GEOL 2nd Edition Wicander Test Bank

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Chapter 8—Earthquakes and Earth's Interior

ESSAY

1. What is an earthquake? What are aftershocks?

ANS:
An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the ground caused by the sudden release of energy,
usually as a result of faulting, which involves the displacement of rocks along fractures. Aftershocks
occur after the main shock as the fault zone adjusts, and most are smaller than the main shock.

PTS: 1 REF: Introduction

2. How does elastic rebound theory explain when earthquakes occur?

ANS:
Where the rocks on the opposite side of a fault are on pieces of crust that are moving in different
directions, the rocks are initially locked in place by their strength and friction. The rocks do not move,
but they do deform. As the pressure builds, the strength of the rocks is eventually exceeded. They
rebound to their original shape, but the crust on either side of the fault has moved to a new location.

PTS: 1 REF: LO1 Elastic Rebound Theory

3. Describe what seismographs do and how they work.

ANS:
Seismographs detect, record, and measure the vibrations produced by earthquakes and create a record
called a seismogram. Modern seismographs have electronic sensors and record movements precisely
on computers.

PTS: 1 REF: LO1 Elastic Rebound Theory

4. What causes earthquakes?

ANS:
Rocks are capable of storing energy, but when their strength is exceeded, they rupture and release the
stored energy. Most earthquakes are related to plate movements.

PTS: 1 REF: LO1 Elastic Rebound Theory

5. What happens along an earthquake fault after rupturing begins? How is the length of time of ground
shaking related to the length of the fault?

ANS:
Once rupturing begins, it moves along the fault rapidly as long as conditions for failure exist. The
longer the fault along which movement occurs, the more time it takes for the stored energy to be
released, and the longer the ground will shake.

PTS: 1 REF: LO1 Elastic Rebound Theory

6. Describe the three categories of earthquakes based on focal depth and what causes them.
 ANS:
Shallow-focus earthquakes have focal depths of less than 70 km; intermediate-focus earthquakes have
focal depths between 70 and 300 km; and deep-focus earthquakes have focal depths of more than 300
km. Divergent and transform plate boundaries produce only shallow-focus quakes, and all
intermediate- and deep-focus quakes occur along convergent boundaries.

PTS: 1 REF: LO2 Seismology

7. Why do most earthquakes occur along the circum-Pacific belt?

ANS:
Convergent plate boundaries line the Pacific basin, since the Pacific is shrinking and the Atlantic is
growing due to plate tectonics motions. As plates subduct, they create earthquakes along their distance.
The Pacific basin also has some transform faults along it, including the San Andreas in California.

PTS: 1 REF: LO3 Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often?

8. What causes intraplate earthquakes?

ANS:
Although the causes are not well understood, these earthquakes are likely caused by localized stresses
caused by the compression that most plates experience along their margins.

PTS: 1 REF: LO3 Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often?

9. What are the differences between P-waves and S-waves?

ANS:
P-waves are primary waves; they arrive first to a seismograph because they are the fastest. They are
compressional and can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. S-waves are secondary waves; they
arrive second to a seismograph. They are shear waves because they move the material perpendicular to
the direction of travel. S-waves can only travel through solids.

PTS: 1 REF: LO4 Seismic Waves

10. Describe surface waves and their most important two types.

ANS:
Surface waves travel along the surface of the ground and are slower than body waves. They produce a
rolling or swaying motion. The most important types of surface waves are Reyleigh waves (R-waves),
which are the slower of the two and move material in an elliptical path, and Love waves (L-waves),
which move material back and forth in a horizontal plane.

PTS: 1 REF: LO4 Seismic Waves

11. How would an earthquake epicenter be located, using three seismograms, a map, and a protractor?

ANS:
First, determine the difference in first arrival time for P- and S-waves for the three seismogram
locations. Second, using a time-distance graph, determine the distance the epicenter is from each of the
seismogram stations. Use a protractor to draw a circle whose radius equals the distance shown on the
time-distance graph from each of the seismic stations. The point where the three circles intersect is the
earthquake epicenter.
 PTS: 1 REF: LO5 Locating an Earthquake

12. What is earthquake intensity, how is it measured, and what factors are involved in the intensity of a
quake?

ANS:
Intensity is a subjective measure of the damage done by an earthquake and peoples' reactions to it. It is
measured by the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale with values from I to XII based on damage
observed. Although the size of the earthquake affects intensity, so does distance from the epicenter,
focal depth of the quake, population density, geology of the area, building construction, and shaking
duration.

PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

13. Why is the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale no longer the main method used for measuring the size
of earthquakes?

ANS:
The Mercalli scale measures intensity, which is qualitative rather than quantitative. It depends on what
people see and feel. One person may make a very different interpretation of earthquake damage than
another, so it is very difficult to compare different earthquakes.

PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

14. What does the Richter Magnitude Scale measure, and why are scales of this type used more frequently
than intensity scales?

ANS:
The Richter Magnitude Scale measures earthquake magnitude, which is the total amount of energy
released by an earthquake at its source. This is a measure of the amplitude of the largest seismic wave
as recorded on a seismogram.

PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

15. How is the seismic-moment magnitude scale different from the Richter Magnitude Scale?

ANS:
The seismic-moment magnitude scale measures the total energy released by the earthquake. This takes
into account the strength of the rocks, the area of a fault along which rupture occurs, and the amount of
movement of rocks adjacent to the fault. The Richter Magnitude Scale just measures the energy
released by the largest seismic wave.

PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

16. What causes tsunamis, and why are they so destructive?

ANS:
Many tsunamis are caused by the displacement of ocean water caused by crustal movement or
slumping as the result of faulting. They are very destructive because they are incredibly fast-moving
waves with long wavelengths. These waves reach large sizes only where they enter water shallow
enough for them to touch bottom (1/2 wave length), and thus the wave amplitude increases.

PTS: 1 REF: LO7 What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?

 17. Explain why the portions of the San Andreas fault that are "locked" are or are not safer than the parts
where the two plates slide more or less continually. What is the name of the theory that deals with this
issue?

ANS:
The locked portions of a fault are probably less safe than those that slide regularly. The locked
portions are storing energy in the surrounding rocks, which will ultimately be released in a large
earthquake. The portions that slide frequently build up much less energy, since they release it
frequently. The name of the theory is the seismic gap theory.

PTS: 1 REF: LO8 Earthquake Prediction

18. Why has it been suggested that large earthquakes might be prevented by injecting water along isolated
portions of fault zones that have been inactive for an unusually long time? When was this technique
discovered?

ANS:
Local increase of fluid pressure can cause small earthquakes, which release stresses that would
otherwise build up to cause a larger earthquake. This phenomenon was first recognized when it was
discovered that liquid waste disposal by deep well injection at the Rocky Mountain Arsenal near
Denver, Colorado, was responsible for numerous small earthquakes in the area.

PTS: 1 REF: LO9 Earthquake Control

19. What happens to P- waves and S-waves when they encounter the core-mantle boundary, and what does
this change in behavior indicate about the core?

ANS:
P-wave velocity abruptly decreases, and S-waves disappear, meaning that at least the outer core must
be liquid.

PTS: 1 REF: LO11 The Core

20. Compare the continental crust with oceanic crust in terms of composition and thickness.

ANS:
Continental crust is complex, consisting of all rock types, but is usually described as granitic. It
averages 35 km thick. Oceanic crust is comparatively simple, consisting of gabbro in its lower part and
overlain by basalt. Its thickness ranges from 5 to 10 km.

PTS: 1 REF: LO14 Earth's Crust

SHORT ANSWER

1. Why do earthquakes of similar size often have such large differences in their destructiveness? Why are
they so different in the number of people they kill?

ANS:
Earthquakes do more damage in places where the population density is high and the structures are not
especially well built. More people are killed if they are out on the road and at work than if they are
home in bed.

PTS: 1 REF: Introduction

2. What are the focal depth ranges for shallow-focus, intermediate-focus, and deep-focus earthquakes?

ANS:
Shallow-focus: less than 70 kilometers; intermediate-focus: between 70 and 300 kilometers; deep-
focus: greater than 300 kilometers.

PTS: 1 REF: LO2 Seismology

3. Why are all intermediate- to deep-focus earthquakes generated at convergent plate boundaries?

ANS:
The convergent plates generate compressional forces as a result of plate subduction. The down-going
plate undergoes phase changes as it descends into the mantle.

PTS: 1 REF: LO2 Seismology

4. What is usually the ultimate cause of the stresses and pressures that build up in rocks and produce
earthquakes?

ANS:
Plate tectonic movements.

PTS: 1 REF: LO3 Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often?

5. Why are there so few earthquakes within plate interiors?

ANS:
At plate boundaries, adjacent plates are moving in different directions, which builds up stresses that
are ultimately relieved by earthquakes.

PTS: 1 REF: LO3 Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often?

6. Within which belt or zone do the majority of earthquakes occur?

ANS:
The circum-Pacific belt.

PTS: 1 REF: LO3 Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often?

7. Why are earthquakes more likely to occur in Tokyo, Anchorage, and Los Angeles than they are in
New York, London, or Paris?

ANS:
The first three cities lie along or very near the margins of plates; the other cities are farther from the
edges.

PTS: 1 REF: LO3 Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often?

8. What are two major and very useful differences between P- and S-waves?

ANS:
P-waves move faster; they can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. S-waves only travel through
solids.
 PTS: 1 REF: LO4 Seismic Waves

9. Explain how geologists calculate the distance between the epicenter of an earthquake and a given
seismograph.

ANS:
By measuring the difference between the arrival times of P-waves and S-waves at a seismograph
location, and using a time-distance graph.

PTS: 1 REF: LO5 Locating an Earthquake

10. Which type(s) of seismic waves do seismographs record?

ANS:
P-waves; S-waves; surface-waves.

PTS: 1 REF: LO5 Locating an Earthquake

11. Besides the distance to the epicenter of an earthquake, what are two other things that a seismograph
can tell us?

ANS:
A seismograph records that there was an earthquake, the time of the earthquake, and the magnitude of
the earthquake.

PTS: 1 REF: LO5 Locating an Earthquake

12. Explain the differences between the magnitude and the intensity of an earthquake, in terms of cause
and effect.

ANS:
Magnitude is a measure of the cause of the earthquake (the energy released), while intensity is a
measure of the effect (damage) produced by the earthquake.

PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

13. Explain the differences between the magnitude and the intensity of an earthquake, in terms of how
each is measured or observed.

ANS:
Magnitude is measured by instruments (seismographs), while intensity is measured by people's
reactions and observations.

PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

14. Explain the differences between the magnitude and the intensity of an earthquake, in terms of how
many intensities and magnitudes a single, given earthquake can have.

ANS:
An earthquake can have only one magnitude, but it will have different intensities in different locations.

PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

 15. Why do structures located on thick, soft sediment, especially water-saturated or artificial fill, suffer
much greater damage than structures built on bedrock?

ANS:
Surface waves cause this material to shake, lose its cohesiveness, and collapse. Sometimes they mix
with water and move like a fluid, in a process called liquefaction.

PTS: 1 REF: LO7 What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?

16. Why are the paths of seismic waves curved?

ANS:
Density and elasticity vary with depth, causing the waves to be continually refracted.

PTS: 1 REF: LO10 What is Earth's Interior Like?

17. What evidence do scientists use to estimate the density and composition of the core?

ANS:
The composition of the core is estimated by studying the composition of meteorites, information from
seismic waves, laboratory experiments, and Earth's density.

PTS: 1 REF: LO11 The Core

18. What is Earth's average density, what are the average surface rock densities, and what does this tell us
about the interior of Earth?

ANS:
Earth's average density is 5.5 g/cm3, surface rocks range between 2.5 and 3.0 g/cm3, and, therefore, the
interior must be denser than the crust.

PTS: 1 REF: LO11 the Core

19. Why do we know that the geothermal gradient near the surface cannot continue very deeply into
Earth?

ANS:
If the geothermal gradient near the surface continued at depth, the temperature at only 100 km depth
would be so high that all known rocks would melt despite the high pressure.

PTS: 1 REF: LO13 Earth's Internal Heat

20. What is the biggest cause of Earth's internal heat?

ANS:
Much is due to radioactive decay, particularly of uranium and thorium, and to a lesser degree,
potassium-40.

PTS: 1 REF: LO13 Earth's Internal Heat

COMPLETION

1. The study of earthquakes is called ____________________.

 ANS: seismology

PTS: 1 REF: LO2 Seismology

2. An instrument that detects, records, and measures vibrations produced by an earthquake is called a(n)
____________________.

ANS: seismograph

PTS: 1 REF: LO2 Seismology

3. The name of the location within Earth where earthquakes originate is the ____________________.

ANS: focus, or hypocenter

PTS: 1 REF: LO2 Seismology

4. The name of the point on Earth's surface vertically above the hypocenter is the
____________________.

ANS: epicenter

PTS: 1 REF: LO2 Seismology

5. All intermediate- to deep-focus earthquakes occur along ____________________ plate boundaries.

ANS: convergent

PTS: 1 REF: LO2 Seismology

6. The two major types of seismic waves are ____________________ waves and
____________________ waves.

ANS: surface, body

PTS: 1 REF: LO4 Seismic Waves

7. The two types of body waves are ____________________ wave and ____________________ waves.

ANS: P/primary/compressional, S/secondary/shear

PTS: 1 REF: LO4 Seismic Waves

8. The fastest seismic waves, which can travel through solids, liquids, and gases, are
____________________ waves.

ANS: P/primary

PTS: 1 REF: LO4 Seismic Waves

9. Seismic waves that cause a rolling or swaying motion of the surface of the ground are called
____________________ waves.
 ANS: surface

PTS: 1 REF: LO4 Seismic Waves

10. The velocities of P- and S-waves are determined by these two properties of the material they are
passing through: ____________________ and ____________________.

ANS:
density, elasticity
elasticity, density

PTS: 1 REF: LO4 Seismic Waves

11. The minimum number of seismograph records needed to locate the epicenter of an earthquake is
____________________.

ANS: three

PTS: 1 REF: LO5 Locating an Earthquake

12. The ____________________ of an earthquake on the Richter Scale is determined by measuring the
____________________ of the largest recorded seismic wave.

ANS: magnitude, amplitude

PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

13. For every integer increase of magnitude on the Richter Scale, ____________________ times more
energy is released by the earthquake.

ANS: thirty

PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

14. An earthquake of magnitude 7.0 has an amplitude ____________________ times as large and releases
____________________ times as much energy, respectively, as a magnitude 6.0 earthquake.

ANS: ten, thirty

PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

15. The term that best describes a tsunami is not "tidal wave" but ____________________.

ANS: seismic sea wave

PTS: 1 REF: LO7 What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?

16. If you could drill from the outer surface of Earth all the way to the center, you would pass through the
major divisions of Earth: the ____________________, the ____________________, and finally the
____________________.

ANS: crust, mantle, core

PTS: 1 REF: LO10 What is Earth's Interior Like?

 17. The structural layer that comprises the greatest volume of Earth is the ____________________.

ANS: mantle

PTS: 1 REF: LO10 What is Earth's Interior Like?

18. The structural layer of Earth that is liquid is the ____________________ ____________________.

ANS: outer core

PTS: 1 REF: LO10 What is Earth's Interior Like?

19. The structural layer that the P- and S-wave low-velocity zone in the upper part of the mantle closely
corresponds to is the ____________________.

ANS: asthenosphere

PTS: 1 REF: LO12 Earth's Mantle

20. The increase of temperature with depth is known as the ____________________.

ANS: geothermal gradient

PTS: 1 REF: LO13 Earth's Internal Heat

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. According to the elastic rebound theory:

a. rocks will bend before they break.
b. rocks will snap back into their original shape after faulting.
c. rocks will break when their capacity to store energy of deformation has been exceeded.
d. rocks will bend before they break AND will snap back to their original shape after
faulting.
e. rocks will bend before they break, will snap back to their original shape after faulting,
AND will break when their capacity to store energy of deformation has been exceeded.
ANS: E PTS: 1 REF: LO1 Elastic Rebound Theory

2. Seismology has produced a great amount of information about:

a. the mechanisms of plate tectonics.
b. the physical and chemical state of Earth's interior.
c. the causes of mountain building.
d. earthquakes.
e. all of the above
ANS: E PTS: 1 REF: LO2 Seismology

3. The focus of the most destructive earthquakes is almost always:

a. shallow.
b. intermediate.
c. deep.
d. internediate and deep.
e. shallow, intermediate, or deep.
 ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: LO2 Seismology

4. Only 5% of all earthquakes occur within the:

a. Mediterranean-Asiatic belt.
b. circum-Mediterranean belt.
c. interiors of plates and mid-oceanic ridges.
d. passive margins of continents and mid-oceanic ridges.
e. shields of continents and mid-oceanic ridges.
ANS: C PTS: 1
REF: LO3 Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often?

5. One of the strongest earthquakes ever recorded in North America was the intraplate quake known as
the:
a. 1811 New Madrid, Missouri, earthquake.
b. 1886 Charleston, Carolina, earthquake.
c. 1906 San Francisco earthquake.
d. 1964 Anchorage, Alaska, earthquake.
e. 1984 Mount St. Helens, Washington, earthquake.
ANS: A PTS: 1
REF: LO3 Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often?

6. The percentage of all earthquakes that occur along a plate boundary is nearly:
a. 100%.
b. 95%.
c. 80%.
d. 55%.
e. 25%.
ANS: B PTS: 1
REF: LO3 Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often?

7. The magnitude of an earthquake measures:

a. its intensity.
b. the damage created.
c. the energy released.
d. the duration of trembling.
e. its intensity and the duration of trembling.
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

8. The most damage from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake was caused by:
a. fire.
b. a tsunami.
c. ground shaking.
d. cracks opening up.
e. landslides.
ANS: A PTS: 1
REF: LO7 What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?

9. The composition of the core is:

a. peridotite.
b. basalt.
 c. granite.
d. iron.
e. iron and nickel metal.
ANS: E PTS: 1 REF: LO11 The Core

10. The major discontinuity that occurs at a depth of 2,900 km below Earth's surface is the:
a. low-velocity zone.
b. Moho.
c. inner core-outer core transition.
d. core-mantle boundary.
e. none of the above
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: LO11 The Core

11. The composition of the mantle is:

a. peridotite.
b. basalt.
c. granite.
d. iron.
e. iron and nickel metal.
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: LO12 Earth's Mantle

12. The major boundary that occurs at a depth of about 30 km below Earth's surface is the:
a. low-velocity zone.
b. Moho.
c. inner core-outer core transition.
d. core-mantle boundary.
e. none of the above
ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: LO12 Earth's Mantle

13. The average geothermal gradient near Earth's surface is:

a. 100C/km.
b. 50C/km.
c. 25C/km.
d. -25C/km.
e. -50C/km.
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: LO13 Earth's Internal Heat

14. The estimated average geothermal gradient in the mantle is:

a. 10C/km.
b. 5C/km.
c. 1C/km.
d. -2C/km.
e. -5C/km.
ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: LO13 Earth's Internal Heat

15. The temperature range at the base of the crust is:

a. 100 to 250C.
b. 250 to 550C.
c. 500 to 800C.
 d. 800 to 1,200C.
e. 1,000 to 1500.
ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: LO13 Earth's Internal Heat

TRUE/FALSE

1. Aftershocks do not cause much damage.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: Introduction

2. Benioff zones indicate the angle of plate descent along a convergent plate boundary.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: LO2 Seismology

3. The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is a subjective scale to measure the destructive effects of an
earthquake.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

4. The type of building construction and population density in the area of an earthquake are factors that
can affect the intensity on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

5. On the Richter Scale, an earthquake of 6.0 releases ten times as much energy as an earthquake of 5.0.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: LO6 Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake

6. The opening of large fissures that swallow people is a significant source of danger created by
earthquakes.

ANS: F PTS: 1
REF: LO7 What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?

7. Landslides and ground motion are significant sources of danger created by earthquakes.

ANS: T PTS: 1
REF: LO7 What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?

8. Tsunamis are significant sources of danger created by earthquakes.

ANS: T PTS: 1
REF: LO7 What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?

9. The separation of the continental crust and its submergence beneath the sea are significant sources of
danger created by earthquakes.

ANS: F PTS: 1
REF: LO7 What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?

10. The odd behavior of many kinds of animals is a scientifically accepted method used to predict
earthquakes.
 ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: LO8 Earthquake Prediction

11. The analyses of the alignment of the planets and moon are a scientifically accepted method used to
predict earthquakes.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: LO8 Earthquake Prediction

12. Monitoring changes in electrical resistance is a scientifically accepted method used to predict
earthquakes.

ANS: T PTS: 1 REF: LO8 Earthquake Prediction

13. When "the big one" hits Southern California, Los Angeles is likely to slip into the ocean.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: Chapter 8, various pages

14. We know that the mantle is not molten because P-waves can travel through it.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: LO10 What is Earth's Interior Like?

15. The S-wave shadow zone indicates that S-waves cannot be transmitted through the mantle.

ANS: F PTS: 1 REF: LO10 What is Earth's Interior Like?