
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STUDY UNIT 7
Information science as a discipline
This study unit deals with the nature of Information Science as a scientific discipline, its
many and often divergent definitions, as well as the characteristics of Information
Science that distinguish it from other disciplines.
7.1 INFORMATION SCIENCE AND INFORMATION
The relationship that Information Science has to the concept of information should be
clear from Parts A and B. The information cycle especially brings this home. The
discussion on Information Science as a discipline will be done according to the subject
field's main objectives, what is studied in Information Science, and what the information
cycle entails.
7.1.1 The objective of Information Science
Information Science is presented as an academic subject concerned with information as

the primary object of study (or phenomenon) that is scientifically studied. The applied
Information Science course deals with it in the occupational context of libraries and
other social information agencies such as archives and museums. The main objective of
Information Science is that you as a student should come to understand the information
phenomenon.
The intention is to make you aware of information, to be able to effectively deal with
information in daily life inside and outside an occupational context. It is also to help you
understand what information is, where it occurs, what can be done with it, how
important and valuable it is, and how it enriches and improves the lives of individuals
and society.
7.1.2 What do we study in Information Science?
Information Science is concerned with the efficient storage, communication

(information retrieval and transmission) and use (knowledge management) of
information. There is a set of core activities based on these activities. These include the
study of information from its generation (creation) to its exploitation (use) and its
transmission in a variety of forms through a variety of channels. Information Science
helps the users of information to make sense of the world and their work sphere. (Read
for example Summers et al 1999; Vickery & Vickery 1992:361.)
7.1.3 The information cycle
Refer to Study Unit 8.3 on the lifecycle of information (as well as Study Unit 3.2.2).
Information Science is concerned with the information cycle. Creators of information,
such as authors, database producers and film producers, produce documents that are
66
published, distributed, stored and retrieved. Various retrieval aids such as indexes,
catalogues and abstracts are produced to help people access and retrieve the
information contained in the documents. There are also intermediaries, such as
librarians, translators and information scientists, who facilitate the transmission of
information. There are many social activities between the generation and reception of
information. Many can be identified in the variety of definitions available on information
Science.
7.2 DEFINITIONS OF INFORMATION SCIENCE
Definitions on Information Science are as varied as the approaches to it. Information

Science developed not only in a social and human science environment (Bibliography
and Library Science), but the natural scientific approach (documentation and
information storage and retrieval) also made a strong contribution. In the eight
definitions below, especially the ones by Harold Borko, Jesse Shera and Tom Wilson are
from the social sciences, whereas the definition proposed by Hassan Mortazavian, an
engineer, has the more mathematical slant of the natural sciences. Five linguistic
elements of the Information Science field of study that often make up a definition on
Information Science are its name, nature, contents, focus and function.
(1) Information Science is ``the science dealing with the efficient collection, storage
and retrieval of information'' (Saracevic 1999:1055).
(2) `Ìnformation Science is a field of professional practice and scientific enquiry
addressing the problem of effective communication of knowledge records among
humans in the context of social, organisational and individual need for and use of
information. The key orientation here is the problem of need for and use of
information, as involving knowledge records. To provide for that need, information
science deals with specifically oriented information techniques, procedures and
systems'' (Saracevic 1999:1056-7).
(3) `Ìnformation Science is that discipline that investigates the properties and
behaviour of information, the forces governing the flow of information, and the
means of processing information for optimum accessibility and usability. It is
concerned with that body of knowledge relating to the origination, collection,
organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, transmission, transformation, and
utilization of information ... It has both a pure science component, which inquires
into the subject without regard to its application, and an applied science
component, which develops services and products'' (Borko 1968:3-5). In the last
sentence Borko makes provision for information science and applied information
science.
(4) `Ìnformation Science is an area of research which draws its substance, methods,
and techniques from a variety of disciplines to achieve an understanding of the
properties, behaviour, and flow of information'' (Shera 1972:293).
(5) `Ìnformation Science is the study of the generation, organisation, transfer, and
utilisation of information. It is concerned with the nature of information in general,
with the channels or `carriers' of information, and with the information user'' (Tom
Wilson quoted in Media, knowledge and power1987:410).
(6) ``By Information Science, we mean the assemblage of systematic studies aimed at
understanding, interpreting, analysing, and measuring information; and modelling,
organizing, and utilizing the process of transferring information, or more generally,
knowledge- be it among humans, humans and machines, or only among machines''
(Hassan Mortazavian quoted in The Study of information 1983:542). This
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definition links Information Science more to the natural sciences, and tends
towards Informatics with a strong affiliation with computer science.

(7) Information Science is `à discipline that investigates the characteristics of
information and the nature of the information transfer process, whilst not losing
sight of the practical aspects of collecting, collating and evaluating information and
organizing its dissemination through appropriate intellectual apparatus and
technology'' (Bottle 1997:212).
(8) `Ìnformation Science considers communication of, mainly recorded, information,
between human generators and human users. It aims at conceptualising and
understanding information environments, information needs of, and seeking by,
individuals and groups, and the organisation of information resources for
facilitating access to desired information. Systems of organizing information
include e.g. libraries, information services and databases'' (Faculty of Social
Sciences, University of Tampere, quoted by Ingwersen 1995:147). This definition
b
summarises the distinctive features of Information Science.
ACTIVITY 17
Read through the various definitions again and make a list of the common features, as
well as where they deviate.
7.3 DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF
INFORMATION SCIENCE
If we look at the above definitions we can identify the following core elements that
make Information Science different from other disciplines.
. Information Science is the only discipline that studies messages, carried by media,
containing preserved knowledge (as found in books, periodicals, information on the
Internet) to solve the theoretical and practical problems of both its organisation and
representation in systems for later retrieval and use on demand.
. The focus of Information Science is on the generation, retrieval, transmission and use
of information, rather than on the technology itself which is a means of achieving the
former.
. Information Science focuses on issues that clarify the nature and dynamics of
information and knowledge.
. Information Science focuses on the idea of desired information, on individuals in a

variety of environments who actively seek information for a purpose.
. Information Science also emphasises that certain information services should be
provided as a human right. This should be linked to a national information policy. For
example, the American Library Association proposes the following: that all
information must be available to all people in all formats purveyed through all
communication channels and delivered at all levels of comprehension (Pratt
1982:64). Although this may be idealistic and virtually impossible to do, this
statement recognises that people have a right to information that may affect their
lives.
. Information Science emphasises the quality of interaction between generators,
systems and users of recorded information.
68
. Information Science has links to the human and behavioural science as well as to
practising librarians and documentation.
. Information Science investigates the forces that influence and determine the flow of
information and the means of processing information to make it as accessible and
usable as possible.
A characteristic it shares with other disciplines in the human and social sciences is its
interdisciplinary nature. It is quite often claimed that Information Science is
interdisciplinary. The dividing lines between various fields of scientific disciplines are
sometimes extremely artificial. The justification for the existence or general recognition
of a science is, however, not found in its rigid demarcation, but in its contribution to
reliable theoretical and practical knowledge. The overlapping between sciences is not
necessarily something that should be avoided: it can be advantageous to examine the
same topic from more than one angle, that is through different subject traditions and
approaches.
There are grey areas in all the empirical sciences: the fields of study that are equally well
suited to more than one science. Every discipline adopts knowledge from other
disciplines and information science is no exception. Information Science overlaps to
some extent with other subject fields such as communications, computer science and
information systems, as do many other disciplines. We discuss related subject fields in
Study Unit 10.2 when dealing with affiliated disciplines.
7.4 ORIGINS AND DEVELOPMENT AS A DISCIPLINE
Human societies are built on information. It has always been and remains an essential
part of our environment. From the earliest times, people increased their chances of
survival by storing and passing on information. For example, early hunter-gatherers
found ways to remember where water was available and parents passed this information
on to their children. The role of information and its degree of importance have, however,
differed over time. In an information society, knowledge and information play a central
role in every aspect of life. Information today is seen as both key personal and economic
resources.
We need to keep two dimensions of the concept `ìnformation'' in mind:
(1) It has a material or physical dimension of information, for example a book

containing recorded information.
(2) It has a dimension of meaning that relates to the content of the message. For
example, a book is a physical object (the material dimension) and it contains a
message that can be communicated to a person who reads it (the meaning
dimension).
When information is successfully communicated it has an effect on the recipient. It may

change or increase this person's knowledge, or confirm what the person already knows.
Information exists in its material dimension as an entity that can be a resource or
commodity and sold for a profit. However, it also has value because of the meaning
dimension.
7.4.1 Development of Information Science as a discipline
Information Science is a relatively new discipline or branch of study focusing on

scientific information. It emerged after World War II along with a number of other
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disciplines such as computer science. The rapid pace of scientific and technical
advances in the 20th century produced a scientific and technical revolution by the
middle of the century. The most visible aspect of this revolution was the `ìnformation
explosion''. This refers to the huge increase in scientific and technical publications and
information records of all kinds. The core problem addressed by Information Science is
the challenging task of making the complex and enormous store of knowledge more
accessible to users (read for example Dick 2002; Saracevic 1999).
The Institute of Information Scientists (IIS) was only established in 1958 in Britain, and
the American Society for Information Science (ASIS) in 1968. The IIS represents and
brings together those concerned with Information Science. At first, the main interest of
its members was the management of scientific and technological information. By calling
themselves information scientists, the members of the IIS wanted to emphasise the
importance of the scientific study of scientific information and the processes involved in
handling scientific communication. Their work was a continuation of previous
theoretical and practical attempts to deal with the problems of the organisation, growth
and dissemination of recorded information (Ingwersen 1995:137).
The development of Information Science as a discipline is discussed under two main

headings: a sketch of the background to the history of storing and retrieving information,
and the eventual establishment of Information Science as a specialised discipline arising
from such historical happenings.
7.4.1.1 History of storage and retrieval of information
Information Science has grown out of a long history of people finding effective ways
and means to store and transmit important information. It can be traced back to the
establishment of agencies that today are called archives, libraries and museums. From
earliest time, people have tried to find ways to store and retrieve culturally valuable
information. Certain professions have developed from the activities involved in storing,
retrieving and transmitting information. When people first recorded information, scribes
(people who wrote down information) were needed to write it down. These written
documents were stored in archives, museums or libraries and people with special skills
to store and retrieve (find) this information were needed.
Initially the agencies of archives, libraries and museums could not be distinguished from
collected and preserved
one another. The element they shared was that all of them
objects of information (natural or not human-made) and/or information records
(human-made). These items gained prominence in time and an increasing emphasis
was placed on the organisation, retrieval (and the potential information that can be
conveyed) of those items. These information agencies gradually differentiated into
separate agencies (archives, libraries and museums), depending on the type of objects
or records collected. This led to the development of various related occupations,
followed by training programmes and associations. The initial instruction in what was
later called Library Science was more focused on actual practice (originally called
Library Economy and later Librarianship). A further diversification was the development
of different types of libraries.
The oldest subject concerned with the control of information is called Bibliography. It
developed from the need to make lists of all information records in a business or public
body (and in broader contexts) as far as possible, especially because the organisation
and retrieval of information means obtaining controlover records and other objects and
the information contained in them.
There was an enormous increase in recorded information with the invention of printing
in the middle of the 15th century, which required more highly specialised systems to
70
store and retrieve the increased volume of recorded information. Systems were
developed to organise information sources so that they could be retrieved when needed.
The rapid development of science in the 17th century caused people to look for new
methods to disseminate information because they found that publishing information in
books took too long and the information was already dated by the time a book was
published. Subject journals or periodicals, which were published at regular intervals,
were developed as a result. These made the dissemination of scientific information more
rapid.
Methods were now needed to retrieve and disseminate valuable information in these
journals and the profession of documentation developed. Documentalists looked at
ways to make micro-retrieval of information possible. Micro-retrieval is the retrieval of a
piece of information in a document, for example an article in a journal or a chapter in a
book, rather than the retrieval of a whole document.
The age of the information specialist arrived with the development of

telecommunication and the invention of the computer. Society now needed experts who
were able to store, retrieve and transmit information, irrespective of the form in which
the information was produced and stored. Because documentation activities are
concerned with the retrieval of information in documents, the name had been changed
to information retrieval by 1951. It is also referred to as information storage and
retrievalbecause the way in which information is organised and stored and its location
b
play a decisive role in recovering, tracing and retrieving.
ACTIVITY 18
Draw up a schematic representation of the developments thus far to indicate the

development of and changes in needs regarding information control through the
organisation and retrieval of information records and objects (e.g. from the use of
scribes to the need for the information specialist).
Many more types of information records apart from books are taking their place in
libraries. As records and information have accumulated, the need for more in-depth and
faster organisation has increased the need for faster and more efficient retrieval to be
able to satisfy user needs. The main concern is with information control involving
proactive information organisation and reactive retrieval. Especially the role of
technological inventions, notably computer and telecommunications, has become
paramount. Not only have nonbook records (e.g. periodicals) increased, but
technological innovations have also led to the increase in the market of nonprint
records, especially in audio and audiovisual form. Since the first computer appeared on
the market in 1951, electronic information has become a common commodity,
especially in developed countries (or those that are dominant in the global economy).
These developments and happenings had a definite influence on the establishment of
Information Science as a discipline.
7.4.1.2 Information Science as a specialised discipline
Because of the developments as explained above, people were needed who understood
the information environment and the information phenomenon itself. In addition, the
focus on text as the basic form of information shifted and other forms, such as electronic
and graphic forms, came to be considered equally important (see Summers et al 1999).
This among other historical factors led to the development of the specialised disciplineof
Information Science. While Library Science and the terms ``librarian'' and ``library'' retain
INS1501/1 71
their traditional and literal association, the developments in information technology are
much broader than the library agency (in the United States for example information
storage and retrieval officially became Information Science in 1968, according to
Ingwersen (1995:137).
Initially, Information Science focused mostly on scientific and technological

communication and information transfer because these were the disciplines that
provided the stimulus for the development of information science. However, information
scientists finally realised that this focus was too limited. The discipline broadened to
include other fields in which recorded knowledge and information play a vital role, such
as the business and the public sectors (see for example Ingwersen 1995). Information
technology ensured the prominence of transmitted and recorded information in
contemporary society. One of the results is an increased need to examine the
information phenomenon scientifically, which forms part of the acknowledgment of
Information Science as an academic and scientific discipline.
Information Scientists can be described as proactive in searching and scanning the

literature and presenting results to their clients. They also add value to their work by
evaluating the literature they search, ignoring low-quality material and drawing
attention to key references. (refer to Study Unit 9 dealing with the study areas or fields
of concern to Information Science, especially the criteria as compiled by The Institute of
Information Scientists in 2001).
The following three interlinked factors were the driving force behind the establishment
of Information Science as a separate discipline:
(1) increasing problems of physical and intellectual access to a fast-growing body of
knowledge, specifically scientific knowledge
(2) the increasing complexity of problem solving at all levels of society
(3) the opportunities offered by new information technologies
The demands within the scientific and technological community for speedy access to
information have driven technological innovations to achieve this and to develop the
professional discipline of Information Science.
7.4.2 Trends and events in emergence of Information Science
The following serves as a summary of some of the important events and trends in the
emergence of the discipline discussed in the previous paragraphs:
. The discipline in the form of library and archival science was started many centuries
ago and arose from attempts to provide intellectual access to information by providing
physical access to documents.
. The more specialised discipline of Information Science developed as a result of the
post-war information explosion.

. Information Science is interdisciplinary.
. Its unique elements are the communicationof recorded information between those
people who generate information and those who use it, by facilitating the intellectual
and physical access to desired information by organised systems of information

resources.
. The following trends are evident:
Ð an extension of its focus from techno-scientific environments to understand all

environments in society using information in recorded form
72
Ð the emphasis on providing salient information that can be readily assimilated into
decision making within time and cost constraints
Ð increased focus on the centrality of the user in understanding the interaction
between user and information system (Summers et al 1999:1157±1160)
. Trends as identified by Ingwersen (1992:304±305):
Ð a shift in R&D (research and development) objects, the shift from documents to
text is `ìnformation transformed into knowledge''
Ð change from a focus on technology issues alone towards a human dimension
Ð a shift from understanding information as purely scientific towards understanding
information in a broader sense
Ð processes of a ccessibility and use no longer separated, but viewed in conjunction
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STUDY UNIT 8
Information Science as a profession
Understanding the relationship between Library and Information Science gives us

insight into its development not only as a discipline, but also as a profession.
8.1 LIBRARY SCIENCE AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
The subject that provides occupational preparation for information professionals is

called Applied Information Science; the term `àpplied'' referring to the occupational
application of the subject. It used to be referred to asLibrary Science, but with the
growth and expansion in the information environment, applied information science is
used as a broader title that incorporates library science, archival science and museology
(museum science). The field of study is often still referred to as LIS, or Library and
Information Science. The syllabus provides general occupational preparation for a
multitude of related information occupations, namely that of librarian, bibliographer,
documentalist, indexer, abstractor, archivist, museum curator, publisher, book dealer,
record manager, information manager, information consultant, information broker and
so on.
8.1.1 The main function of Applied Information Science
The above-mentioned occupations are related in that their main function is the exercise
of information control (organisation and retrieval). Applied Information Science (AIS) is
concerned with more than simply preparation for library practice. It deals with every
information utility centre and its objective is to promote the transfer of information
among people. AIS explores the working environment of information professionals, but
inevitably not without including additional elements from their general field of
knowledge. A curriculum in occupational preparation must instil three things into the
would-be practitioner: knowledge, skills and the correct attitude.
8.1.2 Librarianship
Librarianship has a long history devoted to the organisation, preservation and use of
graphic records and records in other media. Many people believe that information is the
business of librarians and they are the people who, by virtue of their historical role and
social responsibilities, are best qualified to become specialists in the emerging
information-related studies. As a result, there is some confusion about the difference
between these two disciplines.
8.1.3 Similarities and differences between Library Science and
Information Science
There are many areas of similarity between Library Science and Information Science,
such as the processing of documents and information and use of information
74
technology. Speaking generally, we can state that Library Science differs from
Information Science in that it is practised in a particular institution such as the library.
Information Science, on the other hand, is not necessarily practised in a particular
institution. Library Science also has a strong social role (e.g. public and community
libraries) and human dimension. Information Science also transfers and mediates
information for the user but does not necessarily have a social role. Information Science
(INS) is not offered as an occupational course in the same way as Applied Information
Science (AIS) is.
8.1.4 Applied Information Science
AIS (Applied Information Science) offers occupational preparation for information
professionals. Such preparation is broader than library practice and provides for general
occupational preparation for a variety of related information professions (e.g. librarian,
bibliographer, indexer, abstractor, archivist, museum curator, record manager,
information manager, etc). These occupations have in common information control

(organisation and retrieval). Thus, the working environment of information
professionals is explored, elements from their general field of knowledge are included,
and the effective transfer of information between people is promoted (effective
information utilisation).
8.1.5 Information Science
INS (Information Science) does not leave the occupations out of consideration when
compiling its curriculum because in its aim to provide basic knowledge, perspective and
theoretical depth on the information phenomenon (including information technology) it
will necessarily always include it as a context for information practice. Information

practice is the domain of Applied Information Science. The chief objective of
Information Science is to gain understanding of the information phenomenon. It
involves obtaining understanding of empirical reality, which is a fundamental aspect
because of its essential role in being human and in society. This way, you will also learn
how to deal with information within the occupation context as well as in your daily life
because of your awareness of information and its related matters.
Another major objective is exploring the world of the user and his or her work
environment. This objective is linked to the world of the information practitioner and
offers an understanding of the theoretical foundation of the discipline plus a perspective
on the frame of reference for an occupation.
The division of Information Science into pure and applied components, even though
artificial, allows the discipline to simultaneously serve both as academic discipline in its
own right and as theoretical preparation for information professionals (this includes
practitioners). Since theory and practice are two important complementary dimensions,
professional practitioners should be proficient in skills as well as the practical
application of knowledge.
INS1501/1 75
b ACTIVITY 19
Make use of the following diagram and expand on it by including the similarities and
differences between the two areas of information science (use the above discussion
on LIS as a starting point).
Information Science
Applied Information Science (AIS): Information Science (INS):

Practice/applied ± Library Theory/pure ±Information
Science, Archival Science, phenomenon, theoretical
Museum Science foundation of the discipline
8.2 THE INFORMATION SCIENCE PROFESSION
Not all occupations are professions professional practitioners have received formal
tertiary instruction in theoretical aspects while simultaneously being prepared for
practice (which is why an information ``worker'' is a nonprofessional). Information
Science as a profession began to gain acceptance in the late 1960s and was popularised
by the ASIS during the 1970s. This was a period of growing awareness of the
importance of information in the international community. The following categories of
professionals are suggested by Debons et al (1988:22-23):
. information scientists who are concerned with the laws, theories, philosophy,
sociology and so on of information science
. information systems specialists who analyse information problems and design

systems or networks to solve them
. information intermediaries who work between the decision maker and the body of
knowledge
. information technologists who operate, maintain and control information systems,

consisting of individuals, acquisition, transmission and processing technologies and
related working procedures
. information managers who plan, develop, coordinate and control information

programmes and the human and material resources needed for their implementation
. educators and trainers of information professionals and workers, who provide

education and/or training for all categories of information professionals including
paraprofessionals and nonprofessional information workers
The following definition (Debons et al 1988:23) establishes criteria to differentiate the

information professional from other closely related professional groups:
An information professional may be differentiated from other professionals who

also work with data by the fact that he/she is concerned with the transfer of
content and therefore with the cognitive intellectual operations performed on the
data by the end user.
76
In other words, the information scientist is concerned with transferring the meaning or
message contained in information to the user and the intellectual activities performed on
the data by the user. The information scientist facilitates the communication of recorded
information between the generators of information and users. This is achieved by
organising systems through which information resources can be retrieved. The
information scientist has extensive and fundamental knowledge of the information
phenomenon. This is reflected in the fields of study that are of interest to Information
Science.
The information phenomenon, information literacy, information society idea all have
implications for the future of information work, especially in the context of Information
Science and the information professions. Mizrachi (1998), for example, offers
contemporary conceptualisations of information reality and argues that data,
information, and knowledge have semantic boundaries, but do not follow a linear or
process-related sequence. The alternative to the classic linear model is the complex
information ecologies made possible, or brought about, by contemporary information
technology. Issues are the linear-concentric model and that libraries are losing their
traditional advantage: to survive and compete in the contemporary information
environment they need to move beyond the traditional view, and assign and identify
new meaning and context information. The move is from the ``data-to-information''
tradition towards knowledge seeking and editing.
This impacts on the professional preparation of librarians and knowledge professionals;

contemporary user needs and practices in the library and information field need close
consideration. The implication is for professionals to ask efficient questions, and
interpret and package the meaningful and relevant information away from all the
`'noise''.
8.3 THE LIFECYCLE OF INFORMATION
The different elements that constitute an information lifecycle are indicated here.
Information cannot be thought of as separate from its carrier, and it also finds existence
within a demarcated lifecycle that begins and ends (as a new beginning) with its
generation. The other elements shaping the lifecycle are the collection, organisation,
preservation, retrieval, distribution and use of information.
b ACTIVITY 20
Make use of the following elements to draw up an information cycle:
.
.
generation of information
interpersonal transfer
(working, thinking)
(talking, lecturing, corresponding, telecommunicating)
. use of information (listening, reading, referring)
. compilation into documents (writing, editing, recording data)
. publication (publishing, printing, database production)
. distribution (bookselling, lending, copying, leasing)
. preparation for analyses (indexing, abstracting, cataloguing, extracting data)
. storage (acquisition, processing, shelving, filing, data storage)
. transfer/relay (informing, advising, surveying, translating, user education)
. retrieval (locating, searching, referral)
. compilation of aids (directory, union list, code, classification, thesaurus, user
manual, software)
INS1501/1 77
Many of the elements of the information lifecycle (listed in Activity 20) can be identified
as key concerns in the discussion on the historical development of storage, retrieval and
transfer of information in Part C.
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78
STUDY UNIT 9
Study areas of interest to
Information Science
The areas of concern are reflected in the problem areas in Information Science, areas of
study and research, core functions and the responsibilities of information professionals.
Belkin (Ingwersen 1992:302) identified five areas of concern for Information Science:
(1) transfer of information in human, cognitive communication systems
(2) idea of desired information

(3) effectiveness of information (systems) and information transfer
(4) relationship between information and generator
(5) relationship between information and user
9.1 CENTRAL PROBLEM AREAS IN INFORMATION
SCIENCE
The central problem areas of Information Science relate to the communication of
information as it is represented in the collection, organisation, conservation, retrieval
and distribution of information. This takes place from the perspective of the information
user and is therefore aimed at supplying the correct information to the correct person in
the correct format and, therefore, assisting in correct decisions being taken. There are
eleven basic fields or areas of study identified in Information Science:
(1) information needs and communication behaviour of information users
(2) information sources
(3) organisation of information
(4) retrieval of information
(5) information systems
(6) information literacy
(7) information technology
(8) information economy
(9) information ethics
(10) information management
(11) relation between information and development
INS1501/1 79
b ACTIVITY 21
Study the content of the Information Science curriculum closely and see whether you
are able to identify the areas or fields listed above. The wording may vary, but you
should find that most of them are represented.
The core elements of the curriculum of Information Science are based on the skills and
knowledge developed in the practice and theoretical insights gained from study and
research into the field of information science. This body of knowledge is therefore
theoretical and practical.

To summarise the focus of Information Science: Information Science deals with the
efficient collection, storage and retrieval of information (see for example Saracevic
1999). At first, the focus of Information Science was on the practical skills needed to
provide an information service knowledge and experience of information sources, the
handling of inquiries and so on. This still forms a large part of Applied Information
Science. Computers and telecommunication have, however, come to play an ever-
increasing role in information handling. Technical sophistication has led to an increase
in the scale of information facilities there are large systems such as the Internet, and
small, specialised centres. The potential content of Information Science has steadily
increased because of this.
The following core functions of information practitioners can be identified, which are
common to all information practice (Kirk 1997:214):
. identification of information need
. retrieval of information
. evaluation of information
. analysis of information
. synthesis (putting together) of information
. packaging information
. repackaging information
. dissemination of information
. design and provision of information services
Core activities relate to storage, communication and the use of information (Summers et
al 1999:1159). These functions are reflected in topics that are included in most
Information Science curricula.
9.2 CRITERIA FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE
The Institute of Information Scientists has compiled the document Criteria for
Information Science, which includes both the topics that should be taught in
Information Science courses and the areas in which information scientists practice (of
course there are other models, but this example will suffice as a fairly representative
one). These core areas are as follows (Institute of Information Scientists 2001):
80
Section 1 Core area: INFORMATION SCIENCE
The theory and practice of creating, acquiring, assessing and validating, organising,
storing, transmitting, retrieving and disseminating information (i) Information: its
characteristics, providers and users; (ii) Information sources; (iii) Information
storage and retrieval; (iv) Analysis of information; and (v) Theory of Information
Science.
Section 2 Core area: INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
The management of the total information resources of organisation (i) Planning; (ii)
Communications; (iii) Management information and control systems; (iv) Human
resource management; (v) Financial management; (vi) Promotion, economics and
marketing; and (vii) Political, ethical, social and legal factors.
Section 3 Core area: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Technology that may be used in Information Science or Information Management

(i) Computer systems: hardware and software; (ii) Telecommunications; (iii)
Information technology applications; and (iv) Environment.
Other topics such as studies of information-seeking behaviour can also be
included according to Ingwersen (1995:158).
9.3 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO INFORMATION
This study unit serves as a very general introduction to research. You need to be able to
indicate what scientific research means, and you should also understand that an
assignment is the result of a research process.
Theoretical activity is an inseparable part of scientific practice. The better the theory, the
more reliable the findings generated through practice, and any good theory has a
practical application. Most of the current organisational forms, professional styles and
research systems are built on clear theoretical assumptions or theories. If a theoretical
foundation is problematic, it can create obstacles to integrating scientific (acquired)
knowledge and meaningful action.
Integration such as this allows for a healthy unit formed by science, theory, information
and practice. That which is of practical interest to humans cannot be excluded from the
abundance of information produced by modern science, and all practical decisions
depend on that same human being's knowledge. Both scientific and theoretical aspects
play a role in our understanding the concept of information, problems related to the field
of information and its significance. Ultimately you will acquire the ability to use your
acquired knowledge to help solve pressing social problems.
Science is not only learning facts on a particular subject, but is also about searching for
answers and the desire to understand. Scientific work is dynamic in nature and because
it is a critical investigative activity it continuously asks new questions, develops new
theories, and opens new fields of interest and study. Science is, however, not isolated
from social and cultural impact, and the study of the information phenomenon allows us
to understand the human activity of acquiring knowledge, making discoveries and
improving performance. Remember that shifts in emphasis happen continuously and
ideas about science have changed during the past forty years or so.
There are also various views on science of which the most common ones are
INS1501/1 81
philosophical, historical, sociological and anthropological. The five main aspects of a
growing new view of science are (1) the relativisation of scientific knowledge compared
to other forms of knowledge (e.g. ``folk'') and discourse, (2) the place of worldviews in
science, (3) the key roles played by social paradigms, (4) assumptions and (5) the effect
of the above on theories.
The typical theoretical approaches found in research related to Information Science are
the communication model approach (close relationship of communication and
information), the information flow model, information theory (the mathematical
communication theory of Shannon, later referred to by Weaver under the misleading
name of information theory); epidemic theory (information distribution analogy of how
disease spreads), information hierarchies (Maslow's human needs, Horton's types of
information) and atomistic theories. ( Note: If you are interested in more detail on
different theoretical approaches or dimensions to the study of information, you are
welcome to read AL Dick's (2002) book on the philosophy, politics and economics of
information.)
9.4 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
The scientific research process normally starts with the realisation or identification of a
problem stimulated by an observation, a conversation or an article. This awareness of the
problem that could be researched leads to further investigation. This can take place
through continued reading and/or discussions. Because of this further investigation a
problem statement can be formulated. Subproblems can be formulated based on the
problem statement. Not all research requires it, but often different hypotheses can be
formulated (a hypothesis is a tentative solution to a problem). The problem statement
normally results in a research proposal where a detailed framework of the proposed
research is illustrated. A work programme is constructed based on the proposal, and
data can be collected and processed according to various methods. Note that during the
collection and processing of data the initial formulated problem might change again.
Different conclusions and deductions might be made on completion of the processing
and interpretation of the data, which in turn might lead to the identification and
stimulation of new problems.
The research process is also an important means for a researcher to take note of
unavoidable subjective, cultural and historical conditions from which research debates
emerge most often. The transformation of our view of knowledge is both a cause and
b
result of scientific research as well as of socio-cultural changes and developments.
ACTIVITY 22
Define the following concepts:
theory, practice, method, hypothesis, typology and paradigm

Optional activity
Define the following concepts (often featuring in studies or literature on science and
research):
scenario, taxonomy, analogy, model, law
From the research process, the phases of scientific investigation can be identified. Such
82
a distinction is artificial and more appropriate for a specific research project. The phases
are only briefly indicated here:
. exploration initial exploratory phase to determine what it is about, what reliable

knowledge already exists, possible value of findings, and decide what exactly to
research
. description phase to describe the nature of the object of study researched in depth to
determine what it is; often overlaps with the next phase
. explanation phase to explain why the phenomenon is the way it is, to understand the
phenomenon, evaluate results and if necessary do further research
. implementation phase to make research results public and implement them for the
benefit of society as soon as possible
Much of scientific investigation is shared and/or borrowed among and from different
disciplines. Study Unit 10.2 on affiliated disciplines gives examples of some of them.
NOTES
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STUDY UNIT 10
Universe of knowledge
The universe of knowledge is all the accumulated knowledge that is based on scientific
practice. The infrastructure of the universe of knowledge is part of the information
infrastructure because it organises knowledge into various disciplines for practical
purposes. We try to establish classes or categories wherein the members have the largest
possible number of features in common. For example, if we classify animals, we do it on
the basis of species rather than colour or size.
10.1 INFRASTRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE OF
KNOWLEDGE
There is no unique natural system of classification that reflects the nature of reality. We
choose a system that will best meet our purposes (see for example Langridge 1992).
Various disciplines reflect different approaches. All human knowledge is partial and
incomplete and our different approaches to the world around us are reflected in the
fundamental disciplines. For example, medicine and psychology seek to understand
people but from very different perspectives. The divisions or disciplines reflect distinct
forms of knowledge. These divisions also reflect how the discipline developed from a
historical perspective. We divide these disciplines into broad categories representing the
humanities, the social sciences, the natural sciences and technology. This division is
b
arbitrary and reflects the development of scientific enquiry in the West.
ACTIVITY 23
Compare this division to alternative divisions. For example, the Marxist-Leninist

political system. Its classification of the universe of knowledge is as follows (Studwell,
Wu & Wang 1994:68):
. Marxist-Leninism
. Social sciences
. Natural sciences
. Generalia
10.1.1 Humanities
The focus of study of the humanities is the mental life of human beings and the products
of the human intellect. The humanities include languages, linguistics, literature,
philosophy, religion and theology, and the visual and performing arts.
10.1.2 Social sciences
The focus of study in the social sciences is people in society. These sciences deal with
84
the influence of human beings on other human beings. The purpose of the social
sciences is to apply the scientific method to the study of human behaviour. Social
sciences include psychology, social studies, anthropology, economics and business
administration, education, history, law and political science.
10.1.3 Natural sciences and technology
The natural sciences study nature: that is, what people observe through their senses as
natural objects, in other words not artefacts. People form part of nature but are only
dealt with in so far as they can be studied as objects (e.g. as representatives of an animal
species). We can divide the natural sciences into the physical sciences and the
biological sciences. In physical sciences, we study inanimate nature with reference to
such concepts as material, energy and motion. Phenomena are explained as consisting
of elements such as atoms, molecules, waves and calories. In the biological sciences, we
study animate nature.
Technology is the study of techniques or the disciplines arising from such study.
Technology is the collective name for all effective techniques that have arisen in any area
of human activity. Natural sciences include health sciences, physics, chemistry,
astronomy, the biological sciences and mathematical sciences. Technology includes
medicine, engineering, agriculture, management and communications science and
computer sciences.
An information infrastructure provides the mechanisms within a society to generate,

store and transmit information. Various components are necessary to achieve this, such
as a publishing industry, telecommunications industry and institutions to carry out
research. An information policy aims to ensure that socially available information is
distributed as widely as possible. These issues give information a global context and
underline its international importance.
Optional activity
Give an outline of an infrastructure for the universe of knowledge and relate it to
the divisions and subdivisions of other systems (e.g. DDC [Dewey Decimal
Classification system] ± see table below).
10.2 THE DDC SYSTEM
The following table contains the ten main classes of the Dewey Decimal Classification
system (as found in DDC edition 22). The ten classes are subdivided into ten divisions
The Hundred Divisions . These are again each subdivided further
that, in total, are called
into tens, referred to as The Thousand Sections. In the table below we only indicate the
subdivision of one of the classes, namely class 000 (Computer science, information &
general works) to illustrate the detail for which such a classification system makes
allowance.
Some of the subdivisions include what is referred to as ``[Unassigned]'' ± this allows for
developments that may take place in fields represented by that class.
(Note: Applied Information Science students will be involved in classification to a

much greater extent from second-level studies onwards.)
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The Ten Main Classes
000 Computer science, information & general works
100 Philosophy & psychology
200 Religion
300 Social sciences
400 Language
500 Science
600 Technology
700 Arts & recreation
800 Literature
900 History & geography
Each one of the above classes is then divided into ten subclasses, of which we supply
only one example:
The Hundred divisions: Example Class 000 subdivision
000 Computer science, knowledge & systems
010 Bibliographies
020 Library & information sciences
030 Encyclopaedias & books of fact
040 [Unassigned]
050 Magazines, journals & serials
060 Associations, organisations & museums
070 News media, journalism & publishing
080 Quotations
090 Manuscripts & rare books
As mentioned before, the subdivisions in the hundred divisions are each again
subdivided into ten sub-subclasses (The Thousand Sections). You are welcome to
consult DDC 22, volume 2 (Schedules 000 599, pages v-xvi). It will give you an idea of
what all these divisions look like and consist of.
10.3 AFFILIATED DISCIPLINES
In Study Units 7, 8 and 9 we discussed Information Science as a discipline and said that
it is often regarded as being interdisciplinary. Many social problems related to the
information phenomenon transcend disciplinary boundaries and, whether or not one
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considers a discipline to be interdisciplinary (others prefer the term ``multi-
disciplinary''), it is unavoidable that boundaries will overlap because of the nature of
human knowledge and inquiry into it. In this study unit, we discuss how Information
Science interrelates with other disciplines. We briefly discuss a number of disciplines
and indicate how they relate to Information Science. Some disciplines that have
contributed to Information Science are philosophy, communication science, linguistics,
semiotics, the behavioural sciences, cybernetics, systems theory, operations research,
mathematics (especially statistics), computer science and artificial intelligence.
Information can be found in many sources and in different forms. Information Science,
like many other sciences, is problem oriented, requiring the synthesis of resources from
many related areas. This means that information from other disciplines contributes to our
understanding of Information Science. We characterise the different disciplines and
indicate how they relate to Information Science.
10.3.1 Philosophy
The word philosophy comes from the Greek word philosophia meaning ``love of
wisdom'' and is defined as the critical examination of the grounds for fundamental
beliefs and an analysis of the basic concepts employed in the expression of such beliefs.
Philosophy helps us to understand the nature of the universe. The object of philosophy
is to formulate a unified and consistent theory of the universe with the aim of
understanding its ultimate nature. Philosophers from the earliest time have examined
and formulated theories about reality and these theories form the foundation of
information theories. Philosophy has also provided the rules of logic that are used in
scientific enquiry and in the development of the computer. Philosophy provides
Information Science with an understanding of the way people ask questions about the
state of the world (Debons et al 1988:15).
10.3.2 Communication Science
Communication Science helps us to understand interpersonal communication.

Communication Science studies the phenomenon of communication. Communication
Science and Information Science are basically interconnected because information can
only inform when it is transferred, an information process called communication
(communicating). The two disciplines originated in different contexts; they have
therefore developed from different traditions and are associated with different types of
occupations. Their close association can, however, be seen from the fact that in some
universities the two disciplines are grouped in the same teaching unit. It is probably
easier to distinguish between the two subjects than between their objects of study.
Communication is an integral part of being human and, like information, plays a decisive
role in society. Although communication can take place metaphorically between
nonhuman organisms and even between machines, such as computers, the focus of
Communication Science, like Information Science, is on communication in the human
context. Communication, like information, has been part of human life since earliest
times, but Communication Science first became a separate field of study and research in
the 20th century. It was the development of mass media, the press (newspapers and
magazines), films, radio and television, that led to the establishment of Communication
Science as a separate discipline. They are called mass media because they convey
virtually identical messages almost simultaneously to large numbers of people (''the
masses'').
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Printed newspapers and magazines date back to the 17th century, but it was only in the
20th century that literacy became sufficiently widespread for the press to be recognised
as a mass medium and scientifically studied as such. The other three mass media (film,
radio and television) first became influential means of communication in the 20th
century. Like Information Science, Communication Science has increased in importance
because of electronic media.
Fundamentally, communications and information cannot be separated, because

information needs to be communicated. If a person communicates he or she is informing
someone of something. To put it another way: to communicate is to convey something
and that ``something'' is information. The two disciplines Communication Science and
Information Science can be distinguished on the basis of their content and primary
focus. Some elements are easy to recognise as belonging to either the one or the other.
There are also grey areas: fundamentals that they have in common and characteristics
that are equally at home in either discipline.
The communication model (see example in Appendix A) developed by Shannon and

Weaver has greatly influenced Information Science. The question inherent in this model
can be phrased as ``Who says what to whom through what channel, with what effect?''
It has contributed to the establishment and systematic exploration of Information
Science. It has focused attention on information as a series of transactions between two
persons, each with different characteristics, expectations and understandings, which
has clarified the task of getting the right information to the right person in the right way
(Shuman 1992:xiii).
10.3.3 Linguistics
Linguistics, the study of language, is important to information science. Linguistics

studies issues such as how language works, what languages have in common how
languages differ, how human language differs from animal communication and how a
child acquires language, among other things. Language is vital to conveying
information.
Language is used to categorise and classify our experiences, to form knowledge. It is

also the basic tool of communication whereby information is stored and transmitted.
Differences in cultural and social practices can affect the way information is represented
and stored. This information can be of vital importance in Information Science.
Linguistic considerations come in, for example, when entry words must be chosen to
make it possible for information to be traced successfully.
10.3.4 Semiotics
Semiotics is a branch of linguistics concerned with signs (or the science of signs). Signs
can be natural (e.g. smoke as a sign of fire), or can be human-made (e.g. a red cross as a
sign for a medical facility). Conventional signs carry direct meaning that is independent
of language, and its interpretation is fairly uncomplicated. Language (sounds and
letters) involves more complicated and unpredictable interpretation.
Semiotics `ìnvestigates the structure of all possible sign systems, and the role they play
in the way we create and perceive patterns (or meanings) in socio-cultural behaviour''
(Crystal 1987:399). The discipline deals with patterned human communication in all its
modes (sound, sight, touch, smell and taste). For example, smell is important to our
reception of information from the outside world (e.g. smelling and tasting food).
Semiotics also deals with communication in all contexts (e.g. dance, film, ways of
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eating, and clothing). Semiotics is thus concerned with the study of sign systems and
their cultural role.
Semiotics is important for Information Science because in information science we are
concerned about the transfer of information. This is one of our fields of study. Semiotics,
by studying the symbolic universe in which we live, can contribute to our understanding
of the transfer of information.
10.3.5 Behavioural sciences
Behavioural sciences help us to understand the information user. The behavioural
sciences include psychology and sociology. Their significance for Information Science
is that they help us to understand the user better. The user is central to the study of the
information system because it is the user who generates, uses and acts upon data,
information and knowledge. We therefore need to understand the principles that govern
human behaviour. The social sciences, such as sociology and anthropology, are
important because they focus on people living in groups. This helps to give information
scientists greater insight into group behaviour and needs.
10.3.6 Systems theory
Systems are found in the physical, social and human sciences and systems theory is the
science of relations. A system consists of a number of parts or components that are

organised by well-defined and discoverable structures of relationships (thus studying
the relations of parts of the system). When any of their respective relationships change,
so does the system. It is the inner relations of the parts that form the system (see for
example Foskett 1974). Thus, systems theory is the science of relations. A system's
elements are specifically organised to attain a particular objective.
A system may be closed or open. A closed system is one that functions independently of
the environment; the boundaries that separate it from its environment are closed and
rigid and its elements react in a direct cause-and-effect way. A clock is an example of a
closed system to a certain extent (when seen as a physical object). An open system
interacts with and is affected by the environment; the boundaries between it and the
environment are not clearly defined and its goals may be achieved in a variety of ways. A
university is an example of an open system.
Systems theory has relevance to Information Science because we study the information
system, which is defined by Debons et al (1988:9) as follows: an environment of
persons, machines, and procedures that augment human biological potential to acquire,
process, and act upon data. It our chances of survival are improved.
10.3.7 Mathematics
Mathematics in the form of statistics plays an important role in most disciplines. In the
field of Information Science it enables us to measure experience, which is the aim of all
sciences. Based on statistical analysis of experience we are often able to generalise and
substantiate hypotheses.
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10.3.8 Computer science
Since World War II, there has been spectacular development in computer technology
and the use of computers has become widespread in the developed world. Computer
science was initially strongly machine-oriented and the prime concern was hardware
and programming (creating programs which the computer can use to carry out certain
tasks). As time passed, the focus of interest in computer science shifted to programming
and the needs of users. The fact that interest is no longer directly focused on computers
but on programming means that it has become more difficult to make a clear distinction
between Computer Science and Information Science/Applied Information Science.
The construction and management of databases, for example, not only require data to be
efficiently stored but also to be traceable and retrievable as and when needed. This is
similar to functions carried out by information professionals and workers in archives,
libraries, information centres, offices or museums, where information is stored and can
be retrieved.
New developments have affected information transfer. Computer science, the study of
automation and its various aspects and applications, has greatly affected information
transfer. The improved design of machines that can interact with people and efforts to
minimise the difficulties arising when people and machines interact have contributed
greatly to the effectiveness of information storage, organisation and transfer.
We can distinguish between Computer Science and Information Science in terms of

their main focus. In Computer Science, computers are and will remain the central object
of study, while information technology, of which the computer is an important example,
is only one subject of interest to Information Science.
The mathematical, technological and technical orientation of Computer Science andthe

decisive role played by computers in data processing and by telecommunications in data
dissemination have led to computer science becoming a necessity for many positions in
the information field.
10.3.9 Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence has been an area of specialisation for computer scientists since
Machlup
1956. Patrick Hayes defined it as ``the study of intelligence as computation'' (
& Mansfield 1983:29). Computer-aided speech and pattern recognition are examples of
artificial intelligence. We can deduce from the name of the discipline, and from these
two examples, that artificial intelligence imitates human mental ability. Artificial
intelligence, therefore, studies how we reason. Although there is some interest in how
the human brain works and functions, in practice the discipline is more concerned with
achieving the same, or comparable, and, in some cases, better results with a computer.
Two important subdisciplines have developed from artificial intelligence: expert systems
and robotics, which are examples of knowledge engineering. Expert systems is one
example of a knowledge-based system. It attempts to achieve automatic decision
making with the aid of a suitably programmed computer. It can, however, still only be
applied in limited, well-defined areas. In expert systems the advice or opinions of many
experts in the subject area are incorporated in the computer program.
This is then used to diagnose illnesses, for example. Details of the patient's symptoms
are fed into the computer and the computer can eliminate the possibility of certain
diseases on this basis. As further details of symptoms are fed into the computer, the
probable illness affecting the patient can be narrowed down to a few or to only one.
When only one possible illness remains and is found to be the patient's problem, we can
90
say that the computer has correctly diagnosed the sickness just like an expert would.
Initially, the results of expert systems were disappointing, but the advantage of the
system is that it ``learns'' from `èxperience'' the more the program is used, the better the
results become. Expert systems reduce the work of experts but do not make them
redundant.
It is often difficult to distinguish between cognitive science and artificial intelligence in

practice, as both are concerned with the human mind and its related mental elements
(knowledge, intelligence and thought).
Knowledge of robotics has led to the manufacture of robots. They are computer-
controlled mechanisms that are programmed to execute a limited number of repetitive
tasks, such as welding a car at a certain point during the manufacturing process at a
factory. A robot can produce the same quality of work at any time of day or night, never
becomes tired and never gets hungry. From the management perspective, there are many
obvious advantages to using robots rather than people. Results obtained with artificial
intelligence show interesting analogies with the mental (expert systems) and physical
abilities (robotics) of human beings. Both have possible applications in the information
field.
We could discuss Information Science's relationship with many more disciplines (e.g.
cognitive science, cybernetics and operations research). We have, however, confined
ourselves to the most important ones as well as new disciplines that may be unfamiliar
to you. But you should note the important contributions that these disciplines make to
the study of Information Science.
j DEFINITIONS
discipline: branch of study, instruction or learning; a field or subject that is the object
of scientific examination
epistemology: a subdiscipline or branch of philosophy that studies the nature of

knowledge; theory of knowledge; it is concerned with the nature, possibility and
boundaries of human knowledge (or its foundations, scope and validity); research into
what human beings know, how they know it and with what degree of reliability;
investigates what must be added to true beliefs to convert them into knowledge;
attempts to determine the relationship between knowledge and sensorily perceived
knowledge; in philosophy, knowledge has the connotation of truth (three criteria for
valid knowledge truth, belief and justification); Greek episteÂmeÂ = knowledge
hypothesis: statement or proposition assumed to be true for the sake of argument;
statement or theory to be proved or disproved by reference to evidence or facts;
provisional explanation
metaphor: an expression in which a person, action or thing referred to is described as

if it really were what it merely resembles, e.g. a sly person described as a ``wolf''; figure
of speech; literally means ``to transfer'', when a word (e.g. wolf) that usually indicates
a certain object, is applied or ``transferred'' to another object (e.g., a person), for
example ``he is a wolf in business dealings.'' Certain characteristics of a wolf are
ascribed to the person; metaphors are often associated with figurative language (e.g.,
a limit becomes a ``ceiling'', or an event such as ``the reader `digests' a book''
method: a way of doing something in an ordered set of procedures or system; a

technique used in a particular activity
methodology: it is not only the system of methods used in activities such as science,
but also the study of method and procedure itself; can be linked to the role played by
assumptions
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ontology: study/theory of existence; a subdivision of metaphysics, which is a
subdivision of philosophy; concerned with the nature of ``being''; it is the
philosophical investigation of existence or being in general; ontology literally means
knowledge aboutbeing in general about existence; Greek: ontos = being + logos =
word/knowledge/reason; logy = science, study; it entails what is directly observable
through the senses, as well as what is only indirectly observable when it has been
determined that something is or exists, it must be established what (or how) and
where it is or exists; deals with what things are in their innermost nature; about
establishing the essence of things (e.g. does information exists and if it does, in what
sense)
paradigm: model, pattern, essential conceptual framework within which theories are
constructed; flexible to allow revision as the factual accuracy of certain aspects are
challenged; the framework used by scientists to help them understand their subject;
universally accepted/recognised scientific achievements that for a time at least
provided model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners. Such
paradigms influence a researcher's image of reality (e.g. evolutionism, heliocentrism,
etc).
perspective: observer's view of objects in relation to one another; objective view of a

situation; can be linked to worldview
practice (noun): process of carrying something out; activity, habit, procedure or

custom; repeated activity to improve technique; concerned with action rather than
theory
profession: vocation based on an organised system of theoretical and practical

knowledge
research: primary activity in science; combination of theory and experimentation

directed to find scientific explanations of phenomena; two types pure and applied
research
science: (1) an operation of living organisms that comes about due to the interest in a
fundamental problem; (2) science is defined by its problems; (3) it is systematised and
verified knowledge of reality; systematic field of knowledge, believed to produce
reliable explanations of phenomena through the use of experiment, observation and
deduction; also the experimental testing of a scientist's ideas or hypotheses
theory: an attempt to give an acceptable interpretation or explanation of an object or

event, or make a prediction about it; in science, it is a set of ideas, concepts, principles
and/or methods used to explain a wide set of observed facts; can be viewed as the
sphere of abstract knowledge or speculative thought; consists of propositions (relates
to the meaning of a sentence) that conceptualise phenomena and define and express
their mutual relationships; can be useful or true or both. [Irrespective of whether these
two elements are mutually influential, there can be degrees of usefulness and truth.
One can then say that a theory can be useful to some extent, or only partially true; if a
theory contributes only slightly or not at all to improved comprehension, it is called a
black box theory. Its opposite is a glass box theory that makes everything clear.
Between these two extremes there is the grey box theory, which is probably the name
we would give to most scientific theories.]
typology: gives a conceptual framework in which certain characteristics of

phenomena (e.g. people, language, products) are singled out as typical, and these
phenomena are then organised or classified according to their characteristics
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e SELF-ASSESSMENT
(1) Define the following concepts: discipline; hypothesis; information professional;

information science; method; science; system; and theory. You are encouraged
to consult different sources for definitions and descriptions.
(2) Distinguish between the different elements of the information lifecycle.
(3) Write notes on the relationship between language, information and knowledge.
(4) Outline the infrastructure of the universe of knowledge, and relate it to other
knowledge systems and divisions.
(5) Formulate your own definition of information science, based on those in Study
Unit 7.2 (and reflecting the core elements indicated in Study Unit 7.3).
(6) Compare your definition with that of any other subject you are registered for, and
see if you can identify their relationship.
(7) Relate Study Unit 7 (Part D) to Study Unit 6's historical overview of the storage,
retrieval and transfer of information, in Part C.
(8) Why do you think a fundamental study of the information phenomenon is
important for contemporary society?
(9) Compare the lifecycle of information to information systems and the information
infrastructure.
(10) Relate the core functions of information practitioners to the central areas of
study in information science.
(11) Indicate the relationship of the different disciplines discussed in this study unit
to information science and to one another. You may add any other disciplines
that you think also contributed to information science.
Notes
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PART E
Information infrastructure and information
policy
Contents
PART E INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE AND INFORMATION POLICY

Introduction
STUDY UNIT 11 THE INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE
11.1 Information systems
11.2 Infrastructure
11.3 Nature of the information infrastructure
STUDY UNIT 12 COMPONENTS OF THE INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE

12.1 Publishers
12.2 The distribution network
12.3 Broadcasting
12.4 Information and library services
12.5 Data industry
12.6 Telecommunication
12.7 Information technology
12.8 Internet
12.9 Research
12.10 Information professionals

STUDY UNIT 13 INFORMATION POLICY
13.1 What is a policy?
13.2 Purpose and relevance of an information policy
13.3 Information as a national resource
13.4 Free flow of information
13.5 Information ethics
Definitions
Self-assessment
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INTRODUCTION
The methods of information storage, retrieval and transmission from the historical
viewpoint were discussed in Part C. Because the information infrastructure is quite large
and diverse, we can at best only outline the more important elements, especially related
to our field of study, making our discussion far from exhaustive. This part of the study
guide on the information infrastructure is a summary of the context of the South African
information infrastructure.
If you are a student from outside South Africa, you are welcome to compare it with the
relevant information structure in your specific country. The same applies to information
policy, which, if in existence, will vary between different countries. Because we are less
concerned with law making, and more with the ethical implications for and
responsibilities of the information professions, we do not go into the technical details
regarding the compiling of policies.
In Part E therefore, we briefly discuss the following components of the information

infrastructure: the nature of the information infrastructure, the components of the
information infrastructure, information technology, research, training, and information
policy.
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STUDY UNIT 11
The Information infrastructure
You have already encountered the knowledge spectrum and system in Part B. This study
unit provides an introduction to what information systems entail, what an infrastructure
is, as well as the nature and components of the information infrastructure.
11.1 INFORMATION SYSTEMS
A system, such as an information system, consists of a number of components under

human control that is aimed at reaching a specific goal. These components include
humans, procedures, hardware, software, information sources and policy. These are
organised and ordered in a specific manner that enables the system to reach its goal.
The purpose of an information system is a recurring theme throughout the study guide:
that is,to get the right information to the right person at the right time delivered in the
correct format and quantity to enable that person to make the correct decision. The
following key functions of an information system can be identified:
to determine the information needs of users and potential users of the system
. to organise and preserve the information collected
. to retrieve and disseminate that information according to the needs and anticipated
needs of the users
. to add value to the information used
. to educate users and potential users of information on the utilisation of information
and information sources
. to ensure that information in an organisation is utilised and managed as a resource
11.2 INFRASTRUCTURE
What is an infrastructure? It comprises the physical facilities and institutional

arrangements for carrying out operations. Our example of infrastructure in a hospital
should help make it clear. A fully operational hospital needs certain facilities and
components to be able to function. The following are some of the components that
make up the infrastructure of a hospital:
. a building with beds and medical equipment
. qualified professional staff such as doctors and nurses
. an administrative department to bill patients, keep patients' records and so on
. specialised departments such as pharmacology to dispense medicine and radiography
to take x-rays
. cleaning staff
. catering staff
98
This list is not exhaustive. There may be other components that you can think of but it
gives you an idea of what is required.
We need to relate the concept of infrastructure to information. For example, we all have
a personal information infrastructure. Some of the components of a personal information
infrastructure could be:
. your personal collection of books, journals and so on
. television
. radio
. Unisa library
. various book shops
. e-mail
b
. access to the Internet
ACTIVITY 24
Draw up a mind map of your own personal information infrastructure.
11.3 NATURE OF THE INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE
The information infrastructure is the social or interpersonal framework that exists to

promote information from its creation to its utilisation. So what does the information
infrastructure consist of? It comprises the physical facilities as well as the institutions
that facilitate the manufacture, distribution or flow and use of information.
Or stated differently, an information infrastructure refers to the physical facilities and

institutional arrangements that facilitate the manufacture, distribution or flow and use of
information. The information infrastructure consists of all the basic facilities, channels
and services that we depend on to make information available.
We do not usually regard information documents in private use and their information
users as part of this infrastructure because information infrastructure is concerned with
concrete, structured, socially usable agencies, institutions and systems, for example,
publishers and libraries. Primarily, it is concerned with transmitted and recorded
information, which are both characteristic of many of today's societies. From this, it
follows that information technology plays an important role, particularly computers and
telecommunications.
Information technology provides human beings with the methods to obtain control over
information, to a greater or lesser degree (e.g. to be able to transcend time, medium and
space) as efficiently as possible by providing the required information as quickly as
possible in the most suitable (or at least an appropriate) form, irrespective of the original
distance between the user and the information. For example, you can read a book that
was written thousands of years ago or you can watch a tennis match at home on
television that is being played in Wimbledon, England.
It is possible to discuss the information infrastructure from a local, regional and national
perspective. However, here we restrict ourselves to the South African context.
The information infrastructure is usually restricted to agencies and systems that formally
provide information. We are dealing with information that is publicly available within the
normal constraints of commerce and law. The information infrastructure is concerned
with public rather than private information, that is, information that is available either
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freely or at a price for the benefit of the country's inhabitants. We use the word ``benefit''
to indicate that we are concerned with potentially valuable information.
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STUDY UNIT 12
Components of the information
infrastructure
The many components of the information infrastructure stand in a relationship to one

another. None of the components is separate or independent from the others. The
information infrastructure exists to create, communicate and deliver useful information
for all the economic, social and political activities of the country.
12.1 PUBLISHERS
Today there are a large variety of physical forms in which information is published and
made available. The most widely used method of storing information is still the printed
word on paper. This can take the form of books, newspapers, journals, magazines,
pamphlets, fliers and so on. Information is also published in the form of sound
recordings (e.g. cassettes and compact discs) and audiovisual recordings (e.g. video
tapes and compact discs). Published information is in the public domain and is
regulated by certain laws such as obscenity laws, libel laws and copyright laws, which
place certain restrictions on what can be published and which also protect the
intellectual ownership of the document's creator (e.g. the author, singer, or producer of
a film).
South Africa has a relatively well-established book publishing industry but it is

struggling to survive in the present economic climate. The main problems experienced
by the publishing industry in South Africa are the 11 official languages which reduce the
market size for any publication in one of the languages, the lack of a reading culture and
the lack of an effective distribution infrastructure, except for urban centres.
Publishing of journals, magazines and newspapers is also well established in South

Africa. There are local companies for producing sound recordings, films and videos,
although it is difficult to produce television programmes at a competitive price. This is
the main reason for most films, sound recordings and television programmes being
purchased from overseas. The Government Printer, which publishes all government
documents, is one of the most prolific publishers in South Africa. This is an important
source of information.
12.2 THE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK
It is essential to have an effective distribution network. The main urban centres in South
Africa have bookshops and music stores where published material can be purchased.
There are also services such as book clubs and mail-order services that distribute
published material in rural and urban areas.
There is a well-established postal network that assists in the distribution of magazines

and journals that readers can subscribe to and that are then delivered to a postal address.
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There are also well-established distribution channels for newspapers. An increasing
number of publications are becoming available online and some can already be
downloaded to handheld electronic devices.
12.3 BROADCASTING
A major source of information for most people is still radio and television, which form
part of the mass media. The infrastructure required for broadcasting radio and television
is very expensive and is usually put in place by the government.
Radio and television network in South Africa: Radio is a cheap and accessible means of
mass communication in South Africa. There are radio broadcasts in most of the official
languages. Television in South Africa is predominantly broadcast in English although
the South African Broadcasting Corporation does try to broadcast programmes in all the
official languages. A pay channel, MNet, is also available for a fee.
Satellite television: The launching of communication satellites into space has made
satellite television available in South Africa. People can receive satellite television if they
have a television set and a decoder, and have paid a connection and subscription fee
(e.g. DSTv).
Radio and television help to bring information to people. Although radio and television
are usually seen as entertainment media they also have an important information
function. For many people this is their main source of information about things such as
world events and politics. Informational and educational programmes on topics such as
wildlife, ancient civilisations and in-depth analyses of political issues are important ways
of bringing information to the population.
12.4 INFORMATION AND LIBRARY SERVICES
An important part of the information infrastructure is storage and facilitation agencies

such as libraries. There are public and private libraries and information agencies. Public
information agencies, for example, archives, libraries and museums, make information
available to the public through agencies owned and run by government and
municipalities and they form part of the information infrastructure.
. Libraries: There are two national libraries that give service countrywide: the National
Library in Pretoria, which has a Cape Town division and the South African Library for
the Blind in Grahamstown. There are academic libraries (e.g. university, technikon
and college libraries), school libraries (also known as media centres), public and
community libraries (independent city libraries and public libraries which are affiliated
to one of the provincial library services) and special libraries. Private libraries or
collections are not usually regarded as part of the information infrastructure.
. Museums: Museums are also part of the information infrastructure. Museum

collections may cover vast subject areas, for instance museums of cultural history and
of natural science, or a limited subject field, for example the Bensusan Museum of
Photography in Johannesburg.
. Archives: Archives are also an important element of the information infrastructure. In

South Africa, apart from the National Archives, there are archives in each province in
which items are housed that are 20 years old and older, and interim archives in which
items are kept that are not yet 20 years old, but are no longer actively used by their
offices of origin. Archives are made available to the public once documents are older
102
than 20 years. The National Film, Video and Sound Archives in Pretoria, for example,
specialise in housing films, videos and sound recordings.
12.5 DATA INDUSTRY
When information is stored in a computer, the information first needs to be converted

into a form recognised by the computer. This form is electronic impulses. The electronic
impulses represent numbers of characters, and are referred to as data. Data is a general
term for information stored in a database. A database is an organised collection of data
for a particular purpose or for the use of a particular group of users. Tools are provided to
enable manipulation of data such as sorting and extraction. The data are normally stored
on computer files or on CD-ROM and may contain bibliographic data or numerical or
statistical data (Harrods 1995, sv ``data base'').
The data industry (the industry that compiles and sells databases) has been the fastest
growing sector of the information infrastructure over the past decade or two. Statistic
and full-text information banks are captured electronically by computers and distributed
with the aid of telecommunications (for example, telephone lines) and CD-ROM discs
(some of which are now manufactured locally). An example of a statistical database is
Central Statistical Services in Pretoria, an example of a bibliographical database is the
South African Bibliographical and Information Network, Sabinet, in Centurion, and an
example of a full-text information bank is Juta's law reports which are printed and
published on CD-ROM discs (''compact disc read-only-memory'').
Abstracting and indexing servicesform part of the data industry. An abstract is a

summary briefly describing the information contents of a source. An index is a guide to
the contents of an information source or many information sources. Abstracting and
indexing services enable a person looking for specific information to track down sources
where that information may be found. These are usually published in the form of an
electronic database that may be available on CD-ROM and in hard copy (printed form).
12.6 TELECOMMUNICATION
The postal service is one of the oldest components of the information infrastructure. The
telephone service, which has become a subsection of telecommunications, is
traditionally linked to it. The data industry cannot function effectively without
telecommunication facilities because they often make their databases available through
networks that are linked via telephone lines. Postal and telecommunication links are also
indispensable to transactions such as interlibrary loans (e.g. books which are distributed
between libraries by post) and deliveries (e.g. photocopies of journal articles which
libraries distribute through the post, faxed via telecommunication channels, or sent as
electronic copies).
12.7 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Information technology has extended the boundaries of information systems. We are

able to gain access to a vast range of information through combining data processing by
digital computers with electronic telecommunication systems. However, government
needs to put the necessary infrastructure into place to enable the technology to be used
to full advantage. For example, we need telephone lines to operate computer networks.
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12.8 INTERNET
What is a network? A network may be electronic or non-electronic. It consists of a chain

of interconnected individuals, operations or electrical conductors. A computer network
is an interlinking set of computer systems that can communicate with each other. A
database stored in one system can be accessed by all the computer systems of the
network organisations (Behrens 1994:52). Certain electronic information networks are
accessible at home if you have the necessary equipment and connections.
The Internet is a network of networks. Millions of people are connected to various

computer networks through their personal computers. The Internet includes national
networks, regional networks, and local networks. A variety of software and hardware
that is available all over the world and has come from different places is linked through
the Internet.
The Internet makes communication across time and space possible. The Internet is used
to access information (which is often not available elsewhere), to provide information
and to contact other people. The most important aspect of the Internet is its ability to
allow for informal communication, including e-mail. Internet has opened a new world of
communication and access to information for people from their homes. The only
condition is that you must have access to the right equipment.
12.9 RESEARCH
Formal institutions, where research is carried out, are an important component of the
information infrastructure. These institutions may consist of scientific research
institutions, universities and professional bodies. In South Africa there are six scientific
councils that do research and development in different fields. They are the following:
. the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in Pretoria for natural
sciences and engineering
. the Council for Mineral Technology (Mintek) in Randburg for mineral technology
. the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) in Pretoria for social and human
sciences
. the Medical Research Council (MRC) in Parow for health care
. the South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) in Pretoria for quality control and
standardisation of products and services
. the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) in Pretoria for agriculture
There are also other institutions that carry out research such as the Atomic Energy
Corporation (AEC) at Pelindaba. All these agencies are important users and creators of
scientific information. The same is true of all the universities. There are also private
concerns such as Anglo-American and the Chamber of Mining, which conduct their
own research.
12.10 INFORMATION PROFESSIONALS
The professional information scientist has a different role from other people who are
involved with information. Information scientists add something to the information in
order to make it more usable they add value.
. Training, research and professional sectors. The final components of the information
infrastructure that we want to mention are the training, research and professional
104
sectors (e.g. professional associations which arrange conferences and distribute
professional information) for information scientists. These three components stand
together because training depends on research results and the professional
associations influence training and research. These sectors contribute suitable
professionals, paraprofessionals and relevant knowledge to the information
infrastructure.
. Training and research. There are university courses and technikon courses for training
people to work in this field. Research in information science is conducted at
universities and at some of the larger information agencies. There are professional
associations, for example those for archivists, information workers and book
publishers.
. Role of information scientists. Information scientists do more than create, process,
preserve, make available, distribute and use information. They also exercise control
over information, particularly recorded information. For this reason, such information
should be organised and housed in a specific way. Retrieval apparatus should be
created to enable records and the information that they contain to be traced as
quickly, economically and efficiently as possible.
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STUDY UNIT 13
Information policy
An information policy helps to regulate the information infrastructure. It is not enough
simply to have an information infrastructure. This structure is a means to an end. Its
value depends on the way in which it functions, which in turn, determines what is
achieved. The ``what'' and ``how'' of an information infrastructure can be regulated
significantly through an information policy.
13.1 WHAT IS A POLICY?
A policy is a general plan of action taken to achieve a stated objective or aim. It is a

declared, formulated and often official way of achieving specific objectives. Stated in
another way, it is a public statement of intentions and behavioural norms made explicit
by a government. ``Policy'' usually indicates something substantial something must be
important before it is thought necessary to formulate a policy on it.
An information policy, according to Dick (2002:125), ``concerns itself with producing,

distributing and accessing information as ends in themselves rather than as means to an
end.''
13.2 PURPOSE AND RELEVANCE OF AN INFORMATION
POLICY
What is thepurpose of an information policy? William Martin (1988:135) suggests the

The purpose of information policy is enhancement of the general welfare
following: ``
through the widest possible diffusion of the benefits of information and its associated
technologies throughout the economy and society.''
Relevance of an information policy: An information policy has relevance for government
and individual organisations. For example, the government is expected to coordinate
information activities in such a way that information can be optimally utilised as a
national asset. This could include maintenance and expansion of the information
infrastructure, for instance the development of the local information industry. The local
and, preferably, international standardisation of information apparatus is a prominent
prerequisite for successful access to information.
13.3 INFORMATION IS A NATIONAL RESOURCE
One of the reasons why it is desirable to have a national information policy is that
information is a national resource and the planned use of the resource can benefit the
country and its citizens. In most countries, including South Africa, there is, however, no
106
comprehensive official policy on information expressed in a clearly recognisable system
of mechanisms. There are several areas that the state has regulated, such as copyright
and censorship, but there is no information policy that coordinates the information
infrastructure in an organised and purposeful way.
13.4 FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION
An information policy should remove unnecessary obstacles and make socially valuable
information as widely available as possible, taking into account the protection of
individual and communal rights in respect of privacy, security and moral standards.
Information can be used as a resource and produced as a product and marketed. It can
also be used to utilise and market other resources that are regulated by some
government policy that is applied through laws, regulations and so on. Yet, due to the
complicated nature of information, it is difficult to control it.
Some reasons for this include the following:
(1) It has an `ìnvisible'' nature in spite of being able to take on a concrete form.
(2) It is difficult to comprehend as a whole and a national policy needs to be assisted by
international regulatory cooperation.
(3) Information can be valuable (e.g. withholding essential information).
(4) The free flow of information, or rather the free flow of ideas, can undermine cultural
identity (homogenisation) and political independence.
On the other hand, it can make others more aware of the variety of cultural identities in
existence. The strong contemporary focus on human rights encourages the formulation
of information policy. The information infrastructure, together with information policy,
gives information a global context.
Because information occupies a prominent place in society it will unavoidably take on

political dimensions. Information in its basest form can be used or abused for political
gain. For example:
. States fight over the control of information in the same way as they fought about
territorial domination in the past (the latter is of course still fought over today).
. Information is turned into a commodity through a utilitarian approach or ideology that
is not prepared to carry the implications to their conclusion. Such an approach is only
interested in the usefulness of any matter (e.g. science or information), mainly in the
sense of economic value or utility.
. Information is politicised when it is illuminated by an idea, that is an ideology. An
example is capitalism, which often exploits language using the media and information
technology. The computerisation of society involves the standardisation and control
of the exchange of texts. The translation of these into computer language is promoted
as it can more easily be converted into monetary terms and controlled than other
forms of language.
This brings us to a controversial matter, namely the informatisation of society. The

questions that informatisation brings to the fore are: Who should undertake it and on
what authority? What should the subject be? Who should be informed and who are the
uninformed? Who has the ability to discriminate and on what grounds? Is this
manipulation social engineering or social responsibility? Who has the right to
manipulate the public and what is the basis for social responsibility? The implication of
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these questions is that there seems to be an underlying assumption that only a chosen
b
few know what other people should know.
ACTIVITY 25
that only a chosen few

Reflect on the significance of such an assumption (that is,
know what other people should know) especially for information professionals, before
moving on to the next paragraph regarding the ethical aspects of information.
13.5 INFORMATION ETHICS
Ethics can be seen as the science that investigates human actions under the guidance of
moral norms. The central concern in ethics is about criteria of ``good.'' The human being
can therefore be seen as the subject of ethical actions. Ethics as a science is often
divided in descriptive, normative and meta-ethics. The subject of the ethical act is the
autonomous human with an ethical responsibility. As an autonomous human being a
person is truly free and can perform ethical acts on the grounds of choice. This is
supposed to make the human being responsible and accountable.
Every ethical act implies a valuation, choice and decision. This valuation takes place on
the ground of moral values that are measured against the question of good or bad. As
these values are valid for our moral acts, they have a normative character (values are also
the grounds of norms). Every norm has a double function, namely that of guideline and
measuring line. Norms that can be distinguished are freedom, justice, respect for human
life and truth.
The judging of ethical acts of human beings is traditionally seen from two perspectives:
. The deontological approach [Deon = duty], also referred to as duty ethics. This
perspective emphasises the compulsory character of the act without taking away the
freedom of the human being. The norm sets an unconditional claim, e.g. ``you are not
allowed to steal.''
. The teleological approach [telos = purpose], the emphasis is on the result of the
ethical action. It is also referred to as consequential ethics as it is based on the fact
that the good is good because it delivers good results.
Between the deontological and the teleological approaches lies rule-utilitarianism,

which on the one hand emphasises the result of the ethical act, but on the other hand
asks for the most appropriate norm for the given situation. Other approaches found in
normative ethics are casuisticand situation ethics. Four variables are of importance and
need to be taken into account when judging the ethical acts of human beings, namely
the (1) situation, (2) motive for action, (3) decision to act, and (4) result of the action.
(Note: There ise a module in your second level of studies that deals with the ethical
theories in detail.)
In Information Science we are less concerned with lawmaking itself (or applied ethics),
and more with investigation of ethical theories and the social context of the time. It is
the fundamental consideration of its essential nature that concerns us. You will be
exposed to the ethics of information at later levels of the curriculum, where we try to
108
examine the basis of practical moral problems. This is summarised in the following
statement: The ethical dilemma of information `` is that while justice has an informational
basis, it will always be limited as a result of unequal access to the right information
[J]ustice will always be limited by informational constraints'' (Dick 2002:55).
b ACTIVITY 26
Consult different sources for definitions and descriptions of the concepts
morals.
ethics and
Optional activity
Write notes on what you think the ethical dilemma of information entails, as well as on
its implications, especially for developing countries.
Information Science is often confronted by ethical problems. It is of great importance to
deal responsibly with all aspects of information (e.g. collection, storage, retrieval,
dissemination and data pollution). Always keep in mind that ethical relations are
deepest between humans, and that ethical problems usually arise among people in
situations where ethical conflict is implicit. Directly linked to information science is the
relation between science and ethics, the ethics of generating knowledge and the
principles of professional ethics. This is very important to information scientists
regarding their training and their eventual professional work.
In order to understand information from an ethical or legal perspective, the student
should be able to define information as a concept and to indicate its unique
characteristics (see Part B). This is due mainly to the fact that the ambiguous qualities of
information cause ethical problems, especially regarding aspects of ownership,
intellectual property rights, right to privacy, freedom of speech and right of access.
Ethical and legal matters regarding information are of great importance to the
information professional. The aspect that affects them the most is information as legal
object, or stated differently, the ownership of information that requires ethical guidelines
regarding the handling of intellectual property and the protection of economic interest.
The complexity of the contemporary world makes information and communication
intricate matters. The moral dimension of information will always be present as they
stem from issues such as:
. how accurate the information is
. who to pass the information on to
. whether to charge for the information
. if the information infringes someone's copyright or privacy rights
. whether confidentiality had been breached (This has become a major challenge
because of the growth of information available and accessed from computer
networks.)
Other terms found in the literature on ethics, and specifically on information ethics, may
include `ìnfoethics'', `ìnformation technology ethics'' and ``computer and information
ethics''.
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e DEFINITIONS
abstract:
CD-ROM:
information science a summary that briefly describes the information
contents of a source; a brief statement of the main points; to summarise.
acronym for Compact Disc ± Read Only Memory that contains information
in the form of text, illustrations, and often sound as well.
ethics: the study or the science of morals; rules or principles of behaviour; ethic is the
moral system or set of principles particular to a certain person, community or group;
Greek ethikos(moral), taken from ethos (custom or character)
index (noun): a guide to the contents of an information source or many information
sources
index (verb): to specify or list the contents of an information source or group of

information sources
information infrastructure: the physical facilities and institutions that facilitate the
manufacture, distribution or flow and use of information
infrastructure: physical facilities and institutional arrangements for carrying out

operations
justice: the quality of being just, fairness; the quality of being reasonable; the law or
administration of conformity to the law; Latin justitia, from justus (just, right, proper).
moral: (as an adjective) belonging or relating to the principles of good and evil, or
right and wrong; conforming to what is considered by society to be good, right or
proper; ethical; adhering to or based on conscience or a knowledge of what is right;
having a psychological (rather than an outward appearance) rather than a practical
effect; a person capable of distinguishing between right and wrong; supported by
reason or probability, though not provable; moral (as a noun) is a principle or practical
lesson that can be learned from a story or event; morals a sense of right and wrong, or
a standard of behaviour based on morals, also linked to a custom.
network: the transmission channels that serve all clients and file servers, as well as
the supporting hardware and software
policy: a general plan of action taken to achieve stated objectives or aims
resource: available assets
j SELF-ASSESSMENT
(1) Describe what is understood by the concept of `ìnformation systems''.

(2) Relate it to the information infrastructure and the lifecycle of information.
(3) Describe what is meant by information infrastructure.
(4) List the components of the information infrastructure and briefly describe them.
(5) Discuss the importance and role of the various components of the information
infrastructure.
(6) Why it is necessary to train information professionals?
(7) Define the concept `ìnformation'' from an ethical perspective.
(8) Indicate the most important ethical concerns regarding the right to privacy and
the ownership of information.
(9) Why do you think it is important for South Africa, or any other country for that
matter, to have an information infrastructure?
(10) Compile a mind map of the information infrastructure that clearly shows the
relationship between its components.
(11) What social concerns should the information infrastructure address?
(12) Why is a national information policy necessary?
(13) What are the implications of the complexity of information and communication
for the moral responsibilities of the information professional?
110
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PART F
Information and society
Contents
PART F INFORMATION AND SOCIETY

Introduction
STUDY UNIT 14 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INFORMATION AND SOCIETY
14.1 Role of information in society
14.2 Humans and information
14.3 Information and worldview
14.4 Development of the information era
STUDY UNIT 15 INFORMATION SOCIETY

15.1 Definitions of `ìnformation society''
15.2 Three stages of the information society
15.3 Characteristics of the information society
15.4 Implications for a developing country
15.4.1 Developing countries and the information society
15.4.2 South Africa and the information society
15.5 Significance of the information society
STUDY UNIT 16 INFORMATION LITERACY

16.1 Definition of ìnformation literacy'
16.2 The literacy continuum
16.2.1 Preliteracy
16.2.2 Secondary orality
16.2.3 Illiteracy
16.2.4 Literacy
16.2.5 Library skills
16.2.6 Computer skills
16.2.7 Information literacy
16.3 Hierarchies of human and information needs
16.4 Lifelong learning and continuing education
Definitions
Self-assessment
114
INTRODUCTION
As you can see from the above contents list, Part F deals specifically with information in
a societal context. Even though society is not as important an area of study in
Information Science as it is in Library Science (especially regarding service delivery,
etc), it is still considered as important. This is because society is the context within
which the major information activities take place and the most information professionals
find themselves, and because we are ultimately concerned with human users.
In Study Unit 14, we describe the phenomenon of the knowledge explosion as well as
the role of information in human society. We also touch on the relationship between
information and worldview and describe the structural relations within which humans
stand.
In Study Unit 15, you will come across definitions of the `ìnformation society'' and
discover its key characteristics. You will also learn how humans developed from an
agricultural into an information society, and discover the role that IT plays in the
information society.
Study Unit 16 introduces you to the various stages of literacy, for example neoliteracy,
functional literacy and information literacy. The computer skills necessary for
information literacy are also discussed.
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STUDY UNIT 14
Relationship between information and
society
14.1 ROLE OF INFORMATION IN SOCIETY
After studying this study unit you will be able to
. describe the information and knowledge growth phenomenon
. indicate the place and role of information in society and its various environments
. explain humans as information processors
. discuss the different cultural dimensions as cultural expressions within society
The transformation of our understanding of knowledge has altered the state of culture,
and therefore also the place and status of information in contemporary society. This in
turn has brought about change in the rules for science, literature and art. The status of
knowledge changed along with technological transformations in so-called
``computerised societies''. These transformations affected the power of institutions and
governing bodies as efficiency in the transmission of information and the related
operational values led to a growth of power. This led to the need for more efficient
research and transmission of information.
The nature of knowledge is thus changing by becoming translatable and operational to

ensure future survival, and knowledge is treated as a commodity of information. It is
exteriorised into value and becomes a commodity, giving rise to a supplier-user
relationship. In this way economic powers are enabled to become more dominant
regarding the control of the accessibility of information sources, changing the sense in
which knowledge becomes power.
Another implication is that messages carried through mass-media information structures

can no longer be controlled by the State to the same extent as was possible in the past
(but think of contemporary exceptions to this). The progress made in science and
technology is increasingly being linked to economic growth and the expansion of socio-
political power outside the control of the State (e.g. multinational corporations).
Technological advances during the past few decades have had an intense effect on the
transformation of the content of information and knowledge, especially the acceleration
in availability. Any change or transformation in knowledge or information will
necessarily affect our understanding of the other. Such a conception can be influenced
and transformed either through systematic thought and analysis, or it could be more
unpredictable, chaotic and free.
The three main concerns here are the so-called information and knowledge explosion,
growth in information and publications, and the impact of the information explosion:
(1) The main indicators of an information and knowledge explosion are the increase in
the number of scientists; knowledge ``workers'' in the information era; the
116
dissemination of information by a variety of media; generating of paper; and the
percentage growth in the number of scientific articles.
(2) The reasons for the growth in information and publications are the growth in
knowledge work; the ``publish or perish'' motivation; monetary gain; the invention
of book printing in 1450; the development of reprographic methods; the idea of a
``global village'' and ``Gutenberg Galaxy''; and the electronic medium. These can be
understood against the background provided in Part C on the historical overview of
means of storage, retrieval and transfer of information.
(3) The impact of the information explosion includes the growth in information-based
activities; the handling of information; access to and retrieval of information; and
competition and `ìnformation overload.''
There are different information environments in society. Information plays a cardinal role
in the decision making process, task performance, decision making and the choices in
relaxation of humans. Information in this sense is of the utmost importance in all facets
of human life, as well as in the structural relations within which humans stand. Five
examples of these structural relations are the educational, research, governmental,
organisational and management, and the economic environments.
(1) The educational environment. Education cannot take place without information.
Information in the educational process is transferred directly through lectures,
seminars, debates, and indirectly through books, journals, and electronic media
(information services especially play an important role in the latter). Information is
viewed as valuable and essential at primary level of education, and is therefore
supplied free of charge in most cases.
(2) The research environment. To be able to conduct meaningful research, relevant and
accurate information is needed. Without it we might find ourselves repeatedly
reinventing the wheel, wasting resources unnecessarily, and duplicating work and
research results that do not make valuable contributions.
(3) The state/government environment. A country cannot be effectively run without the
effective implementation and management of information. For meaningful
decisions to be made regarding for example war, economic and welfare matters,
accurate and relevant information is of the utmost importance. The legislative power
cannot make meaningful laws if information is not available for debating and
decision making. This is one reason why more and more countries have information
services in place to support these debates. The downside is that information is often
Promotion of Access
abused in the political arena to aid own political interests. The
to Information Act 2 of 2000 in South Africa (called the Open Democracy Act prior
to its official instatement) holds important implications for the availability of
government information to the public.
(4) The organisational and management environment. Any organisation is dependant

on information to remain economically viable, to reach set goals and to function
effectively. Information needs to be approached as a factor critical to success,
enabling an organisation to gain and retain the competitive benefit. This makes
effective management of information an imperative.Organisations should therefore
. recognise information as a management resource

. ensure that correct and relevant information is set for specific tasks
. ensure that information is effectively made accessible with value added and the
business environment is explored
. develop an information policy
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. employ knowledgeable staff to manage the information
. set aside a certain percentage of its running costs for its information assets and
management thereof
(5) The economic environment. We have already established that information offers an
organisation a competitive advantage.. From an economic perspective, managing
information effectively and correctly within an organisation contributes to higher
productivity amongst its employees and ideally results in better creativity.
Information can also be ``sold'', but keep in mind that what is actually sold by
companies in the market is information products and services (e.g. telephone
services). Information can also be sold as a by-product. A negative side is that
information can be twisted and misrepresented for monetary gain (this deliberate
attempt at spreading false information is referred to as disinformation, and the

accidental or ignorant spread of false information is referred to as misinformation).
Many organisations employ information advisors and support new research in order
b
to remain economically viable.
ACTIVITY 27
(a) Relate these environments to the components of the information infrastructure as

identified in Part E.
(b) Make a list of some examples of the role played by information in the identified
environments.
14.2 HUMANS AND INFORMATION
Information science does not only study the way in which information is communicated
and the problems surrounding it, but also humans and the way they process and use
information. For example, it serves no purpose to design an information system with the
best technology available if humans cannot use it. Information science has, therefore, as
a primary aim understanding and determining the information needs and behaviour of
humans (refer to Study Unit 3.2. in Part B).
Using a simplified explanation, humans have specific senses with which they receive
signals that are then transferred via channels to the brain, where they are stored and
organised. Performance actions take place when that information is recalled for use. This
also goes through various channels and can be externalised in physical and written
formats. Too much information can lead to problems and to counter this humans have
built-in filters to deal with such an overflow. The main filters are an individual's personal
knowledge base and frame of reference, normal decision making processes and
handling when under stress. Different problems can creep into this handling, for
example reading and/or writing mistakes, or when a person simply ignores certain
information.
Three types of memory have been identified namely long-term, short-term and
externalmemory. Long-term memory is often regarded as limitless and it has been
determined that the long-term memory of older people is better than their short-term
memory. Short-term memory is normally aimed at remembering something for a short
period of time, for example a telephone number. External memory acts as an aid to
human memory, for example a diary, calculator or cellular phone.
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Humans have certain limits in the processing of information. Some of these are as
follows:
. short-term memory
. associations and the changes thereof (e.g. memorising the names of members of an
audience in conjunction with where they are seated)
. concentration ability lasts about 20 minutes and most people can only concentrate
fully on one aspect of an issue at a time
. ``just noticeable differences'' it is more often the small differences that lead to big
misunderstandings
. only using information that is easily accessible and understandable
. incentive listening closely only when someone of importance says something
. motivation humans process information with greater difficulty in the absence of
motivation
. intelligence the ability of some people to understand certain matters quicker and
easier than others
Cognitive elements and the learning process of humans as information processors

involve the way in which humans go about processing information (the collecting,
processing and evaluating of information). We also distinguish between the left and
right side of the human brain. The left side is viewed as rational and analytical, and the
right side as being more intuitive and creative.
The following characteristics of humans as information processors can be distinguished:
. Feedback. A person can sometimes ignore information that he/she does not want to
know or does not view as important. There also needs to be a response to the
feedback from the person.
. Psychological value of unused information. Unused information affords the decision-

maker more confidence even if he/she did not use it. It also happens that people like
opportunities, but do not always make use of them. Information is often seen as an
asset even when not utilised. It is the major reason for the storing of information in the
form of papers and books.
. Information overload. This goes hand in hand with the ability of humans to process
and remember information. Especially technology plays a significant role in this
regard, and the effect thereof on humans is of great concern.
. Individual differences. Due to cognitive differences between them, all humans differ
regarding the way in which they process information. Factors that can play a role here
are intelligence, education, background and experience.
. Ways in which information is communicated. There are different ways in which

information is communicated and it has been found that direct communication
b
remains the best way.
ACTIVITY 28
(a) Find examples of the different ways in which human beings process information in
personal and work environments. Relate them to the characteristics of humans as
information processors.
(b) What role do you think levels of literacy play? Compare your answer to Study Unit
16 on literacy once you have worked through it.
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14.3 INFORMATION AND WORLDVIEW
The world is not just the physical earth or humankind. The word may also refer to the
people of a particular period and their culture, human existence and environment, and
can be a state of existence. A view can be described as a literal perspective without any
obstructions from a particular point. A view, on the other hand, can also be a way of
considering or understanding something, an opinion or aim. We are concerned with the
second definition of view. The fundamental position of humans in relation to what is (or
exists), is defined as world view. Through the awareness of world views humans can
attempt to answer questions such as: In what way do we understand that which is/
exists? How do we interpret truth? What determines assumptions in research?
The position of a human being, in relation to the rest of the world, is conceived as a
worldview the moment the world becomes a picture. A worldview is therefore an active
view or understanding of life. One's world view, or the way one organises the guidelines
for it, can come into confrontation with the worldviews of others. In our ``modern age''
the human being is considered as the centre of a world where science, research,
machine technology, etc are dominant.
The prominence of the information phenomenon and related activities, and constant talk
of an information revolution and an information society, indicate not only its impact but
also a sociocultural background. We can identify four cultural dimensions that emerged
as cultural expressions within society and which do not occur in strict succession.
Dimension indicates the size or extent of a particular aspect of a problem or situation.

Change can take place without a dimension being ``cancelled'' as in the case of a phase
when the end or beginning of a phase would have been indicated by such change. The
mythical, ontological, functional and
four dimensions of culture identified are the
stochastic-fractal dimensions. The developments and changes in culture can be related
to changes and developments in our world view, as well as our relationship to
information.
Note: Appendix A.)
b
( The cultural dimensions are characterised in
ACTIVITY 29
(a) Define the concepts culture and thinking.

(b) Sketch the relationship between culture and thinking.
14.4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE INFORMATION ERA
Various authors have indicated that a development took place from an agricultural era to
an information era. The focus is most often on the human economic activities that
moved from primary agriculture via industrial to information-based activities. Various
terms have been used to refer to the latter, for example information society, information
era, postindustrial era, and even the so-called ``computer age''. The general
characteristics of the information era are the following:
. The accent is no longer on the general production of products and services, but rather
on the provision of information.
. There is a sharp increase in scientific labour.
. There is a demand for accurate and trustworthy information.
. Information technology is influenced by the economic market and job opportunities.
. There is an increase in information awareness and a high level of information literacy.
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. There is an existing information infrastructure in place that ensures the effective flow
and communication of information.
. A national information policy exists.
There are various ways to describe progress and changes in society. You need to know
the various eras at specific periods of time and their relationship to the main
b
characteristics of society during that particular period in history.
ACTIVITY 30
Compare the characteristics of the information era to that of the information society.
Throughout the various eras, humans have made use of information to increase their
chances of survival and improve their quality of life. They constantly found new ways to
store and transmit information. By the end of the 19th century, certain inventions began
to have a radical effect on the amount of information that was available. It was the
power of the new technology and further new technologies, especially in combination
with one another that led to what is known as the information era.
In today's world, information is of major importance and people are increasingly aware
of information as a crucial resource in the economic, political and social life of nations.
Today, in virtually all societies, there has been an extraordinary increase in the amount of
information available. There is significantly more information than ever before. For
example, access to media such as television, radio, magazines and books, as well as the
number of media available, has increased tremendously. We live in a media-laden
society. However, it is not only the amount of information in a variety of media and
formats that led to the development of the information society, it is the result of the new
technology of the computer combined with telecommunication, and of an
understanding of the value of information. A number of terms are used to refer to this
society, the most common being the information society, information era or post-
b
industrial society.
ACTIVITY 31
What are the information sources in your environment that are dependent on the use
of the computer and/or telecommunication?
14.4.1 The role of the computer
Ability of the computer: The role of the computer is one of the key elements in an
information society. Why is the computer, amongst the many new technologies and
inventions, the driving force behind the information society? The answer lies in the
ability of the computer to simulate skills and attributes that we once regarded as unique
to humans, namely memory, logic and communication. Machines that are able to imitate
and in some ways surpass the intellectual capacities of those that made them are both
fascinating and frightening. The production and availability of such machines have
influenced all aspects of human thought and activities. Computers have increased our
ability to communicate and store information exponentially. Both of these activities are
central to the human experience (see for example Feather 1998).
Diverse functions performed by the computer: Computers make it possible to perform
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multiple operations at high speed. They are able to handle large amounts of information
and to store and manipulate pieces of information. They can perform a large number of
diverse functions at great speed, and a number of activities can be integrated on the
computer.
Breakthroughs in information processing, storage and transmission have led to the

application of IT (information technologies) in virtually all areas of society. The power of
the computer has increased dramatically, and at the same time the price of computers
has come down, thus making it financially feasible to use computer technology in
washing machines, cars and so on.
14.4.2 Convergence of computers and telecommunication
The convergence of computers and telecommunication has resulted in an even more

dramatic improvement of information management and distribution. Telecommunication
enables computers that are distributed over a wide area to be linked and to form
networks. This is sometimes called an `ìnformation grid''. This grid links offices, homes,
factories, shops, et cetera, to make information available wherever it is needed. Once
established, these information networks are the highways of the modern world, similar
to the roads, railways, and such, of the industrial era. In the industrial era, the transport
infrastructure was indispensable because it carried materials and goods that formed the
basis of the industrial society. The information grid provides the infrastructure
supporting the key ingredient of the information society, namely information (Webster
1996:76-77).
. Effects on societal use of information: In 1981, Masuda (1981:31-32) identified the

following as some of the effects on the way society uses information based on the
power and impact of the computer:
Ð The computer rapidly expands information productive power and makes possible
the mass production of cognitive, systematised information technology and
knowledge.
Ð Information networks and data banks are the production and distribution centre
for information goods.
Ð The leading industries are intellectual industries.
NOTES
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STUDY UNIT 15
Information society
. define the concept `ìnformation society'' and identify its key characteristics and
criteria
. indicate how the move from an agricultural to an information society took place
. discuss the significance of the information society for a developing country
. describe the central role that IT (information technology) plays in the information
society.
The information phenomenon is one of the defining features of the modern world. The
creation, packaging and use of information have accelerated at such a pace over recent
years that we speak of an information explosion. According to some writers, this
exponential increase in information has resulted in a new type of social system ± the
information society. The information society differs significantly from previous societies
and has certain characteristics that distinguish it from other societies. Yet, having
information (especially transmitted and recorded) play a greater role in society does not
necessarily imply that people in such a society are better informed.
In this study unit we also look at the role of the computer and telecommunication
systems in the information society, the characteristics of the information society and the
significance of the information society. You need to know about the information society,
as this provides you with background to contemporary approaches to information. It will
also help you to understand why you need a high level of information literacy in order to
access and make optimum use of information in today's world, even if it is not an
15.1 DEFINITIONS OF `ÌNFORMATION SOCIETY''
You will come across a variety of definitions for the concept of information society.
Many of these define an information society from an ICT standpoint. The following are
only some examples:
(1) ``The information society is synonymous with what is meant by 'new information
and communication technologies''' (ICT). Since the beginning of the 90s, the new
ICT have been booming. The universal use of electronic exchanges of information,
convergence towards digital technologies, the exponential growth of the Internet
and the opening up of telecommunications markets are all signs of this change. The
information society is revolutionising many areas of everyday life, particularly
access to training and knowledge (distance learning, e-learning related services),
work organisation and mobilisation of skills (teleworking, virtual companies),
practical life (e-health services) and leisure. It is also providing new opportunities in
terms of participation of citizens by making it easier to express opinions and points
of view. However, these positive advances go hand-in-hand with new concerns:
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mass use of the Internet means that steps have to be taken against new criminal
behaviour, pirating, and questions of protection of personal data and intellectual
property.'' (This is taken from Babylon's free dictionary that you can access at
http://dictionary.babylon.com/Information%20Society)
(2) In the employment context, the information society is defined as `À society where
communication and information technologies influence the everyday lives of most
of its members. Helped by the advance of the Internet and a `wired' culture,
technology is used for a wide range of personal, social, educational and business
activities, and to transmit receive and exchange digital data rapidly between places
despite great distances. In an information society, information is as powerful a
resource as the manufacturing and agricultural industries were in previous eras.
Also known as the knowledge economy, digital era or information superhighway.''
(You will find this definition by redgoldfish.co.uk at http://www.redgoldfish.co.uk/
viewglossary.asp?gid=106)
(3) It is a ``Post-industrial society in which information technology (IT) is transforming
every aspect of cultural, political, and social life and which is based on the
production and distribution of information. It is characterized by the (1) pervasive
influence of IT on home, work, and recreational aspects of the individuals daily
routine, (2) stratification into new classes those who are information-rich and those
who are information-poor, (3) loosening of the nation state's hold on the lives of
individuals and the rise of highly sophisticated criminals who can steal identities
and vast sums of money through information related (cyber) crime.''
(This definition is from the BusinessDictionary.com website at
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/information-society.html)
(4) `À society in which low cost information technology, computers, and
telecommunications are widely used to facilitate communication nationally and
internationally, and to promote access to libraries, data archives, and other stores of
information held by private organizations or in the public domain. It is argued that
this greater facility of communication and increased access to information creates a
qualitatively different society with attendant new problems, such as information
overload, and the need for new forms of regulation to control information flows
between persons, companies, and countries `` (This is taken from the Highbeam
Research website which you can access at http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1O88-
b
informationsociety.html)
ACTIVITY 32
Consult different sources for definitions of `ìnformation society''. Compare the

definitions found in older and more recent publications.
Optional activity
Read up on the roots of the idea and concept of an information society. You could
start with Crawford (1983), Castells (1996, 1997, 1998), and Karvalics (2007), but
any other sources on the information society will suffice.
15.2 THREE STAGES OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY
The changes that accompany new information technologies are often very subtle. Sense
of community differed in times before television and computers from the sense of
124
community today. Life is pushed beyond the traditional boundaries of time and space,
and the image is becoming dominant over the actual/ physical reality. Another factor
determining an information society is the threat of uniformity/homogenisation and
compliance as promoted especially by the advertising and entertainment industries.
Braman (1993) suggests that the information society has been through several stages of
development. She identifies the following three stages: the electrification of
communication, the convergence of technologies, and finally, the harmonisation of
information systems with one another.
Stage 1: Electrification of communication
The first stage, which began in the middle of the 19th century, was the electrification of
communication. This involved technological developments, such as radio and telephone
that increased the speed and capacity of information flow and led to the building of a
fixed global infrastructure. These technologies gave rise to new types of organisations,
such as the first international organisation (the International Telecommunications
Union) and national and international news agencies. They enabled existing
organisations to expand and spread geographically while retaining centralised control.
By the end of the 19th century, information flows were central to the structuring of the
global economy and international relations. Information was increasingly regarded as a
resource, and this contributed to the increased commodification of information.
Information flow began to become both the engine that drove the market and the central
coordinating mechanism (Braman 1993:133-134).
Stage 2: Converging technologies and awareness of information
The second stage of the information society began in the middle of the 20th century. It
was characterised by rapid developments in the technology of the computer and the
convergence of the computer and communication technologies. There was increasing
awareness of the centrality of information to society. By the 1960s, technology was
making a significant impact on society. The capacity, speed, manipulability and reach of
IT were increased. The design of systems was becoming more complex and flexible. The
world began a second round of building a global infrastructure and experimented with
the new technology to perform traditional tasks more efficiently and also perform new
tasks. Transnational corporations began to emerge.
Economists' view of the information society: It was during this time that economists,
such as Porat and Machlup, began to identify information as the driving force of a new
stage of societal development that they termed the ``postindustrial society'' or
`ìnformation society''. Porat (1977) developed a way of quantifying the information
economy, and Machlup (1962) explored the sectors of what he called the knowledge
economy. Many, however, argue that economics (as well as other disciplines) must be
rethought in order to deal with the intangibility of information (Braman 1993:135).
Stage 3: Harmonisation of systems
Braman (1993:136-137) suggests that we entered the third stage of the information
society in the 1990s, which is characterised by harmonisation of systems. This means
the following:
. Communication systems are harmonised with one another, for example, broadcasting
systems are linked with communication systems.
. National communication systems are linked with systems across borders, for example,
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broadcasting systems are linked internationally through shared ownership,
production and/or regional or global distribution.
. Communication systems are linked with other social systems, for example, the
transformation of finance through electronic banking and transactions.
Harmonisation depends on the increased capacity, speed and penetration of the global
information infrastructure.
Global network: Harmonisation means that all the world's communication networks,
databases and sources of information are fused into a vast, intertwined and
heterogeneous tapestry of electronic interchange This changes the character of
individual networks. Networks no longer serve simply as a medium through which
people can communicate. The global fusion creates a place in which people can gather
to do business. People can increasingly conduct their activities through the global
network. It gives people the ability to meet and access information anywhere, all the
time (Vlahos 1998:498).
We provide two examples to illustrate global networking:
. A company can be situated in South Africa but uses experts from many other
countries to develop a product or offer a service. Communication and control can be
maintained through e-mail, teleconferencing and other telecommunication networks.
. An individual living in South Africa can buy items from shops situated in Britain,
South America and other countries through the Internet.
The transnational corporation now dominates the global economy. Domains like law
and politics are increasingly becoming transnational as well. Many organisations have
become so interdependent that they are described as network firms. Cooperation and
coordination are now as significant as competition.
At this stage, there are three distinct characteristics of the information era which have
been identified by economists such as Machlup and Porat:
. Information is the sector that dominates the economy.
. The economic domain has expanded through the commodification of information.
. Traditional market mechanisms have been replaced with information flows.
Information, either as an intermediate or a final product, now dominates the global

economy (Braman 1993:136-137).
The information society combines both profound change and fundamental continuity.
From the earliest times, humans have had a desire to remember, analyse the past and
make arrangements that allow them to record their knowledge and ideas in perpetuity.
The computer is one invention in a long line of inventions, such as writing and printing,
which have enabled us to do this. In this sense it is a continuation and development of
media that allow us to record information for generations not yet born. The computer is,
however, also radically different from the other means used to record information and
has thus caused a change in our social framework itself. This change has resulted in a
`'new'' kind of society the information society in which information plays a key role.
As a student, you should be aware of the information society as it has implications for
your future personal and professional life. It is an enormously exciting era where change
occurs rapidly and the future is unpredictable. But it is also an era of opportunity.
Knowledge of some of the characteristics may help you to understand the necessity for
information literacy.
126
b ACTIVITY 33
(a) Give three reasons why the computer is essential for the development of an
(b) What are the implications of the convergence of the computer and
telecommunications?
15.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INFORMATION
SOCIETY
The criteria for determining an information society include technological, social,

economic, political and cultural criteria. These criteria are used to measure whether a
country is an information society or not. Some countries contain elements of both a
developing and a developed country.
There is no agreement as to what the characteristics of the information society are. We

have identified some of the main characteristics, but this list is not exhaustive. Different
disciplines emphasise different aspects, depending on their perspective.
(1) Importance of theoretical knowledge. Theoretical knowledge is central and should

be applied in finding solutions to problems. This is indicated by the greater role
played by science in the productive process, the rise to prominence of professional,
scientific and technical groups, plus the introduction of information technology
(see for example Lyon 1988). In the industrial era, experimentation and empirical
knowledge were used as the basis for scientific and technological development. In
the information society, technological and scientific developments are based
primarily on theoretical knowledge (essential to growth and development). This
awareness of its value is realised in education, especially to a future society
scientific problem solving leads to scientific decision making. The effective use of
knowledge can contribute to the effective use of other resources. The knowledge is
not just an end in itself, but also a means of achieving particular objectives. We have
already indicated that it has become a transactable commodity with an economic
value, that is, information is a key product, and ideas and knowledge are key
resources. The exploitation of ideas and knowledge will determine the success and
value of products and services, rather than the manufacturing capacity.
(2) Scientific decision making and problem solving. These are characteristic ways of
approaching societal problems. Industry and commerce use research for product
development and marketing, using information resources of other companies and
information services. National government also makes use of knowledge and
information in national decision-making processes. It is essential for information to
have a high reliability level. Postindustrial (some prefer this term to information
society) societal problems are complex, because of the many factors and
considerations involved. Efficient information technologies should therefore be
available. If information and high technology are to be more than mere tools, they
need to lead to scientific problem solving. Information has a great potential in the
world market, especially in making predictions and pointing out possible problems.
Our political and economic lives are shaped by information technology, such as the
control of quality and coordination of production without regard to place or
distance. Decision making needs to be supported by properly informed choices that
were researched in a scientific and controlled manner.
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(3) Accurate and reliable information. This is required for the purpose of problem
solving. Typical of an information society (or contemporary society for that matter)
is the massive quantity of and varied information sources and communication
channels. Information resources are also highly regarded in the fields of culture and
entertainment. Access should therefore be easier and always available, not only
locally but also internationally. (This of course not always the case.) The
information that is available needs to be very reliable for scientific problem solving.
Such reliable information must be speedily processed and disseminated, and the
related information technologies need to be equally reliable and available. Of
course, accuracy is not always as crucial in certain aspects of life as it is in others.

People are not necessarily better informed because of the larger role that
information plays in social life. We can only know and understand a small part of
the available information. It is also open to exploitation and monopoly. A common

example is of a government or industry obtaining a monopoly on the flow and
availability of information.
(4) A well-developed infrastructure. This needs to be in existence for the successful
production, distribution, retrieval and use of information (refer again to Part D).
Well-established communication channels are reliable and economical. Alongside

this, there should be a book industry and telecommunication systems , and rapid
access to information through ICTs (information and communication technologies)
should be possible. A large proportion of the workforce would typically be involved

in the processing of information and its distribution. The more sophisticated an
infrastructure, the more an information society is supported by facilities that make

information available for scientific problem solving.
Other characteristics identified are:
. Information literacy essential. A high degree of literacy is essential. This implies that
not only textual literacy, but also information literacy, is necessary to cope effectively
with the enormous amounts of information available. Whereas in the industrial era
one could cope and work with only textual literacy, this is impossible in the
information era. One needs to know how a library works, be computer literate and
able to use different types of communication media effectively. One also needs to be
aware of the need for information, how to find it, evaluate it and use it to solve
problems.
. Dominant role of information. Information is the dominant sector of the economy. In
an industrial society, labour and capital are the prime resources in the economy. In an
information society, knowledge and information are dominant. For example, Japan is
a country with few natural resources, yet it is extremely wealthy because of the high
level of education and of the exploitation and development of theoretical knowledge,

factors that have enabled the Japanese to remain in the forefront of technological
development.
. Rapid change. Change takes place extremely rapidly in the IT sector, which makes it
increasingly difficult to predict the future. Previously, the time required to move from
research and development to production and sales took years. Today, a company
requires only six months to get the product onto the market, where it remains for eight
months, and is then gradually withdrawn from the market over the next six months as
a new product is introduced.
. IT is a central factor in the conduct of modern economic and political life (Wilson
1998:25).
128
. Convergence of communication networks and global infrastructure. The information
society is characterised by the convergence of communication networks and global
infrastructure. Information networks connect locations and have a dramatic effect on
the organisation of time and space. In other words, the world has become a ``global
village''. People are able to communicate with one another irrespective of
geographical location and time differences.
. There is increasing globalisation.Companies operate across borders, and there is a
trend towards vast transnational companies. For example, CNN television news
channel is available in virtually every country (read for example Wilson 1998).
15.4 IMPLICATIONS FOR A DEVELOPING COUNTRY
In this section we discuss the implications the information society has for developing
countries.
15.4.1 Developing countries and the information society
What are the problems for developing countries? A question that is of some importance
in South Africa is whether the proliferation of information technology will enable
developing countries to catch up economically with developed countries. Some of the
problems in doing this have been identified and are listed below.
. Intellectual and managerial skills are needed to exploit information economically, and
they are often not available in developing countries.
. Infrastructure, such as roads, telephonic communication networks, publishers and
broadcasting stations, is necessary for an information society. A modern industrial
economy already has much of this infrastructure in place, but it is not generally
available in developing countries.
. Information is the consequence, not the cause, of development.
. Developing countries may lack information processing and transmission technology.
Development requires attitudinal changes, cultural adaptation, a trained and educated

work force, and a political structure that is willing to take the inherent risks that
development inevitably requires (Dordick & Wang 1993:20).
Instead of diminishing the differences between developed and developing countries, the
differences may in fact be intensified by the increasing use of IT. The potential for
information to be sold as a commodity also means that the poor have less access to
information (Lyon 1988:1±21).
Wilson (1998:25±26) suggests that developing countries can follow certain strategies
to close the gap, for instance:
. Domestic IT capabilities must be developed. This requires designing and actively

pursuing a proactive "National Information Infrastructure" strategy that is explicitly
geared to moving the country into the digital future.
. The IT revolution also brings about the means to overcome marginalisation. For
perhaps the first time in the history of humankind, countries can choose to create the
wealth they need in order to grow fast. Previously, wealth had to be extracted; it was
mined and harvested from the mountains and subsoil. Gold, oil or rich soil brought
wealth to a country lucky enough to have natural resources. Today, what is found
under the ground is less important than what is found in the heads of the people, that
is, IT education and ``high tech'' training. Commodities, roads and ports are being
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replaced with knowledge and information highways. These new resources can be
created and installed anywhere in the world where the government has the vision,
willpower and long-term commitment to devise imaginative ways to use IT to enrich
its citizenry.
15.4.2 South Africa and the information society
South Africa does have certain features that are important in an information society:
(1) Theoretical knowledge. South Africa has clearly shown its perception of the
importance of knowledge in growth and development. A large percentage of the
annual national budget is spent on education. Universities recognise research as
one of their functions, and research establishments such as the CSIR (Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research) emphasise the seriousness with which the
development and application of theoretical knowledge is regarded (Shillinglaw
1988:15).
(2) Accurate and reliable information sources. South African society has access to a
well-developed library system, including public, academic, research, special and
state libraries. Many people also have access to Internet, either privately or through
their work. Students may have access at school or through their tertiary institution.
Government departments are also sources of information, as are reports of state
agencies. We are a society rich in information resources, both locally generated and
imported (Shillinglaw 1988:16).
(3) Well-developed infrastructure: There is a well-developed infrastructure for the

production, distribution, retrieval and use of information. South Africa has a well-
developed publishing industry and broadcasting channels as well as the
communications industry are well established. However, although the economically
active areas of South Africa have a good infrastructure, there are sections, especially
b
rural areas, where there are no telephone lines or electricity.
ACTIVITY 34
Take into consideration that the above have been determined according to the
information situation in the 1980s. Are they still true for South Africa today?
Substantiate your answer with examples.
15.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY
Of main concern in an information highway are policy, computer companies, telephone

companies and the way the information highway impacts on the existence of humans.
This can be related to the emergence of another source of meaning of information, that
is, that central socioeconomic relations are no longer those governing the
transformations of matter and energy. Even though the latter has not been replaced, the
focus has shifted to the storage, processing, transmission, and control of data.
The new major components of the workforce are supposed to be ``knowledge or

information professionals'' in a new knowledge-based or information economy in
developed market economies. Information and communication technologies are seen as
the prime movers of future economics, culture and politics. The following are only some
of the matters that characterise the significance of the information society:
130
. Information overload. One of the problems in today's society is information overload.
The rate of the production of information is growing much faster than its
consumption. Japanese researchers concluded that between 1975 and 1984, the
quantity of information produced, telecommunications, mass media, postal service
and face-to-face communication (classroom lectures and conferences) had more
than doubled. On the other hand, the quantity of information consumed in the same
period grew more slowly (Dordick & Wang 1993:106). Time limits the amount of
information one can consume. There are only so many hours in a day in which one
can read, watch television or access information on the Internet. Moreover,
information is consumed at a much slower pace than it is produced.
. Importance of information literacy. We therefore need the ability to select and

organise information efficiently for use in both our professional and private lives. In
order to take advantage of the information that has been produced and made
available, one has to have the necessary skills to find the relevant information
amongst the wealth of data in as little time as possible. This is one of the main reasons
why one needs to be information literate today. The vast quantities of information
produced and made available in a wide range of formats and media, require specific
skills not needed by previous generations.
. Importance of lifelong learning. We must also learn to be lifelong learners. Since

information and technology grow and change so rapidly, we can no longer take it for
granted that once we have finished school and completed our training for a
profession or job, it will be sufficient to last us for the rest of our lives. We will have to
learn how to learn. The most important requirement is not specific skills, but a
universal skill, namely that of using information and knowledge and the systematic
acquisition of knowledge as the foundation of performance, skill and achievement.
. Continuing education for professionals. We will need continuing education

throughout life for our professional lives. Since it is impossible to know how a
profession will change and develop in the next five years, it is impossible to teach
students everything a person will need to know either at school or at university. Work
will be based on knowledge rather than experience, and this makes change inevitable
because knowledge innovates, searches, questions and changes. The more people
know, the more often they will go back for training throughout their working life. The
more people have learned, the more they depend on organised learning (Drucker
1968:320).
Optional activity
Contemporary economy is often divided into different sectors. First describe the
following sectors, including examples. Then, try do determine whether it can still
be divided that way or whether shifts or changes have taken place:
(i) primary or extractive sector (resembles pre-industrial era)
(ii) secondary or manufacturing and construction sector (similar to the industrial
era)
(iii) tertiary or service sector (resembles postindustrial era)
(iv) quarternary sector (control of primary, secondary and tertiary sectors, e.g.
trade and finance)
(v) quinary sector (government, legal, educational, etc)
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STUDY UNIT 16
Information literacy
. outline and differentiate between the various stages of literacy, from neoliteracy to
information literacy
. discuss the concept of functional literacy
. differentiate between preliteracy, illiteracy, neoliteracy and functional literacy

. identify and list the library skills necessary for information literacy
. identify and list the computer skills necessary for information literacy
The user represents groups with different needs, approaches to media and information
usage. Within a community, smaller homogeneous groups with unique needs and
patterns have to be recognised in order to determine the role and impact of reading,
media and information. What one user considers as data may be information to another,
especially since information is of a changeable nature, varying according to context and
need. These will differ not only between developed and developing population groups,
but also within those groups.
Literacy is more than a set of techniques. Literacy forms the basis for skills, but in itself
does not guarantee development or a permanent state of being literate. Functional
literates will be people with adequate knowledge and skills to engage fully in their
cultural group. The moment these persons find themselves in alien circumstances where
they must be able to survive, there is more involved than simply being able to read and/
or write. They must apply the information-processing strategies of reading to other areas
of communication. The different literacy levels are total illiteracy, functional literacy and
illiteracy, and literacy.
A continuum is a gradual progression from one extreme to the other. For example, if one
were to look at the various shades of grey between the colours black and white, the
colour at each extreme would be pure black or pure white. There are, however, various
shades in between, and at some point it would be difficult to say whether the colour was
more black or more white.
16.1 DEFINITION OF `ÌNFORMATION LITERACY''
A very basic definition of information literacy is that it is the ability to access, evaluate
and use information effectively from a variety of formal and informal sources.
Information skills are then the abilities that will enable you to be information literate, that
is, to utilise information.
A definition on which many others seem to be based is the definition formulated by the
American Library Association (ALA): ``To be information literate, a person must be able
to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate and use
effectively the needed information'' (1989:1). The term `ìnformation'' here applies to a
number of formats, of which the printed word is but one example. The other types of
INS1501/1 133
literacy you will come across, for example visual, media, computer, network, and the
other basic literacies are all included in an understanding of what information literacy
involves.
(Note: Refer to Study Unit 16.2.7 for the discussion on information literacy as part of
the literacy continuum.)
16.2 THE LITERACY CONTINUUM
In this study unit we give you a brief overview of the literacy continuum, starting with
preliteracy and ending with information literacy. We will not discuss all the various
stages in the continuum but will focus on preliteracy, secondary literacy, illiteracy,
neoliteracy, functional literacy, textual literacy, library skills and computer skills. Our
object is to give you an idea of the different skills that people have developed to help
them store, transmit and use information.
From the earliest times, people have made use of information to help them survive. As
different technologies were developed, such as language, writing and printing, different
skills evolved so that people could reap maximum benefit from these technologies in
order to store, transmit and use information more effectively. Today we need a wide
range of skills. Someone who has all these skills is described as information literate.
We start at one end with the preliterate person and end at the other extreme with
someone who is information literate. It is impossible, however, to always differentiate
clearly between the various stages.
16.2.1. Preliteracy
Preliterate cultures are not influenced by writing: Preliteracy or primary orality refers to
cultures that have had no contact with writing in any form. All societies have methods of
storing and transferring culturally important information, as this is essential for survival.
Preliterate societies develop elaborate means for doing so. Some of the methods used to
store and transfer information are the following:
. mnemonic devices (artificial devices that help people to remember something
important), either a physical object (e.g. a notched stick) or a verbal method, such as
rhyme to help remember a piece of information
. the use of wise people or elders who are charged with remembering events and other
information that are important for the society
. extensive use of memorisation
. the use of poets and story-tellers as an important means of transmitting morals,
religion and attitudes
. dancing
. traditional ceremonies
Most of us still use these methods in our daily lives in addition to other methods. We
may use a physical reminder, such as transferring a ring from the left to the right hand to
remind us to carry out some task, or mnemonics to memorise facts needed in an
examination. Teachers use catchy phrases to help pupils remember rules, such as the
English spelling rule of: i before e except after c. An example of a traditional ceremony
still found in many cultures is the initiation ceremony that is used to transmit culturally
valuable information.
134
16.2.2 Secondary orality
Secondary oral cultures are influenced by writing: Secondary orality can be

distinguished from preliteracy, although the two are often used as synonyms. Preliterate
cultures have had no contact with writing in any form. This differs from secondary oral
cultures that still transfer and store information orally although they have had contact
with writing and are aware that it exists. Written text may influence their lives marginally.
For example, a person may be unable to read but can still recognise signs and symbols,
such as the sign for Coca Cola. There are many oral cultures still in existence although
we tend to think that most people are literate.
16.2.3 Illiteracy
An illiterate may be defined as someone who is unable to read or write. Illiteracy is a

major disadvantage in a literate society but it is a problem only if the person lives in a
society with a high rate of literacy. That person is obviously unable to access the large
body of information that exists in written form. If essential information is in written or
printed form, the person is extremely disadvantaged. For example, an illiterate who
comes to Johannesburg would have problems reading street names, catching the right
bus, filling in forms, et cetera.
Literacy surveys carried out by international organisations show a high rate of illiteracy
in developing countries. This can hinder development. Illiterate people in today's world
have access to many sources of information but are unable to make use of many of them.
Electronic means of informing people are widely available, for example radio and
television, but the bulk of information is still in written form. Moreover, most jobs require
a person to be able to read and write.
16.2.4 Literacy
There are three basic forms of literacy, that is, neoliteracy, functional literacy, and textual
literacy.
(1) Neoliteracy. This is the first stage in learning to read. A neoliterate is any person
who has been taught literacy skills but has not yet fully mastered them. Neoliterates
need suitable reading matter to practise their literacy skills if they are to retain these
skills and become fully literate.
(2) Functional literacy. The idea of functional literacy was developed after World War II.
At this point people realised that there was an important level of literacy that was
higher than the ability to sign one's name and read a simple message, but lower
than being able to decode and understand any piece of text. When men were called
up to serve in the army in America, the authorities realised that many of them were
unable to meet the army's literacy requirement. Soldiers were required to
understand the kinds of written instructions that were needed to carry out basic
military functions or tasks (Levine 1986:25-26).
Functional literacy takes social requirements for literacy into account: Soon
after peace was declared, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization) assumed the role of the main body concerned with literacy.
They recognised that it was necessary to distinguish the traditional concept of
literacy from functional literacy. Literacy was redefined in terms of the basic
functions for which it was required in a particular society; high cultural standards
were no longer the norm as these could not be applied to everyone in a community,
nor to all communities. The concept of functional literacy included the generally
INS1501/1 135
accepted idea that the demands of work and citizenship in modern society require
most of the population to have some degree of literacy (Levine 1982:264). New
definitions of literacy emerged that attempted to describe a concept of literacy that
is relevant to the more practical aspects of everyday life for society as a whole.
UNESCO's definition of literacy: In 1962 UNESCO (Street 1984:183) defined

a literate person as one who
has acquired the essential knowledge and skills which enable him to engage in
all those activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning in his
group and community and whose attainments in reading, writing and
arithmetic make it possible for him to continue to use those skills towards his
own and the community's development.
Unfortunately, literacy campaigns in developing countries failed to help people
achieve this level of skills. The trouble is that this definition, like other definitions of
literacy, includes underlying assumptions about the cognitive (thinking) abilities of
literate people. Definitions of functional literacy tend to carry implied, but generally
unacknowledged, views of its functions (what literacy can do for individuals) and
its uses (what individuals can do with literacy skills) (Heath 1986:15). It was these
assumptions that lay behind the drive towards universal literacy by UNESCO. It was
generally believed that if people were literate they would also have certain thinking
skills, such as problem solving. However, experience showed that this was
incorrect. Thinking skills have to be taught and are not acquired automatically in
conjunction with the ability to read.
Measuring functional literacy: An additional problem with many of the

definitions of functional literacy is that, if functional literacy refers to how well a
person can read material associated with `èffective functioning'', then there are
three components that must be measured:
. What should count as adequate individual functioning in a community?
. What is the range of printed materials encountered by a typical adult in a
particular society or subculture?
. What is the minimum set of competencies required by the individual to perform
the tasks that entail print (see for example Kirsch & Guthrie 1977; Levine 1982)?
Functional literacy must be distinguished from functional competence, which

refers to the ability to perform adequately in a given situation. The ability to read
does not mean that a person is necessarily able to use the information acquired
effectively. The identification of the concept of functional literacy is important for
the following reasons:
. It recognises the importance of literacy for a large variety of purposes for which
the individual needs information.
. It places literacy within a social context.
. It separates literacy skills from cognitive (thinking) and metacognitive skills.
. It makes people aware of many of the misconceptions underlying conceptions of
literacy.
. A question that should be asked is: For whom is the literacy functional for society
or the person?
(3) Textual literacy. In order to be textually literate within the information society today
one needs a range of skills besides those of decoding and grasping the meaning of
136
text. It is not possible to be information literate without a high level of textual
literacy skills. These involve the following abilities that are mainly cognitive skills:
. decode and derive meaning from a variety of texts, for example scientific, literary
and commercial texts
. read in different ways according to your requirements as well as the requirements
of the text, for example to skim, scan and read in-depth
. manipulate the text for your purposes, for example to summarise, abstract and
integrate
. to evaluate the text in terms of certain criteria, for example applicability and
accuracy
16.2.5 Library skills
Library and computer skills are an essential component of information literacy; without
these skills one is unable to find, retrieve and use information effectively to solve a
problem. In the next two sections we will briefly outline the basic library and computer
skills needed to be information literate. There are, however, also other skills that are
required if one is to be information literate.
Libraries store and make culturally valuable information available. There have been
libraries and archives to preserve culturally valuable information from the time of the
invention of writing. The invention of printing with movable type led to large numbers of
books, as well as the production and availability of other published material. To preserve
this information and make it accessible, the number of libraries, archives, museums and
information centres has increased dramatically over the last two centuries. To access the
information stored in these agencies, one needs to have the necessary library skills to
find, evaluate and use the information stored there. These skills involve the following:
. Orientation. This entails knowledge of the physical layout of the library; the
regulations for use of the library; and the different services provided by the library.
. Organisation. One needs an understanding of how the library physically organises
sources for accession requires a knowledge of basic library terminology; order and
arrangement; how a bibliographic system operates; and the concept of subject
headings and search terms.
. Resources. In order to use the resources of the library it is necessary to have
knowledge of the difference between a bibliographic tool and the informational
sources to which these tools provide access; different formats; computerised
information services; the internal structure of a book and how this is used to trace
information in the book; periodical literature; various types of common reference
sources and how they are used; and bibliographic descriptions.
. Accessing sources. To access the sources in a library requires the ability to select
general and specific search terms; use the catalogue to locate sources; use other
finding tools, like periodical lists; use printed periodical indexes to trace journal
articles; use printed abstract journals to trace sources; use computerised databases of
indexes and abstracts; physically locate sources; select relevant information from the
sources; and make a note of relevant information, as well as the source from which it
was obtained (Behrens 1992:178-182).
16.2.6 Computer skills
The invention of the computer combined with telecommunication has increased the
INS1501/1 137
range of information sources available to humankind exponentially. However, to exploit
these sources of information one needs the necessary skills to use the technology. As in
the case of literacy, there is a continuum of skills that can be identified. Computer skills
that are essential for information literacy entail knowledge of how computers can be
used to identify, access and obtain data and documents needed for problem solving and
decision making.
(1) Basic skills. The basic skills required include familiarity with a computer keyboard,
and familiarity with standard software.
(2) Searching databases. In order to search a database you need the following skills:
. knowledge of how to use the Boolean logical operators used in computerised
bibliographic searching
. ability to develop a search strategy
. ability to choose an appropriate database
. ability to assess retrieved information (Kuhlthau 1990:16)
(3) Use of Internet. The Internet is an electronic network that can be accessed through
telephone lines if a person has the necessary software and connection. The skills
needed are the ability to:
. download files with information

. carry out electronic correspondence with other people
. use Listserv for interest groups
. use electronic journals
16.2.7 Information literacy
Information literacy is the most advanced type of literacy and lies at the furthest end of
the literacy continuum, since it relates strongly to our modern-day needs. It relates to
literacy skills and knowledge that are specifically required for functioning in the
information society. Information literacy is the most advanced of the types of literacy
and embraces all the others on the continuum. Briefly then, information literacy is the
ability to access, evaluate and use information effectively from a variety of formal and
informal sources.
Working through the previous study units of this study guide, you have learnt about the
information phenomenon, that is, how we perceive information. You understand what
information is, what is basic to the study of Information science, and you learnt the
meaning of several concepts that are indispensable to understanding the information
phenomenon. Your grasp of these concepts (symbols, culture, communication,
percepts, data, knowledge, etc) helps you to think about the various meanings that
information itself can have. From now on, we are going to concentrate on information-
as-thing.
. Hunter/gatherer era ± Agricultural era ± Industrial era ± Postindustrial era. We

explained that the history of humankind can be divided into various eras or time
spans, and that today's postindustrial era is also known as the information era or the
information society. Keep in mind that these eras build on each other. Agriculture
remains an essential element of the economy of most countries, even in industrialised
economies.In South Africa, for example, a large part of the population still makes a
living through agriculture. The difference is that in industrial economies, machinery
will be used to carry out many of the activities previously carried out by people. For
instance, cows will be milked by machine rather than by hand. It is also important to
remember that various parts of the world have gone through these eras at different
times.
138
. Information is a national resource. An information society is completely dependent on
information and on allied information-related services, notably those that make use of
computer and telecommunication technologies. Today governments realise that
information is a precious resource (like gold or oil) and that countries need to use it
wisely if they are to be successful economically and politically. Like gold or oil,
information gives power to a nation. For example, the South African government
spends a large amount of money every few years to conduct a population census. The
information is collected by means of census forms that must be completed by all
citizens of the country. This information is organised (using computer technology) by
the Statistics South Africa government department, published in numerous census
reports, and also made available on the Internet. It enables not only the government
but also the private sector to plan effectively for the future. By identifying population
trends, the number of people in certain age groups, the demographic distribution of
the population, and so on, they can plan important matters, such as the number of
schools, hospitals, houses, old age homes and job opportunities that will be necessary
in various areas. Being able to access information when you need it has become
essential.
Developed countries are the most advanced information societies and developing
countries are less advanced in the postindustrial era. Although South Africa is regarded
as a developing country, it does have many elements of an information society.
The standard of literacy in a country will determine its rung on the information-society
ladder. Obviously, the higher the literacy rate the more citizens are able to utilise
information. We considered literacy as a continuum, explaining various stages up to the
achievement of information literacy. Information literacy can be used as an umbrella
term to cover all the skills (and associated knowledge) that feature on the literacy
continuum. In this study unit we look at the information society and information literacy
b
in more detail.
ACTIVITY 35
Explain why you think information literacy lies at the one extreme of the literacy
continuum.
We usually do not think about everyday situations as information situations where we

receive information and, based on our existing knowledge base, use this information to
come to a realisation, make a decision or do something. Beyond these ordinary
scenarios, there are a multitude of daily activities during which we use information in a
far more complex manner. In the world of today we are bombarded by information,
much of it of a formal nature.
Literacy is a constantly evolving concept. You know by now that in our time we cannot
simply have a dichotomous framework for literacy, where people are regarded as either
literate (they can read and write) or illiterate (they can neither read nor write). You have
learnt that literacy is regarded as a continuum, where different degrees or levels of
literacy development can be recognised. People are regarded as being able to function at
different levels and the level depends on various issues, such as the individual or social
requirements of a specific society or culture.
Campbell (1990:149) explains what would be regarded as literacy for an adult in an

information society:
INS1501/1 139
Literacy involves the integration of listening, speaking, reading, writing and critical
thinking; it incorporates numeracy. It includes the cultural knowledge which
enables a speaker, writer or reader to recognise and use language appropriate to
different social situations. For an advanced technological society ... the goal is an
active literacy which allows people to use language to enhance their capacity to
think, create and question, in order to participate effectively in society.
What is an information literate person?About three decades ago, the president of the
Information Industry Association in the USA introduced the idea of a person needing to
be information literate:
People trained in the application of information resources to their work can be

called information literates. They have learned techniques and skills for utilizing the
wide range of information tools as well as primary sources in molding information-
solutions to their problems (Zurkowski 1974:6).
Information literacy is necessary if you are to function effectively in an information
society, not only in your work situation, but also in your private life. You are information
literate if you can access, evaluate and use information effectively from a variety of
resources. In accessing, evaluating and using information, you are working with
information. (We also refer to this as handling information or applying information
skills.)
Information skills include thinking skills, which we also call cognitive skills. Critical
thinking is thinking at a high level, for example analysing and evaluating the retrieved
information and then contemplating exactly how the information can be applied to a
problem. Metacognition(metacognitive skills) involves thinking at an even higher level
than critical thinking, for example at a stage when you are thinking about your whole
b
thinking process when working with the information.
ACTIVITY 36
Draw up a schematic representation of the literacy continuum.
16.3 HIERARCHIES OF HUMAN AND INFORMATION
NEEDS
The following explanation of the hierarchies of human and information needs is a

helpful way of trying to place the various levels of the literacy continuum. You will
probably notice that these levels are not always strictly successive and often overlap.
Also, developing countries are often the exception to the rule regarding meeting socio-
economic conditions and information needs.
Jesse Shera (1972) said (in connection with the library phenomenon) that book
production, reading, and library developments are products of a maturing society. When
a culture reaches a certain level of sophistication, libraries begin to emerge. Satisfaction
from reading is viewed as one of the last of the human wants to be expressed. This will
not manifest itself until certain prerequisite socio-economic conditions have been met.
Abraham Harold Maslow(1908-1970) came to the fore with his hierarchy of human
needs in this context. Maslow was an American psychologist who, in his theory of self-
actualisation, identified five levels of human needs that form a hierarchy or order of
precedence. These will not be discussed in detail here, and they are as follows (it starts
140
at the most fundamental, or lowest as Level 1, and ends at Level 5 [the ultimate or
ideal]):
Five levels of human needs (Maslow)
Level 5: self-actualisation ± this is the highest level (religious, ethical, aesthetic

needs) where cognitive needs, such as the desire to know more and to
understand, are satisfied.
Level 4: egotistical ± self-oriented needs (need for attention, recognition, esteem).
Level 3: social ± once safety needs have been satisfied, social needs arise which
can be fulfilled through relations with other people (love, friendship,
affection).
Level 2: safety ± once Level 1 needs have been satisfied, safety needs develop
(stability, order, security).
Level 1: physiological ± physical conditions (hunger, thirst, sickness, tiredness,

etc) indicate physiological needs that can be satisfied at the lowest level
with food, water, rest, medicine, etc.
On the basis of Maslow's hierarchy of human needs, Forest Woody Horton (1983), a
consultant in information management, compiled an analogous pyramid by
distinguishing different types of information:
Information needs (Horton)
Level 5
edifying
information
Level 4
enriching
Level 3
enlightening
Level 2
helping
Level 1
coping
INS1501/1 141
Each one of these types of information can help to satisfy human needs at each
corresponding level of the Maslow pyramid. Of course, needs do not always express
themselves in quite such a rigid manner, and one may find certain needs resurfacing in
later ones (or even the other way round), depending on circumstances, changes in the
environment, exposure to ideas and cultures, and so on. The ideal is that, through
lifelong learning and continuing education, an individual will continue to develop and
satisfy his or her information needs.
16.4 LIFELONG LEARNING AND CONTINUING
EDUCATION
This is included here in the context of literacy. An information literate person is prepared
for lifelong learning because he or she can always find the information that is needed for
any task or decision. Lifelong means doing something throughout your whole life.
Learning means gaining knowledge about something or skill in doing something. So
lifelong learning implies that whatever knowledge and skills you acquire through
learningshould remain effective and enable you to continue learning throughout your
life.
By its very nature, the information society will not allow you to rely exclusively on the
information you have acquired (e.g. from formal education) or on what is easily at hand.
Social changes occur so rapidly that you ought to be able to supplement your store of
knowledge continually. In an era when today's truths become tomorrow's outdated
concepts, individuals who are unable to gather pertinent information are almost as
helpless as those who are unable to read or write.
Why is continuing education important?You need particular skills (information handling

skills) to be capable of lifelong learning. Your continuing education goes on throughout
your life, not necessarily within the formal education system. Say, for example, that the
introduction of a new computer program in your workplace requires you to learn new
ways of doing things. If you fail to do so, you will not be able to cope with your job. If
you cannot cope, you will either be left behind when it comes to promotion, or you will
eventually be dismissed or retrenched. You need to be a lifelong learner if you are to
adjust as society constantly changes around you. If you cannot adjust to these changes,
you will be left behind.
The skills required for information literacy put you on the road to a lifelong learning
process: Ultimately information skills are an integral part of the ``quality of life''; they
structure an individual's, or a group's, ability to control their environment whether
physical, social or academic.
j DEFINITIONS
agrarian society:
continuum:
farming or agricultural society
something that has a continuous structure and is not made up of

separate and definable elements, for example a straight line
fractal: literally means an irregular curve or surface produced by repeated

subdivision; fractals are constructed by continually repeating changes to originally
simple forms; fragmented form; at each stage the figure constructed so far is one-
dimensional, but the fractal itself is too complex to be described with only one co-
ordinate, yet not fulfilling the plane to become two-dimensional
142
industrial society: a society in which the main form of economic activity is the
production of goods
myth: an account with heroes used to explain some natural phenomenon; it is non-
existent and fictitious; provides specific information or makes a particular effect; while
being a rational account of reality, there are overtones of fiction or fantasy; it was an
intellectually binding force in prescientific age; not as adaptable to changing social
conditions as law and ethics are; function of the myth is to be able to wrestle with
fundamental and irreconcilable contradictions experienced in life.
textual literacy: the ability to read and write
e SELF-ASSESSMENT
(1) Why is it important for you to know about the information society? What do you
think it is going to mean to you in your professional and personal life?
(2) What are the ethical challenges of the information age, especially regarding the
information professional's ethical and moral responsibilities, judging ethical
actions, and setting up guidelines?
(3) Read Study Unit 13 in Part E on information policy again, and indicate how such
a policy can be of value in the different structural information environments.
(4) Make a list of things that you think are likely to affect the quality of life in an
(5) Outline the characteristics of the information society.
(6) What are the implications of the information society and information technology
for developing countries such as South Africa?
(7) Discuss the three stages of the information society.
(8) How does South Africa compare to other countries that are regarded as
information societies?
NOTES
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INS1501/1 143
APPENDIX A
Additional information
The information in Appendix A is supplementary to the information in the main body of

the study guide. It may help you complete certain activities and understand certain
matters covered in the study guide more clearly.
PART A
(1) Schematic representation of the communication of information General

communication model, recreated from Dick (2002:14):
General communication model:

[Recreated from Dick 2002:14]
A INFORMATION SOURCE " " "
"
message
"
C SENDER
"
"
message
"
E ENCODER
"
"
signal
kcabdeef
"
noise CHANNEL
"
signal
"
F DECODER
"
"
message
"
D RECEIVER
"
"
message
"
B DESTINATION " " "
144
In the model, the two extremes are the information source and the
destination . The connection, or activity/process, that takes place between them, is
calledcommunicating . One could explain it as follows:
Ð Direct communication is when the source (A) says something directly to the
destination (B).
Ð That which A conveys to B is called the message .
Ð B can react by in turn saying something, or the reaction of B can be seen in his
or her behaviour this process is called feedback .
Ð Indirect communication could be via other people (C & D) and /or with the aid
of telecommunications, for example two telephone lines (E & F).
Ð C is then called the transmitter receiver

and D the of the message.
Ð E is called the encoder decoder

and F the .
channel
Ð The six elements (A - F) are joined by a (or channels ± sometimes
called the medium or media) that conveys the message.
Ð If A and C, as well as D and B, talk face to face, the medium is the air, while a
telephone line is the channel between E and F.
Ð The message code between A, C, D and B is language, while between E and F it

takes the form of analogue and/or digital signals.
Ð The message must move from A to B via the other elements, through channels,
before feedback can be obtained.
Due to interference or noise the message might not be perfectly conveyed.

Interference is not only of a technical nature (such as a poor line), but can also be of
a semantic nature (such as when the source does not formulate the message
clearly).
(2) How does information science differ from other subjects or disciplines
that are also concerned with information?
Amongst others, the major difference is that Information science specifically
focuses on information itself, and is directly concerned with information-as-thing
and how it is linked to information-as-knowledge and information-as-process. We
are therefore concerned with the information phenomenon.
(3) Terms that characterise the empirical frame of reference for studying
Information science
Some examples are phenomenology, physical, senses objects datum (unit) sensory
perception, sense datum or given, behaviourism, sensation.
(4) A few examples of each of the two broad ways in which we experience
information
Directly: internally and externally through the senses (taste food; sight sunset;
hearing voices singing; touch heat, pain; smell flowers, roast), etc.
Indirectly: recorded information (computer, written/printed records such as

books, magazines). Written records, for example, include a message/content and
medium (combination of human-made and natural elements; word-of-mouth
(``second-hand'' information retold by one person to another).
INS1501/1 145
(5) Sources of information other than the senses
Imagination, objects; records (books, newspapers, pictures and photographs),
radio, television; combining elements sensory, brain/mind, choice/decision,
deduction and interpretation, etc.
PART B
(6) Define `ìnformation'' in such a way that all these statements would
refer to the same concept
Many of the aspects in the statements supplied in the Activity (1-8) can be
identified in the various definitions found on information. You would have found
that some definitions differed in a major way, and others were complementary, or
identified different levels (e.g. in its physical and/or non-physical sense; economic
value and/or meaning value, etc).
(7) Indicate whether the following statements describe information as

information-as-process, information-as-knowledge or information-as-
thing, or none of these
Information-as-process: definitions/statements 1, 4, 7, 8.
Information-as-knowledge: definitions/statements 2, 6, 10, 13.
Information-as-thing: definitions/statement 3, 5, 9, 11, 12.
(8) Three dimensions of information

As you can see from our discussion in Study Units 3.1 and 3.2 (Part B), there are
three dimensions to the concept of information:
(i) a material (or physical) dimension

(ii) a dimension relating to the process
(iii) a dimension relating to the meaning contained in information
In its material form, information is externalised knowledge that has been
assembled in a form that can be communicated. In this sense, information can be
seen as a commodity or resource that can be bought and sold. But information
also carries meaning, which is why it is regarded as valuable. Once it reaches a

person's brain, it can change the person's image of the world and affect and
transform the person's state of knowledge. In this sense, information gives form to
the human image of reality (Ingwersen 1995:139).
In other words, information can have a subjective and an objective meaning:
(i) In its objective form, information can be sold or bought because it has a
concrete form.
(ii) In its subjective form, information may change a person's view of the world,
reduce uncertainty, and help him or her to come to a decision.
Information can, however, also be the processthrough which someone

becomes informed, and in this case, information is neither objective nor subjective,
but the process itself.
(9) We first need to make a distinction between terms, concepts and

phenomena before we deal with the central concepts
146
1 Terms 1 Concepts 2 Phenomena
A term is a word or A concept or notion is what is A phenomenon is
phrase; it is a understood by a term. something that one
linguistic becomes aware of
The same term can have
construction through sensory
several different meanings
consisting of letters. experience.
and the term `ìnformation'' is
no exception. Alternatively, There are concrete
different terms may have the phenomena: they can
same meaning be directly observed
(e.g. a building).
Some phenomena
become abstract
through
generalisations.
Others are not directly

observable (e.g.
intelligence) and can
be deduced
depending on a
person's observable
behaviour.
(10) Some of the ways in which knowledge and information differ. For
example
(1) information needs to be in a form in which it can be communicated, and

knowledge forms part of a person's worldview or cognitive structure;
(2) knowledge forms part of a dynamic unity, information can be discrete and
separate;
(3) in the knowledge spectrum information is placed on a lower level, it is
transmuted into knowledge once it becomes part of a person's worldview; etc
(11) The relationship between information and meaning

Information does not really exist on its own only in association with other
concepts such as data, knowledge, etc. Information can also be seen as a
commodity, energy, communication, etc. The meaning of a word is what is
understood by it. There are conventional meanings as well as subjective meanings.
An information medium can convey more than one meaning. Meaning can be
enhanced by way of interpretation and by whom it is being propagated.
Enhancement can therefore also be making something look ``more'' or ``better''
than it really is. For example, from an economic/commodity viewpoint, the value
of information can be improved or increased for better consumption by society, or
intensified to create the illusion that it is necessary for survival in an information
age. Information that is incorrectly or incompletely transmitted, can lead to
misinformed conclusions and the attribution of incorrect meanings. People deal
with problems or threats by giving them meaning and interpreting them into
culture. Signification is linked to something having meaning, something that can
contribute and have importance, and be worth considering. Information carries
meaning for those who might receive it and attribute their own understanding or
meaning to it. Context will have an influence on information and its related
meanings and determine, in that particular context, whether it is of significant
INS1501/1 147
importance or not. New meanings can emerge depending on how information is
presented, and it does not need to be ``new'' information.
(12) What reasons or factors can you think of why not all knowledge is
expressed or turned into information?
Perhaps a person does not want to do it, or is not allowed to do it, or never needed
to do it, and sometimes because one cannot do it (e.g., certain things that you
know but cannot express in words or gestures.
(13) Schematic representation of the knowledge system

The knowledge system as represented by Debons et al (1988:7)
Universe of Events
Wisdom
Knowledge
Understanding
Information
Awareness
Data
Symbols
(14) In which of Popper's worlds would you place each of the following?
Libraries world 3
Rocks world 1
Magazines world 3
Dreams world 2
digital videodiscs world 3
museum exhibitions worlds 3, 1
(15) Make use of the following elements to draw up an information cycle:

. generation of information (working, thinking)
. interpersonal transfer (talking, lecturing, corresponding,
telecommunicating)
. use of information (listening, reading, referring)
. compilation into documents (writing, editing, recording data)
. publication (publishing, printing, database production)
. distribution (bookselling, lending, copying, leasing)
. preparation for analyses (indexing, abstracting, cataloguing, extracting
data)
. storage (acquisition, processing, shelving, filing, data storage)
148
. transfer/relay (informing, advising, surveying, translating, user education)
. retrieval (locating, searching, referral)
. compilation of aids (directory, union list, code, classification, thesaurus, user
manual, software)
The following diagram represents the cycle of main information functions

according to Vickery & Vickery (1992:10):
GENERATION COMPILATION PREPARATION

OF INTO OF
INFORMATION DOCUMENTS ANALYSES
Working
" Writing
" Indexing
Thinking Editing Abstracting
Recording data Cataloguing
"
"
" Extracting data
"
"
"
"
INTERPERSONAL COMPILATION
TRANSFER PUBLICATION DISTRIBUTION STORAGE OF AIDS
Talking Publishing " Bookselling " Acquisition

" Directory
"
Lecturing Printing Lending Processing Union list

Corresponding Database Copying Shelving Code
Telecommunicating production Leasing Filing Classification
Data storage Thesaurus
"
" User manual
"
Software
USE OF TRANSFER
"
"
INFORMATION (RELAY) RETRIEVAL
Listening
" Informing
" Locating "
Reading Advising Searching
Referring Surveying Referral
Translating
User education
(16) Symbolisation and thinking: Extract taken from Bekker, J. 1993. The
information phenomenon. Mousaion , 11(2):23-35. (The extract included here
appears on pp 31-32.)
4.4 Symbolisation
Once again Jesse Shera (1972:110) indicates in a single sentence the relationship
between knowledge, language and symbolisation:
Knowledge and language ... are essentially inseparable, for language is the
symbolic structuring of knowledge into communicable form.
Man distinguishes himself from animals in that he symbolises. For example,

he uses one object to represent another, associates one thing with another.
Language is developed from sound and letter symbols. Man's thoughts are
dominated to such a degree by language that all thought is essentially symbolic.
This is the view of Ernst Cassirer (1944), which is paraphrased by Holzner and
Marx (1979:94) as follows:
The symbolic representation of meanings creates the possibility of stabilizing

them. Without symbolization, an organism is restricted in its response to the
stimuli immediately in its environment or to genetically fixed response
patterns. The capacity to create and use symbols permits human beings to
INS1501/1 149
transcend the limitations of the immediately given environment, to represent
objects in their absence, to imagine objects that have not yet existed or will
never exist, and to work on relations among them. In other words, Cassirer
pointed to symbolization as a human social characteristic that has enabled
mankind to expand its cognitive domain, its experiences, and representations
of reality by an enormous measure.
4.5 Thinking
It may be said that information becomes knowledge once the mind has processed
sensory stimuli to the point that meaning may be attributed to them. Mental
activity deals with external stimuli while taking into account what exists already in
the memory, and integrates new information with what is already known.
Since
. percept formation is influenced by experience,

. concept formation is subject to categories of understanding,
. language influences the nature of thought and knowledge, and
. sensory impressions derive their meaning from symbolisation (for example
association), it is understandable that these four factors provide the mind with a
harness which creates a great measure of stability. The mind tends to accept
knowledge which is compatible with existing knowledge or which can be easily
accepted. This does not exclude continued evolutionary mental development,
however.
A distinction is often drawn between knowledge, insight and wisdom (for

example by Kochen 1975:5). There are people who are very knowledgeable in the
sense that they can reproduce certain facts, but who lack adequate insight
because they do not know how to use this knowledge. Similarly, people may
possess insight in the sense that they understand something well, but lack wisdom
because they cannot envisage what may happen in a broader context or in the
long term.
Information acquires value only when it is used. Information is essential for
thought, but thinking can enhance the use of information considerably. The value
of information for an individual depends on the quality of his thought and the
nature of his subsequent action. Information science supplies the foundations of
Library Science. It appears that, in turn, the foundations of Information science
should be sought in Cognitive Science.
(17) What is information? Extract taken from Bekker, J. 1993. The

information phenomenon. Mousaion , 11(2):23-35. (The extract included here
appears on pp 33-34.)
5 What is information?
When the nature of information is finally considered in a global sense, the central
concern is man. The focus of scientific interest and knowledge is shifting from
nature and the environment to man, especially to what distinguishes him from
other things, his mental abilities. Van Peursen (1975:177) describes this as
follows: ``Het is alsof de wetenschappen steeds dichter bij een centrum, bij de
mens zelf komen.'' (It is as though the sciences are steadily converging at one
centre, man himself.)
Each person is his own window on reality. The point of departure for
understanding the information phenomenon is man's world view. Kenneth
Boulding (1961) calls this the ìmage': the organism's view of reality. The meaning
of sensory stimuli, for example a recorded message, is the change that it causes in
the subject's image of reality.
150
It should be clear by now that, in a sense, information and knowledge form a
cycle: knowledge presupposes and rests upon information which is received from
sources external to the mind, and information presupposes and is, in some cases,
externalised knowledge.
On the one hand, information is an input/resource ± it is transmitted by the
sensory nervous system in the form of sensory stimuli from sources external to the
brain and is converted in the mind into knowledge, which can be processed and
used, as well as stored in the memory.
On the other hand, information is an output/commodity in the form of sensory
stimuli which represent external knowledge and which is often recorded,
collected, preserved, processed, exploited, sold, etcetera.
In society there are things that bear information in the sense that they provide
a foundation for the dissemination of information. This is called the information
infrastructure and consists of components such as library services, museum
services, archival services, office services, government services, data services,
telecommunication services (including postal services), mass media services, the
printing industry, publishing services, the book trade, the information
(production) industry, educational, research and professional sectors. Several of
these components overlap.
The information infrastructure relies upon, or is characterised by, phenomena
such as information technology, information management, information policy, the
information economy, the information society, information culture, the info-sphere
and information ecology.
There is an ever-increasing shift in interest in the sciences from the natural to
the social and human sciences. John von Neumann (1903-1957) concurs when
he states that: `Ìn the future science would be more concerned with problems of
control, programming, information processing, communication, organization, and
systems'' (Machlup & Mansfield 1983:63). These problems are of special
significance in Information science.
In everyday life, and especially in the natural sciences, the phenomena of
space and time, as well as matter and energy, play a crucial role. Information and
knowledge fulfil a similar fundamental function in all of the sciences and in
everyday life.
Space is three-dimensional (length, breadth and depth) and, in a sense, time
adds a fourth dimension (namely duration). Matter is evidently static but energy
invests it with qualities of activity and dynamism. In a similar fashion, information
is static - it has the potential to inform someone. It actually only informs when it
becomes knowledge in someone's mind. In this sense, it may be said on the one
hand that knowledge is often (primarily) activated information. On the other hand,
additional knowledge is acquired through reflection - hence through the use of
existing knowledge.
PART D
(18) Similarities and differences between the two legs of Information

Science. Extract taken from Kochen, M. 1983b. Library science and information
science: broad or narrow, in The study of information: interdisciplinary messages,
edited by
F Machlup and U Mansfield. John Wiley & Sons:371-377.
The following quote, starting on page 375 of the article, offers an explanation
focused on a ``broad'' and ``narrow'' sense of Information science and Library
Science:
INS1501/1 151
[... ] Librarianship, library science, documentation, bibliography, and
information science in the narrow sense used by Rayward, have in common a
focus on the written record and physical documents books, journals,
manuscripts, musical scores, prints, and so forth that it comprises. Librarians
are concerned with organizing collection of such documents and facilitating
their use by library patrons. As such, they need to cope with at least three
tasks: (1) continually selecting from the growing record what to collect
(possibly weeding little-used items to make room if there are space
limitations); (2) bibliographic control or organizing and maintaining the
collection as well as maintaining the tools enabling them and their patrons to
determine at any time what is in the collection and where it is; and (3)
reference, to guide patrons in their use of records in the library's collection.
Information science, in the broader sense [] is, in contrast, concerned
with information, knowledge, understanding, and wisdom. Here,
informationis used in its technical, scientific sense to denote what is

transmitted over a communication channel to remove a receiver's uncertainty
about an ensemble. It is both a flow and a pattern that flows over channel.
This channel may have a memory that stores the encoded information pattern
of bits as meaningless codes. The channel may contain a transducer and
transformer that rearrange, encode, decode, or otherwise process patterns of
bits, as in a computer. As a flow, information is a temporal change in a pattern.
To be informed is to experience a change in some cognitive structure; to
inform is to affect such an experience.
Information becomes knowledge when it is given meaning, usually by a
human mind. A person (or machine) may be said to know the answer to a
previously unencountered question that is not merely a syntactic
transformation of the statement through which that knowledge was acquired.
Knowing something requires the existence of a knowledge space containing
niches for concepts, ideas, facts, and so forth that are required. These niches
are organized into a web, and the way a niche is embedded into this structure,
relating it directly to many other niches and indirectly many more, is what
gives it meaning at any time. Knowledge is stock; it may accumulate, but mere
accumulation of knowledge is neither understanding nor wisdom. It is the
latter that can help us to survive and learn to improve our lives.
Knowledge becomes understanding when it contributes to changes in a
knowledge space, adding new connections among niches and new niches,
perhaps revising the entire or large parts of the structure. Certain new items of
knowledge enable the knower to think of and ask questions never thought of
before: they lead to awareness that not all is known and important new
knowledge is needed. Understanding leads to deeper answers to questions
regarding how and why, while knowledge is mostly know-what and know-
how.
Wisdom, in one sense the ultimate purpose of our intellect and the
scientific enterprise, and therefore of central concern to information
disciplines, means bringing knowledge and understanding to bear on shaping
our world for human ends by human means. Wisdom governs communication
of information for purposes of control. It includes know-when, that is, the
choice of strategic times for action based on or justified by knowledge and
understanding. [...]
152
(19) An information cycle:
Refer again to the diagram under point 15 that represents an information cycle of
the main information functions according to Vickery (1992).
PART E
(20) Your own personal information infrastructure:

The mind maps will differ from student to student, but you could have started with
something like this, for example:
Friends,
colleagues,
etc
Personal
Radio collection
Personal of books
information
infrasctucture
etc. TV
(21) Why do you think it is important for South Africa, or any other country
for that matter, to have an information infrastructure?
There are many reasons, but the main one is because we need it to create,
communicate and deliver useful and timely information for all the economic, social
and political activities of the country.
(22) What social concerns should the information infrastructure address?

The primary concerns that the information infrastructure should address are that
information is generated (e.g. authors, researches), packaged and made available
(e.g. publishers and bookshops), organised (e.g. libraries, data industry), and
stored (e.g. libraries). All of this is done so that information is available when
needed by people in a society. A society needs information and access to
information for political, social and economic activities.
(23) Why is a national information policy necessary?

To regulate the information infrastructure for optimum use to benefit as many
citizens as possible.
INS1501/1 153
PART F
(24) The four cultural dimensions:

. Mythical dimension. Many people still believe that they are being influenced
by outside forces. Myths explain these and give rise to certain customs and
social activities dating far back. They present understanding and solutions to
that which is deemed mysterious and unexplained. In the consumer society and
mass production of today people are being manipulated into believing what
they need, which is often contrary to what they actually do need. It replaces
myth as collective memory, which is also a means of communicating.
. Ontological dimension. Ontology deals with the essence and being of
things. It is knowledge about being in general, in their innermost being. The
ontological dimension is not restricted by mythical powers but people in this
dimension conduct their own investigations. By establishing that something
exists (its ontological status), it can be determined how and where it exists. It
replaces the participatory thinking of the mythical dimension. The object is
distanced from the subject through marking clear boundaries. Natural
phenomena are explained in terms of the laws of nature; an approach of ``cause
and effect'' is used in acquiring knowledge; it is controllable and the knowing
subject's position becomes more powerful, replacing the power of myth.
. Functional dimension. Key aspects here are efficiency, and plain and
operational purposes (the negative aspect of operationalism is that everything is
reduced to amounts and numbers). It indicates connections and relationships,
and characterises the present against the previous dimensions. Thus, instead of
separating and alienating object and subject, the concept of relationship
becomes important. Open systems are being favoured, and sensory perceptions
and the scientific worldview are used in conjunction with each other. The shift
is from theory to practice in the acquisition of knowledge. Action is indicated as
the interaction between people, things, symbols, and other people.
. Stochastic-fractal. Stochastic means random, pertaining to conjecture that
is opinion based on incomplete evidence. Fractal is an irregular surface
produced by repeated subdivision. This dimension is a reaction against the
operationalism of the functional dimension. The stochastic-fractal dimension
works with uncertain variables and coincidence, is characterised by the absence
of absolute thought, and represents the dynamic aspects of reality. The focus is
on the fractured rather than the linear and gives prominence to chaos,
uncertainty, and local rather than universal meaning. This provides new and
fertile ground for investigation into knowledge that is never fixed or stagnant. It
is based on the premise that order cannot be understood without an
understanding of chaos and fragmentation.
(25) The relationship between culture and thinking.

Thinking attitudes are a good way to distinguish between cultural expressions.
The meaning of culture varies according to the context and the person who
describes it. Cultures not only include customs or values, but also ideas. The
ideology of an individual or group may become part of the collective ideas of a
community. Ideas are formed in the mind and this can start as private, and are
sometimes projected externally. Ideas can also be stimulated or ``planted'' by the
cultural group within which individuals find themselves. This in turn may lead to a
change in thinking attitudes. Mass culture often has a strong influence on these
thinking attitudes or styles, by being taken up into a culture. This then changes
what is viewed as acceptable and what not. An integrated cultural environment is
important for comprehensive thinking.
154
APPENDIX B
Mind map instructions
The following are instructions found on the Internet containing useful hints on how to
construct a mind map. You can access the sites indicated for examples of mind maps.
(1) HOW TO MIND MAP (by Peter Russell)

http://www.peterussel.com/MindMaps/HowTo.html
. Use just key words, or wherever possible images.
. Start from the centre of the page and work out.
. Make the centre a clear and strong visual image that depicts the general theme of
the map.
. Create sub-centres for sub-themes.
. Put key words on lines. This reinforces the structure of notes.
. Print rather than write in script. It makes them more readable and memorable.
Lower case is more visually distinctive (and better remembered) than upper case.
. Use colour to depict themes, associations and to make things stand out.
. Anything that stands out on the page will stand out in your mind.
. Think three-dimensionally.
. Use arrows, icons or other visual aids to show links between different elements.
. Don't get stuck in one area. If you dry up in one area go to another branch.
. Put ideas down as they occur, wherever they fit. Don't judge or hold back.
. Break boundaries. If you run out of space, don't start a new sheet; paste more
paper onto the map.
. Be creative. Creativity aids memory.
. Get involved. Have fun.
Remember:
1 Mind maps work the way the brain works which is not in nice neat lines.
2 Memory is naturally associative, not linear. Any idea probably has thousands of
links in your mind. Mind maps allow associations and links to be recorded and
reinforced.
3 The mind remembers key words and images, not sentences try recalling just one
sentence from memory! Mind maps use just key words and key images, allowing
a lot more information to be put on a page.
4 Because mind maps are more visual and depict associations between key words,
they are much easier to recall than linear notes.
5 Starting from the centre of the page rather than top-left corner allows you to
work out in all directions.
6 The organisation of a mind map reflects the way your own brain organises ideas.
7 Mind maps are easy to review. Regular review reinforces memory. Best is to try
reviewing in your imagination first, then go back and check on those areas that
were hazy.
INS1501/1 155
8 We remember what stands out. The visual quality of mind maps allows you to
make key points stand out easily.
(2) HOW TO DO A MIND MAP

http://www.jcu.edu.au/studying/services/studyskills/mindmap/howto.html
This site has adapted the following hints on how to construct a mind map from the
work of Tony Buzan and others who have promoted mind mapping as a learning
and thinking tool. The site refers the reader to the following source for a full
explanation of the mind mapping technique:
Buzan, T. 1991. The mind map book. New York: Penguin.

Hints: Mind mapping (or concept mapping) involves writing down a central idea
and thinking up new and related ideas which radiate out from the centre. By
focussing on key ideas written down in your own words, and then looking
for branches out and connections between the ideas, you are mapping
knowledge in a manner which will help you understand and remember new
information.
Look for relationships

Use lines, colours, arrows, branches or some other way of showing connections
between the ideas generated on your mind map. These relationships may be
important in your understanding of new information or in constructing a structured
essay plan. By personalising the map with your own symbols and designs you will
be constructing visual and meaningful relationships between ideas, which will
assist in your recall and understanding.
Write down key ideas

Some students find that using capital letters encourages them to get down only the
key points. Capitals are also easier to read in a diagram. You may, however, wish to
write down some explanatory notes in lower case. Some students do this when they
revisit the mind map at a later date while others add such things as assessment
criteria in this way.
Put main idea in the centre

Most students find it useful to turn their page on the side and do a mind map in
``landscape'' style. With the main idea or topic in the middle of the page this gives
maximum space for other ideas to radiate from the centre.
Leave lots of space

Some of the most useful mind maps are those that are added to over a period of
time. After the initial drawing of the mind map you may wish to highlight things,
add information or add questions for the duration of a subject right up until exam
time. For this reason it is a good idea to leave lots of space.
156
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Study unit Page

1 CONTEXT FOR STUDYING INFORMATION SCIENCE 3

1.1 The subject 4

2 INFORMATION IN THE WORLD 8

2.1 Direct experience 8

THE CONCEPT OF INFORMATION

3 THE INFORMATION PHENOMENON 16

3.1 Meanings of the concept of information 17

5.1 Genetic information 38

6 IMPORTANT MEANS DEVELOPED FOR STORING, RETRIEVING

7 INFORMATION SCIENCE AS A DISCIPLINE 66

7.1 Information Science and information 66

7.1.2 What do we study in Information Science? 66

7.1.3 The information cycle 66

7.2 Definitions of Information Science 67

7.3 Distinctive characteristics of Information Science 68

7.4 Origins and development as a discipline 69

7.4.1 Development of Information Science as a discipline 69

7.4.1.1 A history of storage and retrieval of information 70

7.4.1.2 Information Science as a specialised discipline 71

7.4.2 Trends and events in emergence of Information Science 72

8 INFORMATION SCIENCE AS A PROFESSION 74

8.1 Library Science and Information Science 74

8.1.1 The main function of Applied Information Science 74

8.1.3 Similarities and differences between Library Science and Information

8.1.4 Applied Information Science 75

8.1.5 Information Science 75

8.2 The Information Science profession 76

8.3 The lifecycle of information 77

9 STUDY AREAS OF INTEREST TO INFORMATION SCIENCE 79

9.1 Central problem areas in Information Science 79

9.2 Criteria for Information Science 80

9.3 Theoretical approaches to information 81

9.4 The research process 82

10.1 Infrastructure of the universe of knowledge 84

10.1.2 Social sciences 84

10.1.3 Natural sciences and technology 85

10.2 The DDC system 85

10.3 Affiliated disciplines 86

10.3.2 Communication Science 87

10.3.5 Behavioural sciences 89

10.3.6 Systems Theory 89

10.3.8 Computer science 90

10.3.9 Artificial Intelligence 90

INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE AND INFORMATION POLICY

11 THE INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE 98

11.1 Information systems 98

11.3 Nature of the information infrastructure 99

12 COMPONENTS OF THE INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE 101

12.1 Publishers 101

12.2 The distribution network 101

12.3 Broadcasting 102