IB Hist 121 A Block – Room #416 Assignment

Naysa Renju
Part A: “German Unification” – pages #94-98
1. Make a note of the following points:
a. Make-up of German Confederation
The states that made up German Confederation created in 1815 varied in size, government,
economy, religion, influence, and dialect. One side were two rival powers: Prussia and
Austria (both powerful monarchies with modern military) Other side were free cities such as
Frankfurt. In between were states ruled by some form of monarchy.

b. Make-up of German states

German states were divided by religion with Catholicism in the south and Protestantism in
the North. These states had weak parliamentary government due to aborted reforms in 1848.
However, the government was much stronger in the south

c. Stimulus for German industrialization

The stimulus for German industrialization was the expansion of railways throughout the
region. These railways made raw materials such as coal and iron available to industries far
from their sources. This allowed Prussia’s coal and iron industry to expand rapidly

d. German population growth

The states of the German Confederation experienced a 60% increase in population. This
population growth was centered in rural areas and then began to migrate to different cities as
industrialization increased.

e. Political make-up of German states

Politically, Germany consisted of 39 nominally sovereign states which were each controlled
by some form of monarchy. The rulers performed important functions of state such as
dealing with foreign policies, administrating budgets and the taking care of the military

f. “dualism” in German Confederation

Austria and Prussia formed the dominant center of the Confederation, even though neither
of them had much inclination to see the position of the confederation strengthened. Austria
saw it as a tool of reaction while Prussia saw it as a tool to restrict the possibility of an over-
ambitious Austria. This resulted in dualism which created a balance in the Confederation
since it allowed the avoidance of both outright Prussians and dominating Austrians.

g. Make-up and creation of the Zollverein

Zollverein was a German customs union in Central Germany in which internal tariffs were
abolished and a common trade policy with outside states was developed. It was created due
to arguments between states about free trade. Austria was outside the Zollverein while
Prussia was the leader of the union.
h. Background on who Bismarck was
Bismarck, born into a Junker (landowning aristocratic) family, was from East Prussia, was
university-educated and served as an elected member of Prussia’s assembly

i. Define “realpolitik”
A way of politics where principles mattered less than outcomes, and ideologies mattered less
than the exercise of power. It followed practical reasons rather than moral or ideological
considerations.

j. Bismarck adaptability to situations

Bismarck had a developed sense if duty and that duty was to Prussia. He was clever and quick
thinking, which allowed him to quickly grasp the potential and opportunities shown in
situations that could help strengthen Prussia.

k. Bismarck’s 1st priority in all situations

Bismarck’s 1st priority in all situations was to strengthen Prussia by excluding Austria from
German affairs.

l. Bismarck’s view re: Prussian/German future

Bismark saw that the future of Prussia depended on the exclusion of Austria from Germn
affairs and that the structure of the Confederation was such that if Prussia were to dominate
the German states at the expense of Austria, it would have to be through military power.

m. Bismarck’s opinion/view of democracy and war

Bismark saw in parliamentary democracy a tool to use or, depending on the situation, an
obstacle to be overcome, but never an end in itself. Bismark saw war as a tool to be used in
the interests of broader goals. He found it unpredictable and clumsy, but he was no
warmonger.

n. Von Moltke appt. and reforms

Hemut von Moltke as appointed to the position of army chief of stall in 1857. Moltke
instituted a series of military reforms in the early 1860s that were to transform the Prussian
military into the model of a modern army.

o. Paul Kennedy opinion re: military reforms

Paul Kennedy appointed out that the Prussian army was far from perfect in practice.
Doctrines were ignored and the rail system did not always operate with the efficiency of the
war plans. Military advantage is seldom absolute, but rather relative to one’s potential
enemies. In this sense, the Prussian reforms of the 1860s had created the pre-eminent
military of its day.

p. Define “Landestag”
The source of opposition of the military machine that came from the liberal core that had
become an influential political force in the Prussian Assembly.
q. Why opposition to military reforms in German Conf.
1. The expense that would come with the expansion of the army. Taxation was
anathema to classical liberal sentiments.
2. The new powerful military machine that would grow out of the reforms was
traditionally under the command of the king, not the assembly and guided by the Junker
class who provided much of the Prussian officer corps.

r. Bismarck solution/approach to 1862 Tax Crisis

Bismarck’s solution as, on the surface, simple enough. He ignored both the assembly and the
constitution. Under his guidance the government passed budgets, collected the taxes and
spent the money, all without consulting the elected Assembly.

s. Why Bismarck believed he would succeed in this crisis

Bismarck was betting that the majority of Prussians considered the Executive, in the form of
the King and his appointed ministers, as a more legitimate source of authority than the
assembly and its constitution and that when called to obey, they would. He was correct.

Part B: “German Wars of Unification” – pages #99 - 101

2. Make a note of the following points (Danish War):
a. Danish dynastic crisis 1863
Arose when the king of Denmark died without a male heir in November 1863. The complexity
revolved around the two rival claimants to the throne and the status of the duchies of Schleswig-
Holstein in the border lands.

b. London Protocols
A series of treaties/ set of agreements signed in 1852 that followed the First Schleswig War. The
Protocols established the status of the Duchies of Schleswig- Holstein.

c. Christian IX – new constitution

He moved to absorb Schleswig into Denmark by way of a new Danish constitution. While this
was met with great approval by Danish nationalists, German nationalists were outraged, and the
German Confederation voted for armed intervention.

d. Why Bismarck had to involve Prussia

A small German force occupied Holstein. The Prussians and the Austrians presented a third
position on the emerging crisis. While Bismarck cared little for nationalist sentiment, he could
not sit back and watch the smaller states of the German Confederation take action on their own,
as it undermined Prussian authority, nor could he allow Austria to assume a leadership role.

e. Why Austria had to involve itself

Austria could not let Prussia act unilaterally and shared Bismarck’s disdain for German
nationalists. Therefore, pressure and awesome jointly insisted got the treaties of the 1850s be
upheld and the status quo enforced.
 f. Danish response to London treaties
The Danes were not accommodating, so a joint force of Austrians and Prussians moved into the
dutchies in early 1864, pre-empting any further military action on the part of the German
Confederation.

g. Length of war
8 months

h. Details of Gastein Convention

This was an agreement between Austria and Prussia on the administration of Schleswig Holstein
on the conclusion of the Danish war. It laid out the administration of the territories.

i. Bismarck’s image
By appearing to act in the interests of “Germany”, Bismarck had begun to reform his image
among German nationalists, a development that in turn began to fracture the liberal nationalist
movement in Prussia. Many liberals still hooked up on him as a dangerous conservative, while
those who were primarily German nationalists saw in his assertive foreign policy the road to a
more unified Germany. For Bismarck’s part, the terms “nationalist” or “liberal” had little
meaning, but he did understand that there would soon have to be a reckoning with her German
rival- Austria.

3. Make a note of the following points (Austro-Prussian War):

a. Prussia ascending in status – Austria not
Austria had been fighting a rearguard action against growing nationalism within its borders
since 1815. By the 1860s, it had seen its European stature rocked first by the Crimean war and
later by the chiseling away of some of its Italian holdings and influence. Prussia, on the other
hand, had seen its fortunes, both within Germany and within Europe, rise in this period.
Economically, Prussia’s mines and factories were constantly increasing production while the
Zollverein increased trade revenues.

b. Bismarck isolates potential nations in 2nd war/France-Italy

After a series of meetings with Napoleon in 1865, Bismarck came away convinced that the French
would stay out of the future Austro-Prussian conflict. Napoleon, playing a complicated and
dangerous diplomatic game, also came to an agreement with Austria by May 1866 whereby he
would stay neutral in return for potential concessions on the Rhine. The result was that,
regardless, France would stay out of the coming war.

c. Catalyst for war’s beginning

The dispute over the administration of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Austria and
Prussia accused each other of violating the Convention of Gastein, and they both disagreed on
the handling of these territories, leading to tensions and eventual war.

d. Austria’s allies
Austria rallied the smaller German states of the confederation to her side.
e. Prussia’s allies
Prussia formed alliances with the new Kingdom of Italy.

f. Two front war for both Prussia and Austria

Both Prussia and Austria faced a two-front war during the conflict. Prussia had to contend with
Austria in the north and various German states allied with Austria in the south. Austria, on the
other hand, faced Prussia in the north and Saxony in the east.

g. Where war was fought

Bohemia

h. Why Prussian won the conflict – factors

Prussia had superior military leadership, notably Helmuth von Moltke, and a more efficient and
modernized army. Prussia also benefited from strong alliances and a clear strategic vision under
Bismarck's leadership.

i. Battle of Sadowa
3rd of July 1866
Although the Austrians had an advantage in artillery, the Prussians made wide use of the breach
loading rifle known as the “needle gun”. The Austrians responded by throwing massed troops at
the enemy. The rapid fire of the needle gun moves down the charging Austrian masses. The
combination of affective troop movement and tactical advantage help the Prussians deliver a
crushing defeat on the Austrians at Sadow.

j. Details of the Treaty of Prague

3 weeks after the battle of Sadow, an armistice was concluded that ended the fighting before the
other European powers could react.
The treaty emerged in August 1866, it cemented Prussia as the dominant German power and
banished Austria from meaningful role in German politics.
Prussia annexed Hanover, Schleswig- Holstein, Hessen- Kassel, Nassau, and Frankfurt.

k. German lands portioned up

The German confederation was dissolved and replaced by a north German confederation, which
consisted of an expanded Prussia and 21 other northern German states. Austria, Bavaria, Baden,
Württemberg, and Hesse- Darmstadt were untouched—all but Austria concluded military
alliances with Prussia—but were also excluded from this reorganization.
Part C: “German Wars of Unification” – pages #101 - 105
4. Make a note of the following points (North German Confederation – Franco Prussian War):
a. Bismarck rewarded for his victories by liberals
Bismarck, once despised by liberals as a dictator, was now lauded as a national visionary,
political genius, and diplomatic innovator. The Confederation went so far at his behest, to
pass an act that pardoned him for his extra-constitutional actions in previous years.

b. Make-up of new NGC constitution

Bismarck donned the robes of a constitutional democrat within his newly created North
German Confederation. The constitution of this new confederation made it, on the surface,
one of the most democratic states in Europe.
- It was bicameral.
- The upper house (Bundesrat) was based on representation by state.
- The lower house (Reichstag) was based on representation by population, elected by
universal adult (25 years old) male suffrage.
- Four-year budgets had to be approved by the lower house.
- Freedom of speech was entrenched.

c. Non-democratic features of constitution

There were important non-democratic features to this constitution:
- Bismarck as the Chancellor of the Federation and other ministers were responsible to
the Crown, not the assembly.
- The government had access to revenue, mostly tariffs, over which the assembly had no
control.
- Elected representatives could not introduce legislation.

d. Status of southern German states

The Treaty of Prague left southern Germany in an unstable situation. The states were military
allied to Prussia ad economically part of the Zollverein, put politically independent. Public
opinion in the southern states largely opposed any unification with the north.

e. Why southern states a potential threat to Bismarck

German nationalists saw the exclusion of the southern state from the North German
Confederation as an affront to national unity. Bismarck however saw in them a potential ally
for either France or Austrian and as such a threat.

f. Why Napoleon III may want the southern German states

Napoleon got no compensation for his neutrality in the war, and he also was robbed of the
satisfaction he might have gained as a potential arbiter between the two German powers. He
now faced a strong and united Germany on his eastern frontier, something that French policy
had worked to avoid for two centuries. Napoleon faced further public criticism over his
Mexican adventure and the rise of a new Italy on France’s south-eastern frontier. France
would have to oppose any further German unification.
g. Luxemburg conflict and resolution 1867
The first sign of tension came over the status of the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg. Napoleon
III had indicated that it should be ceded to France in part for his neutrality in the Austro-
Prussian War and even offered to purchase it from the King of the Netherlands in early 1867.
The proposition outraged German nationalists, though Bismarck, whose role in the affair is
debated, was far more ambivalent. Regardless of his role in shaping it, he felt he could not
openly defy this nationalist sentiment.
Resolution: The international conference decided the fate of Luxemburg as a neutral state
advantaged nether Prussia nor France, while increasing the tension between them.

h. Summarize the Hohenzollern – Spanish candidacy for monarch

Hohenzollern is basically the royal family that formed the ruling house of Prussia in the 19 th
century.

i. Ems Dispatch
Ems Dispatch is a term used to refer to the telegram the King sent to Bismarck refusing his
request from the resort of Bad Ems where he was vacationing.

j. Catalyst for mobilization

The Hohenzollern candidacy and the Ems Dispatch gave Bismarck an opportunity to
encourage the French to act. Had the French not mobilized, Prussia would probably not have
gone to war at that time.

k. Combatants/allies
On news of the French mobilizations in July 1870, Moltke’s military machine wound into
action. The Prussian army was enthusiastically supported by troops from the south German
states—more from nationalistic fervor than fear of French domination. France, on the other
hand would fight alone.

l. French “new” equipment

The French had introduced their own breech-loading rifle, which was a match for the
“needle-gun”. The French had sound artillery exposed in the Austro-Prussian War.

m. Battle of Sedan 1870 – consequences

The Battle of Sedan on 1-2 September 1870 ended with the surrender of over 100,000 French
soldiers and the emperor Napoleon III himself.

n. Two conditions of Treaty of Frankfurt 1871

The Treaty of Frankfurt had two notable clauses. The first was the requirement that France
pay an enormous war indemnity of five billion gold francs to the victorious Germans. Units of
the Prussian army would occupy France until the amount was paid. The other significant
element of the Treaty if Frankfurt was the annexation of the French frontier territories of
Alsace and Lorraine by the new German Empire.
Part D: “German Empire/Domestic” – pages #106 - 112
a. Site German Nation Proclaimed
The German nation was proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.

b. Why Wilhem Accepted Title “German Emperor”

Wilhelm I was deeply attached to his hereditary title of King of Prussia. Due to his belief in
dynastic legitimacy, he would not accept the Crown if it was offered by the Reichstag
(representing the people). Because of Wilhelm feeling that this was his birthright, it was
important to him that the assembled princes at Versailles offered him the title of German
Emperor.

c. How Appeased State of Bavaria and Wurttemburg

Funds flowed from Prussia to Bavaria to help with financial difficulties. Both Bavaria and
Württemberg were allowed to maintain their own armed forces within the new German
Empire that would pass over to Imperial control only during war. The two crowns were also
maintained in the Empire for symbolic independence. Lastly, a degree of financial autonomy
was also permitted in the form of certain taxation rights.

d. Bundesrat & Reichstag- make-up and powers

The Bundesrat (upper house): They were based on state representation (geography), which
meant they could initiate and debate legislation. Eventually, this group received a great deal
of power and were responsible to the Crown rather than to the assembly. Because of this they
had the most power in the constitutional monarchy.
The Reichstag (lower house): They were based on representation by population (people).
This group could debate policy and approve budgets, but their power was diluted when they
began to approve budgets years in advance. They had significantly less power than the
Bundesrat.

e. Why Germany was a limited democracy at best

The division of power was why Germany was a limited democracy. This is because the federal
division of powers gave individual states jurisdiction over many matters concerning the daily
lives of their citizens.
5. Make a note of the following points: (Domestic)
a. Where French war payments were spent
The money found its way into infrastructure projects that further stimulated the economy.

b. Two programs Bismarck believed Germany should focus

Twin strength of the army and capitalist enterprise.

c. Why Bismarck and Liberals allied together

For Bismarck, such control was an extension of the unity project, for the liberals, such
centralization and rationalization were the prerequisite for a modern industrial society
d. Why Southern Catholics became a threat to Bismarck
They were alienated from the state centralization, their values and opinions were different and
as in Italy, France, or the UK there were political clashes in the past.

e. Define “Papal Infallibility”

Posed a direct challenge to the authority of the German state. The pope is always right and
cannot be challenged.

f. Define “Kulturkampf” and conditions

A “cultural war” between the church and the state. It was a series of laws that restricted the
ability of the Catholic Church to operate in Germany. Schools were brought solely under the
authority of the state. The government prescribed the education of clergy and in some cases
could appoint Church officials. Civil marriage was encouraged.

g. Effect it had on Catholic Centre Party (CCP)

It increased its representation in the Reichstag throughout the Kulturkampf.

h. Effect it had on foreign relations/Austria

It had bad effects on German’s relations with Catholic foreign powers.

i. Why Kulturkampf abandoned by Bismarck

Because it was starting to destabilize the unity from 1871 and had some effects on German’s
relations with Catholic foreign powers.

j. Why German “Socialists” became a threat

The republicanism of socialists was repugnant to the chancellor. It could spread across
Germany.

k. Catalyst (casus belli) event for attack on Socialists in Germany

Two failed attempts on the Kaiser Wilhelm’s life.

l. Restrictions imposed
Socialist newspapers were banned, and meetings were outlawed.

m. Bismarck introduces new “socialist programs”

Implementation of health and accident insurance as well as retirement benefits. Bismarck
thought that these would turn people away from socialism

n. Effect on Social Democratic Party (SDP)

It didn’t have much of an effect, they actually gained members and seats in the Reichstag by
1890.
a. Post-unification foreign policy objectives/Bismarck
Bismarck’s diplomacy shifted to focus on the maintenance of the new European order he had in
large measure created/ he wanted to preserve the German Empire and, to his mind, this meant a
diplomacy that preserved a central role for Germany while avoiding conflicts that could drag his
new state again to war.

b. Specific strategy related to France – why

Bismarck, behind the Three Emperors League, sought to diplomatically isolate France by leaving
France with no continental allies.

c. Three Emperors League – Dreikaiserbund – makeup

The Three Emperors League comprised Tsar Alexander II, Emperor Franz Joseph I, and Kaiser
Wilhelm I.

d. Dreikaiserbund objectives
To preserve general European peace. Bismarck hoped that the vague agreement would
discourage a conflict between Austria-Hungary and Russia that could likewise draw Germany
into a disastrous war.

e. War In Sight Crisis – Bismarck initiates a war with France

The French government was well on its way to putting its economic and military house in order
after the humiliation of 1871. The Chancellor of Germany, despite his disdain for war, sought to
cower the French by means of threat.

f. Results for Bismarck

The result was that Bismarck had to back down from his attempt to bully France into a
conciliatory mood.

g. Russian-Turkish War 1877

Looking to capitalize on a recent revolt of the Slavs against their Turkish masters, Russia
declared war on the Ottoman Empire in 1877.

h. Why GB concerned
The British had no interest in increased Russian influence in the region. The newly built Suez
Canal, of which the British were now majority shareholders, sat squarely within the Ottoman
Empire and it was important to British foreign policy that the Russians never be in a position to
threaten this waterway, so vital to British Imperial Trade.

i. Treaty of San Stefano 1878 – results

The Treaty of San Stefano ended the fighting between the Turks and Russians in March 1878. It
hacked away at the Ottoman’s European holdings, creating independent Bulgaria, Serbia, and
Romania, which looked for all intents and purposes to be Russia client states. This vastly
expanded Russian influence in the Balkans, something the British could not let stand.
j. Austria Hungary – Balkan interest
Austria-Hungary saw expansion southeast into the Balkans as her only avenue of growth being
permanently blocked from expanding influence to the north and west by the Austro-Prussian
war of 1866 and the creation of the German Empire.