Volume 1 | Issue 3

2023/2024 Chemistry
Grade 9

Eslam Hamouda
+201091744480
Table of contents
Unit (1) Atomic structure ………………………………………………………………………………….. 3

Unit (2)Metals properties ………………………………………………………………………………….. 19

Unit (3) Rates of chemical reaction ……………………………………………………………………….. 25

Unit (4)Acids and Alkalis …………………………………………………………………………………. 33

Unit (5) Organic Part I …………………………………………………………………………………….. 43

Unit (5) Organic Part II ……………………………………………………………………………………. 54

Unit (6) Analytical Chemistry……………………………………………………………………………… 69

Periodic table ……………….……………………………………………………………………………… 72

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UNIT (1) ATOMIC STRUCTURE
 • Describe the structure of the atom and its component parts
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter, that we cannot break
down further by chemical means.

An element contains only one kind of atom.

• State the relative charges and approximate relative masses of

protons, neutrons and electrons

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Protons, neutrons, and electrons
Atoms consist of a nucleus and a cloud of electrons that move around
the nucleus. The nucleus is itself a cluster of two kinds of particles,

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protons and neutrons.

All the particles in an atom are very light. So their mass is measured in
atomic mass units, rather than grams. Protons and electrons also have
an electric charge.
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• Define proton number and mass number
You can identify an atom by the number of protons in it.
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The number of protons in an atom is called its proton number.

Every atom has an equal number of protons and electrons.

So atoms have no overall charge.

The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called

its nucleon number.
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 • Define isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with different numbers
of neutrons.
Most elements have isotopes. For example calcium has six, magnesium
has three, iron has four, and chlorine has two.

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Relative atomic mass (Ar)
Atoms of an element are not always identical.
Some may have extra neutrons. Different atoms of the same element are
called isotopes. Chlorine has two isotopes:
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We need to take all the natural isotopes of an element into account, to

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work out the relative atomic mass. This is the formula to use:
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The calculation for chlorine is given on the right. It shows

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that the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5

The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the

average mass of its isotopes compared to an atom of
carbon-12.

For most elements, Ar is very close to a whole number. It is

usually rounded off to a whole number, to make calculations
easier.

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 • Describe the build-up of electrons in ‘shells’ and understand
the significance of the noble gas electronic structures
Electron shells:

Electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus.

The first shell, closest to the nucleus, is the lowest energy level.
The further a shell is from the nucleus, the higher the energy level.
Each shell can hold only a certain number of electrons. These are the rules:

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The electron shells for the first 20 elements:

Below are the electron shells for the first 20 elements of the
Periodic Table.
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The number of electrons increases by 1 each time. (It is the same as the
proton number.) The shells fill according to the rules above.
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 • Use the valencies of elements and polyatomic ions to
construct formulae
• Use the symbols of the elements to write the formulae of more
complex compounds including those containing brackets
and/or polyatomic ions, for example sulfates, nitrates,
hydroxides, phosphates

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• Interpret the formula of a given compound from the relative
numbers of atoms present including formulae with brackets
and/or polyatomic ions, for example sulfates, nitrates,
hydroxides, phosphates

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• Write down the formula of a given compound from a model or
a diagrammatic representation including formulae with
brackets and/or polyatomic ions, for example sulfates, nitrates,
hydroxides, phosphates
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• Deduce the balanced equation for a chemical reaction, given
relevant information
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• Use, in a practical context, the following tests to identify some
gases.
• The period number tells you how many shells there are.
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• All the elements in a group have the same number of electrons in their
outer shells. So Group I elements have 1, Group II have 2, and so on.
• These outer-shell electrons are also called the valency electrons.
• The group number is the same as the number of outer-shell electrons,
except for Group 0.
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• The valency electrons dictate how an element reacts. So the elements

in Group I all have similar reactions, for example.

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 Group O, a special group:

The elements in Group 0 have a very stable arrangement of electrons.

Their atoms all have 8 outer-shell electrons, except for helium, which
has 2. (It has only one shell.)

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This stable arrangement of electrons has a very important result: it makes
the Group 0 elements unreactive.
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Formula from names of compounds
Sometimes the name of the compound gives information about the formula of that
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compound. Names of these compounds have prefixes that give the number of atoms
of certain elements in each molecule.

Names of compounds
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Prefix Number of atoms

Mono- One
Di- Two
Tri- Three
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Tetra- Four
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Penta- Five
Hexa- Six

Example – Carbon monoxide contains one carbon atom joined to one oxygen atom,
so it has the formula CO.

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 Valency
Valency is the combining power of an element. Elements in the same group of the
periodic table have the same valency. The valency of an element is related to how
many electrons are in the outer shell.

Valency table

Group number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0

The noble gases have the valency 0 as they do not usually combine with other
elements.

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To write the chemical formula for a compound it is best to use the S.V.S.D.F system.

Step one: Write down the symbols of both the elements involved.
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Step two: Beneath each symbol, write its valency. Memorise the table above to help
you.

Step Three: Swap the valencies over.

Step Four: If the valencies can be simplified, divide them both by the smaller of the
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two numbers. If one of the numbers is already one, then they cannot be divided and
simplified any further.

Step Five: Write the formula.

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Example 1: What is the formula for potassium oxide?

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 Example 2: What is the formula for aluminium oxide?

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Example 3: What is the formula for carbon sulphide?

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 Formulae of compounds containing group ions
Group ions contain two or more atoms and usually have a negative charge. The
formulae of these ions are given on page 4 of the data booklet. We can take the
number of charges on the ion as the valency of the ion.

Example: What is the formula for calcium nitrate?

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Formula using Roman Numerals

Some elements, particularly the transition metals, do not always have the same
valency in their different compounds. The valency of these elements is usually given
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in roman numerals inside brackets.

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 Formula and Roman Numerals
Roman NumeralNumber
I One
II Two
III Three
IV Four
V Five
VI Six

Example: What is the formula for copper(I) oxide?

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Balanced Equations
A chemical equation is said to be balanced when there are the same number of the
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same type of every atom on both sides of the equation.

Copper and oxygen reaction: getting a balanced equation

Balanced symbol equations show what happens to the different atoms in reactions.
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For example, copper and oxygen react together to make copper oxide.

Take a look at this word equation for the reaction:

copper + oxygen → copper oxide

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Copper and oxygen are the reactants because they are on the left of the arrow.
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Copper oxide is the product because it is on the right of the arrow.

If we just replace the words shown above by the correct chemical formulae, we will
get an unbalanced equation, as shown here:

Cu + O2 → CuO

Notice that there are unequal numbers of each type of atom on the left-hand side
compared with the right-hand side. To make things equal, you need to adjust the

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 number of units of some of the substances until you get equal numbers of each type
of atom on both sides.

Here is the balanced symbol equation:

2Cu + O2 → 2CuO

You can see that now there are two copper atoms and two oxygen atoms on each
side. This matches what happens in the reaction.

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Two atoms of copper react with two atoms of oxygen to form two molecules of
copper oxide.
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To balance equations on your own, follow these simple rules:

Step 1: Check that all the formulae in the equation are correct.

Step 2: Deal with only one element at a time.

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Step 3: Balancing is adding BIG numbers. You cannot change any of the small
numbers in a chemical formula. If balancing is required, put the number in front of
the substance.
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Step 4: Check each element again and repeat step 3 again if needed.

Example:

C4H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

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This equation is unbalanced. There are four carbon atoms on the left hand side and
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only one on the right. To balance the carbon, add a big “4” in front of the carbon
dioxide.

C4H8 + O2 → 4CO2 + H2O

Next, to balance the hydrogen. We have 8 atoms of hydrogen on the left hand side in
C4H8 and only 2 on the right hand side. To balance the hydrogen atoms, add a big
"4" in front of H2O.

C4H8 + O2 → 4CO2 + 4H2O

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 We’re not finished yet. Now that the carbon and hydrogen have been balanced, we
only have to balance the oxygen. We have 2 atoms of oxygen on the left, but in total
on the right (taking into account what we have balanced already) we have 12 oxygen
atoms. This can be balanced by adding a big “6” in front of the diatomic oxygen
molecule on the left hand side.

The balanced equation will be: C4H8 + 6O2 → 4CO2 + 4H2O

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Ions and neutral atoms:

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When an atom of Sodium is neutral it is written that way (Na) with no charge above
the symbol.

As we know Sodium atom to become stable it loses one electron to form a positive
ion with the formula (Na+) with a positive charge on top of the symbol
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When an atom of Oxygen is neutral it is written that way (O) with no charge above
the symbol.
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As we know Oxygen atom to become stable it gains two electron to form a negative
ion with the formula (O-2) with two negative charge on top of the symbol
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 Radicals
What is a Radical (Poly atomic ion)?
A radical is a group of atoms of elements, e.g., sulphate radical [SO42-]. Some
radicals and their chemical symbols are listed below.

Valency Radical

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Hydroxide (OH1-)
Monovalent

Nitrate (NO31-)

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Carbonate (CO32-)
Divalent
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Sulphate (SO42-)

Trivalent Phosphate (PO43-)

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 • Use models or diagrams to show the difference between
single atoms, elements (as having only one type of atom) and
molecules (as being a small number of atoms chemically
joined)
Elements can be either single atoms like (Na) or molecules of the same
atoms like (Cl2 – O2 – N2)

Compounds are always in the form of molecules Like (CO2 – CH4 H2O)

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 • Gases: hydrogen (using lighted splint) oxygen (using a
glowing splint).

Tests for gases

You have a sample of gas. You think you know what it is, but you’re not
sure. So you need to do a test. Below are some tests for common gases.
Each is based on particular properties of the gas, including its appearance,
and sometimes its smell.

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END OF UNIT ONE

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UNIT (2) METALS AND REACTIVITY
 • Describe metallic bonding

• Describe metals as a lattice of positively charged particles

(ions) in a ‘sea of mobile electrons’ and use this to describe
the electrical conductivity, strength and malleability of metals

The structure of metals

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In metals, the atoms are packed tightly together in a regular lattice.
The tight packing allows outer electrons to separate from their atoms.
The result is a lattice of ions in a ‘sea’ of electrons that are free to move.
Look at copper:

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The copper ions are held together
by their attraction to the free
electrons between them.
The strong forces of attraction
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are called metallic bonds .

The metallic bond is the attraction between metal ions and free
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Electrons (Delocalised electrons)

Delocalised electrons
The electrons that move freely in the
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metal lattice are not tied to any one

ion. So they are called delocalised.
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 Explaining some key properties of metals

1. Metals usually have high melting points.

That is because it takes a lot of heat energy to break up the lattice, with
its strong metallic bonds. Copper melts at 1083 8C, and nickel at 1455 8C.
(But there are exceptions. Sodium melts at only 98 8C, for example. And
mercury melts at –39 8C, so it is a liquid at room temperature.)
2. Metals are malleable and ductile.
Malleable means they can be bent and pressed into shape. Ductile
means they can be drawn out into wires. This is because the layers can

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slide over each other. This diagram represents any metal lattice:

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The layers can slide without breaking the metallic bond, because the
electrons are free to move too.
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3. Metals are good conductors of heat.
That is because the free electrons take in heat
energy, which makes them move faster. They
quickly transfer the heat through the metal
structure:
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4. Metals are good conductors of electricity.

That is because the free electrons can move
through the lattice carrying charge, when a voltage
is applied across the metal.
Silver is the best conductor of all the metals.
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Copper is next – but it is used much more than silver

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because it is cheaper.

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 • Explain why metals are often used in the form of alloys
• Identify representations of alloys from diagrams of structure

Alloys: making metals more useful

Often a metal is more useful when

mixed with another substance. The
mixture is called an alloy. For example,
mixing molten zinc and copper gives

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the gold-coloured alloy called brass.
When this solidifies, it is hard, strong,
and shiny. It is used
for door locks, keys, knobs, and
musical instruments such as trumpets.

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Turning a metal into an alloy changes its properties, and makes it more
useful.

It is not only strength that changes: other properties will change too.
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For example the alloy may be more resistant to corrosion than the original
metal was.
You can add more than one substance. You can try out different amounts
of different substances, to design an alloy with exactly the properties that
you need.
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• Describe some uses of metals related to their physical and
chemical properties
Properties dictate uses
Examples of some metals and their properties and how these properties
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indicated their uses

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 • Investigate the general physical and chemical properties of
metals

The physical properties of metals

Metals usually have these physical properties.

1. They are strong. If you press on them, or drop them, or try to tear
them, they won’t break – and it is hard to cut them.

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2. They are malleable. They can be hammered into shape without
breaking.
3. They are ductile: they can be drawn out into wires.
4. They are sonorous: they make a ringing noise when you strike them.

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5. They are shiny when polished.
6. They are good conductors of electricity and heat.
7. They have high melting and boiling points. (They are all solid at room
temperature, except mercury.)
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8. They have high density – they feel ‘heavy’. (Look at the blue panel.)

The chemical properties of metals

1. They react with oxygen to form oxides. For example, magnesium

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burns in air to form magnesium oxide.
2. Metal oxides are bases: they neutralise acids, forming salts and water.
3. Metals form positive ions when they react. For example, magnesium
forms magnesium ions (Mg2I) when it reacts with oxygen.
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4. For the metals in the numbered groups, the charge on the ion is the
same as the group number. But the transition elements have variable
valency: they can form ions with different charges. For example CuI
and Cu2I.
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• Investigate the reactivity of metals with water, acids and

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oxygen, including displacement reactions, and deduce an

order of reactivity from a given set of experimental results

What does reactive mean?

A reactive element has a strong drive to become a compound, so that its
atoms gain stable outer shells. So the metal reacts readily with other
elements and compounds. Compare the reactions below.

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 1 The reaction of metals with water

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Note the order of reactivity, based on the reaction with water.
And note that only the first three metals in the list produce hydroxides.
The others produce insoluble oxides, if they react at all.
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2 The reaction of metals with hydrochloric acid
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Hydrogen is displaced
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When a metal does react with water or hydrochloric acid, it drives

hydrogen out, and takes its place. This shows that the metal is more
reactive than hydrogen. It has a stronger drive to form a compound.
But copper and silver do not react with water or acid. So they are less
reactive than hydrogen.

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UNIT (3) RATES OF CHEMICAL
REACTION
 • Carry out practical activities and interpret data that
illustrate the effect of temperature, simple catalysts
and particle size on the rates of chemical reactions.

Rate of a chemical reaction

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In general, to find the rate of a reaction, you should measure:
the amount of a reactant used up per unit of time or the amount of
a product produced per unit of time.

Measuring the rate of a reaction

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A reaction that produces a gas
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 The volume of gas in the syringe is noted at intervals – for example
every half a minute. How will you know when the reaction is complete?

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Changing the rate of a reaction

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Ways to change the rate of a reaction

There are several ways to speed up or slow down a reaction. For

example you could change the concentration of a reactant, or the
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temperature. The rate will change - but the amount of product you
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obtain will not.

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 1 By changing concentration
Here you will see how rate changes with the concentration of a reactant.

The method Repeat the experiment from page 2 twice (A and B

below). Keep everything the same each time except the concentration of
the acid. In B it is twice as concentrated as in A.

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Curve B is steeper than curve A. So the reaction was faster for B.

A reaction goes faster when the concentration of a reactant is increased.

This means you can also slow down a reaction, by reducing
concentration.

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 2 By changing temperature

Here you will see how rate changes with the temperature of the
reactants.
The method Dilute hydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulfate solution
react to give a fine yellow precipitate of sulfur. You can follow the rate of
the reaction like this:
1. Mark a cross on a piece of paper.
2. Place a beaker containing sodium thiosulfate

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solution on top of the paper, so that you can see the
cross through it, from above.
3. Quickly add hydrochloric acid, start a clock at the
same time, and measure the temperature of the

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mixture.
4. The cross grows fainter as the precipitate forms.
Stop the clock the moment you can no longer see the cross. Note
the time.
5. Now repeat steps 1 – 4 several times, changing only the
temperature.
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You do this by heating the sodium thiosulfate solution to different
temperatures, before adding the acid.
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The cross disappears when enough sulfur has formed to hide it.
This took 200 seconds at 20 °C, but only 50 seconds at 40 °C.
So the reaction is four times faster at 40 °C than at 20 °C.

A reaction goes faster when the temperature is raised. When the

temperature increases by 10 °C, the rate generally doubles.

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 3 By changing surface area

In many reactions, one reactant is a solid. The

reaction between
hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate (marble
chips) is an example.
Carbon dioxide gas is produced:

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The rate can be measured using the apparatus on the
right.

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The method Place the marble in the flask and add the acid. Quickly plug
the flask with cotton wool to stop any liquid splashing out. Then weigh it,
starting the clock at the same time. Note the mass at regular intervals
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until the reaction is complete.
Carbon dioxide is a heavy gas. It escapes through the cotton wool,
which means that the flask gets lighter as the reaction proceeds. So by
weighing the flask at regular intervals, you can follow the rate of
reaction.
The experiment is repeated twice. Everything is kept exactly the same
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each time, except the surface area of the marble chips.
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Notice these things about the results:

1. Curve 2 is steeper than curve 1. This shows that the reaction is
faster for the small chips.
2. In both experiments, the final loss in mass is 2.0 grams. In other
words, 2.0 grams of carbon dioxide are produced each time.
3. For the small chips, the reaction is complete in 4 minutes. For the
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large chips, it takes 6 minutes.

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These results show that:

The rate of a reaction increases when the surface area of a solid

reactant is increased.

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 4 Catalysts

What is a catalyst?
You saw that a reaction can be speeded up by increasing the
temperature,
or the concentration of a reactant, or the surface area of a solid reactant.
There is another way to increase the rate of some reactions: use a
catalyst.

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A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction, but
remains chemically unchanged itself.

Example: the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide:

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Hydrogen peroxide is a colourless liquid that breaks down very slowly to
water and oxygen:
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You can show how a catalyst affects the reaction, like this:
1. Pour some hydrogen peroxide into three measuring cylinders. The
first one is the control.
2. Add manganese(IV) oxide to the second, and raw liver to the third.
3. Now use a glowing wooden splint to test the cylinders for oxygen.
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The splint will burst into flame if there is enough oxygen present.
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So manganese(IV) oxide acts as a catalyst for the reaction. If you add

more manganese(IV) oxide, the reaction will go even faster.
Something in the raw liver acts as a catalyst too. That ‘something’ is an
enzyme called catalase.

Enzymes are proteins made by cells, to act as biological catalysts.

END OF UNIT (3)

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UNIT (4) ACIDS AND ALKALI
 • Investigate the use of the pH meter

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 • Investigate the characteristic properties of acids and Alkalis:

- Reaction of acids with metals, bases and carbonates

- Reaction of alkalis with ammonium salts
- The effect of litmus and universal indicator on both

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UNIT (5) CARBON CHEMISTRY
 Carbon Chemistry

• Know that hydrogen and carbon combine chemically to

make hydrocarbons and that carbon atoms form four
links or bonds (an understanding of covalent bonding is
not required)

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Carbon has 4 Valence electrons, so it makes Four bonds

On the other hand, Hydrogen has 1 Valence electron so it makes One

bond

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Both Carbon and Hydrogen combine together to form several molecules
called Organic compounds

Hydrocarbons:
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Those are compounds that are made of hydrogen and carbon only.

There are millions of organic compounds. That could make organic

chemistry confusing – but to avoid this, the compounds are named in
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a very logical way.
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 For these families, the name of the organic compound tells you:
which family it belongs to
how many carbon atoms are in it.

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 • Know that methane and ethane are examples of
hydrocarbons

• State the type of compound present, when given a

chemical name ending in -ane, -ene or -ol or a molecular
or displayed formula

• Name and draw the molecular and displayed formulae

of the unbranched alkanes, alkenes and alcohols

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containing up to four carbon atoms per molecule

• Describe the properties of alkanes (exemplified by

methane) as being generally unreactive, except in terms

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of burning, and the substitution reactions of alkanes
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 • Describe the manufacture of alkenes and of hydrogen
by cracking

• Describe the properties of alkenes in terms of addition

reactions with bromine, hydrogen and steam

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 • Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons:
– from molecular or displayed formulae
– by reaction with aqueous bromine

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 • Describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of
addition polymerisation of monomer units

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END of PART ONE

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UNIT (5) CARBON CHEMISTRY
PART (II)
 Carbon Chemistry
• Describe fats as esters possessing the same linkage as polyesters
(including Terylene) but with different units

• Describe soap as a product of hydrolysis of fats

• Describe complex carbohydrates in terms of a large number of sugar

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units, considered as monomers, joined together by condensation
polymerisation

• Describe the acid hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates (e.g. starch) to

give simple sugars

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• Describe chromatography as a separation technique and describe how it
could be useful in separating and identifying the products of hydrolysis
of carbohydrates
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• Describe the fermentation of simple sugars to produce ethanol (and
carbon dioxide) (learners will not be expected to give the molecular
formulae of sugars)

• Define carbohydrates; describe their composition and importance as

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nutritional substances and industrial raw materials
• Describe macromolecules in terms of large molecules built up from small
units (monomers), different macromolecules having different units
and/or different linkages
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 There are two types of polymerization (Making a polymer)

1- Addition polymerisation
2- Condensation polymerisation

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For addition polymerisation, there is only one type of monomer.

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 Plastics are non-biodegradable

Non-biodegradable are substances that cannot be decomposed or broken down by

bacteria

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• Fats are made of Glycerol which is an alcohol and Fatty-acids

• They link with each other with an ester linkage by eliminating water molecule,
which means it is a condensation reaction.
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Remember: Fats are not polymers like starch and protein.

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UNIT (6) Analytical Chem.
 Testing for ions in the lab
Time for detective work!
You have an unknown salt, and you want to find out what it is. Remember CAP! !
This unit gives some tests you can do. But first, note these points: Cations Are Positive.

Positive ions are also called cations. Negative ions are called anions.
 
 
In each test, either a precipitate forms or a gas you can test.

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Cation Test If the cation is present Ionic equation for the reaction

copper(II) Add dilute sodium hydroxide A pale blue precipitate forms. Cu 21 (aq) 1 2OH 2 (aq) Cu(OH)2 (s)
Cu21 or ammonia solution.

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But it dissolves on adding more The precipitate dissolves again in excess
ammonia, giving a deep blue ammonia solution
solution.

iron(II) Add dilute sodium hydroxide A pale green precipitate forms. Fe 21 (aq) 1 2OH 2 (aq) Fe(OH)2 (s)
Fe21 or ammonia solution.

iron(III)
Fe31

zinc
Zn21
Add dilute sodium hydroxide
or ammonia solution.

Add dilute sodium hydroxide

or ammonia solution.
am
A red-brown precipitate forms.

A white precipitate forms.

It dissolves again on adding more

sodium hydroxide or ammonia,
Fe 3+ (aq) 1 3OH 2 (aq)

Zn21 (aq) 1 2OH 2 (aq)

Fe(OH)3 (s)

Zn(OH)2 (s)

The precipitate dissolves again in excess sodium

hydroxide
giving a colourless solution. It dissolves again in excess ammonia solution
H
l am
Es

70
 Tests for anions
Halide ions (Cl 2, I 2)
 
To a small amount of the solution, add an equal volume of dilute
nitric acid. Then add silver nitrate solution.
 
Silver halides are insoluble. So if halide ions are present a precipitate
will form. The colour tells you which one. Look at this table:

Precipitate Indicates presence of … Ionic equation for the reaction

da
white chloride ions, Cl 2 Ag 1 (aq) 1 Cl 2 (aq) AgCl (s)

yellow iodide ions, I 2 Ag 1 (aq) 1 I 2 (aq) AgI (s)

 Halides are present. From left to
right: chloride, bromide, iodide.
If the colour was not clear we add Amonia solution to the precipitate

ou
AgCl dissolves. But AgI does not dissolve.

Carbonate ions (CO322)

 
To a small amount of the unknown solid or solution, add a little
dilute hydrochloric acid.
 
am
If the mixture bubbles and gives off a gas that turns limewater milky,
the unknown substance contained carbonate ions. The gas is carbon
dioxide. The ionic equation for the reaction is:
2H 1 (aq) 1 CO322 (aq) CO2 (g) 1 H2O (l)
H
u The carbonate test: that is limewater
on the right, and it is turning milky.
l am
Es

71
 The Periodic Table of Elements

Group
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2
H He
hydrogen helium
Key 1.0 4.0
3 4 atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be atomic symbol B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
6.9 9.0 relative atomic mass 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
23.0 24.3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

72
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 – 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
lanthanoids
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 – – –
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116
actinoids
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Fl Lv
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium flerovium livermorium
– – – – – – – – – – – – –

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
lanthanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.4 – 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
actinoids Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
– 232.0 231.0 238.0 – – – – – – – – – – –