BIOCHEMISTRY LECTURE P1

INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY • Assimilation – selective absorption

DEFINITION OF TERMS
• CHEMISTRY – a branch of science which
deals with the study of the composition and
properties of matter and;
➢ the changes it undergoes
➢ the energy accompanying the
changes
➢ the laws and principles governing
such changes
• GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
– study of elements in the periodic table and
an overview of chemistry in general
• ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – study of carbon
containing compounds
• BIOCHEMISTRY – or biological chemistry
➢ from “BIO” – which means life
➢ “CHEMISTRY “– science which deals
with the study of the composition and
properties of matter
➢ the study of compounds, chemical
changes and reactions occurring in
living systems
• MOLECULAR BIOCHEMISTRY –
concerned with the study of
macromolecules and their metabolic
activities in the body. It includes the
entrance in the human body, digestion,
absorption, assimilation, utilization,
integration into the tissues, metabolic
degradation and eventually, excretion from
the body.
2 ASPECTS OF BIOCHEMISTRY:
1. MOLECULAR ANATOMY – different
biomolecules which comprise the cell
Examples of biomolecules:
• Carbohydrates (CHO)
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Nucleic acid
• Enzymes
• Hormones
• Vitamins
• Minerals
• Utilization -cell is the important unit of
life. Hence a large number of chemical
reactions in the cell utilize the nutrients
absorbed to produce materials needed
for our existence
• Integration - refers to the overlap of
many functions of the systems of the
human body, as well as its
accompanied form.
• Metabolism
➢ Metabolic degradation – conversion
of a substance into an active
metabolite
➢ Biotransformation – conversion of a
substance to another for
biosynthesis
• Excretion
pH and BUFFERS
A. DISSOCIATION OR IONIZATION
➢ a process by which a polar compound
(contains (+) and (-) ions) is broken apart
into its individual ionic components when
placed in an aqueous solution
➢ occurs in the presence of water.
B. ELECTROLYTES – substances whose water
solutions conduct electricity
➢ Strong electrolytes – completely ionized in
H2O solutions
Examples:
• Strong acids – HCl, HNO3, H2SO4
• Strong bases – NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
• Salt solutions - any salt dissolved in
water such as NaCl sol’n & CaF sol’n
➢ Weak electrolytes – incompletely or
partially ionized in H2O solution
- a large percent remains unionized
Examples:
• Weak acids – acetic acid
• Weak bases – aniline, ammonia
➢ Non – electrolytes - substances whose
water solution do not conduct electricity
Examples:
• Dry solids
• Organic compounds (eg. ethyl alcohol)

2. MOLECULAR PHYSIOLOGY – dynamic

part of biochemistry which includes the
functions and metabolic activities of
biomolecules in the cell.
• Digestion
➢ Physical – mechanical breakdown
➢ Chemical – further breakdown with
the aid of enzymes
• Absorption – passage of end products
of digestion from the small intestine into
the blood

THIS DOCUMENT IS THE PROPERTY OF PHINMA EDUCATION

 BIOCHEMISTRY LECTURE P1
pH EXPRESSION
- introduced by a Danish biochemist by the name of
C. IRREVERSIBLE REACTION Sorensen
➢ a reaction which goes to completion
pH = -log [H3O+] OR log
➢ the products no longer react to form back
pOH = - log [OH-]
the reactants pKw = -log Kw
• Evidences of irreversible reaction: pKw = pKa + pKb; 14 = pKa + pKb
1. Evolution of gas (formation of bubbles) pKw = pH + pOH
2. A precipitate is formed
14 = pH + pOH
3. Work is one of the products
pKa = - log Ka ; ionization constant of weak acid
D. REVERSIBLE REACTION
pKb = - log Kb ; ionization constant of weak base
➢ a reaction which does not go to completion
[H3O] = antilog – pH
➢ products can react to form back the reactant [OH-] = antilog – pOH
➢ this reaction is governed by the law of
chemical equilibrium BUFFER – a mixture of a weak electrolyte with its salt
Function: Resist drastic / great / marked change in pH of
E. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM a system even upon the addition of either a Strong Acid
(SA) or Strong Base (SB)
➢ state at which 2 opposing reactions proceed
at the same rate 2 TYPES:
1. ACID BUFFER – mixture of weak acid + salt
of weak acid
E.g. HAc +NaAc, (KAc , MgAc-)
2. BASE BUFFER – mixture of WB + salt of WB
E.g. NH4OH + NH4Cl
NH4OH + NH4NO3

HOW BUFFERS WORK:

Buffers work by neutralizing any added acid (H+
ions) or base (OH- ions) to maintain the moderate pH,
making them a weaker acid or base.

ACID & BASES THEORIES:

a) Arrhenius / ionic theory
Acid – yield H+ in water solution
Base – yiels OH- in water solution
b) Lewis theory
WATER Acid – electron pair acceptor
Base – electron pair donor
WATER EQUILIBRIUM / IONIZATION OF WATER c) Bronsted – Lowry theory / Conjugated aci-base
● Water – considered as a weak electrolyte. It is pair theory
amphoteric and amphiprotic in nature. Acid – Proton donor
● Amphoteric: can react both as an acid and as a Base – Proton acceptor
base.
● Amphiprotic: a substance that can both accept ● Conjugate Base – anion produced from the
and donate a proton or H dissociation of acid; removal of hydrogen
● Conjugate Acid - proton hydrogen donor; formed
when it combines with hydrogen
CONJUGATE ACID CONJUGATE BASE
HCl Cl
H3O+ H2 O
HAc Ac-
HNO2 NO2-
H2O OH-
HCO3- CO3=
H2CO3 HCO3-

THIS DOCUMENT IS THE PROPERTY OF PHINMA EDUCATION


BLOOD PH
● NORMAL BLOOD pH : 7.35 - 7.45
FACTORS AFFECTING BLOOD pH:
1. Nature of diet
a. Proteins, fats, ketogenic substances
● Tend to acidify blood pH
● Presence of SO4=, PO4, H+
(acids)
b. Fruits and vegetables
● Tend to alkalinize blood pH
● Na , K , Mg , Ca , OH
(bases)
2. Vigorous Exercise
● Tend to acidify blood pH
• Conversion of ATP to lactic acid leading to
muscular cramps.
ACIDOSIS and ALKALOSIS – metabolic disturbances in
the acid-base balance of the body.
ACIDOSIS – condition in which the acidity of body fluids
& tissues is abnormally high
- due to a decrease in normal blood pH
● Gaseous acidosis – more than the normal
amount of CO2 is retained in the body. E.g.,
drowning
● Renal acidosis – kidney failure results in
excessive loss of bicarbonate or retention of
phosphoric and sulfuric acids
● Patients with diabetes mellitus have a form of
acidosis in which sodium, potassium and ketone
bodies are lost in the urine
TYPES OF ACIDOSIS:
1. Metabolic Acidosis – occurs when there is excessive
loss of bases, such as bicarbonate (HCO3-) or
sodium
- due to a decrease in blood HCO3-
Causes:
• Severe ketosis & Diabetes Mellitus (DKA)
• Eclampsia
• High lipid diet
• Urinuria
THIS DOCUMENT IS THE PROPERTY OF PHINMA EDUCATION
BIOCHEMISTRY LECTURE P1
TREATMENT:
• Administration of sodium bicarbonate along with
fluids and other electrolytes
• Metabolic acidosis can be compensated through
intravenous
2. Respiratory Acidosis (hypoventilation) – associated
with an increased level of CO2 in the blood, occurring
when there is interference with respiratory gas exchange
- carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic
acid (H2CO3)
- Hypoventilation - breathing is slower than 12 breaths
per minute
Causes:
a. depression to respiration
b. obstruction to respiration
TREATMENT:
• Respiratory Acidosis can be compensated
through suction of H2CO3 or through oxygen
tanks
Acidosis can be compensated through:
a. Increase production of ammonia in the kidney
b. Increase excretion of acids by the kidneys
c. Increase excretion of H2CO3 through the lungs
ALKALOSIS – condition in which the alkalinity of body
fluids and tissues is abnormally high. This arises
because of a failure of the mechanisms that usually
maintain a balance between alkalis and acids in the
arterial blood.
-associated with loss of acid through vomiting or
excessive sodium bicarbonate intake
-due to an increase in blood pH
TYPES OF ALKALOSIS
1. Metabolic Alkalosis – is usually associated with
excessive loss of potassium and chloride
- due to an increase in blood HCO3
Causes:
a. overdosage of alkaline drugs
b. excessive loss of gastric HCl due to persistent
vomiting or severe vomiting (Cl- loss) or the use of
diuretics except acetazolamides.
c.diarrhea (K+)
2. Respiratory Alkalosis – produced by hyperventilation
(salicylate poisoning or artificial respirator) which lowers
the CO2 level of the blood.
-due to a decrease in blood H2CO3
-May produce symptoms of muscular
weakness or cramps
-Hyperventilation - breathing is faster than 20 breaths
per minute
Alkalosis can be compensated through:
a. Decrease production of ammonia by the kidneys
b. Decrease excretion of acids by the kidney
c. Decrease excretion of H2CO3 through the lungs
In interpreting the ABG results, remember
ROME - Respiratory - Opposite / Metabolic Equal
The Allen’s test is performed before obtaining an
arterial blood specimen from the radial artery to
determine the “presence of collateral circulation and the
adequacy of the ulnar artery. Failure to determine the
presence of adequate collateral circulation could result in
 BIOCHEMISTRY LECTURE P1
severe ischemic injury to the hand if damage to the
radial artery occurs with arterial puncture. The nurse first
would explain the procedure to the client. To perform the
test, the nurse applies direct pressure over the client’s
ulnar and radial arteries simultaneously. While applying
pressure, the nurse asks the client to open and close the
hand repeatedly; the hand should blanch. The nurse
then releases pressure from the ulnar artery while
compressing the radial artery and assesses the color of
the extremity distal to the pressure point. If pinkness fails
to return within 6 to 7 seconds, the ulnar artery is
insufficient, indicating that the radial artery should not be
used for obtaining a blood specimen. Finally, the nurse
documents the findings. Other sites can be used if the
radial artery is not deemed adequate, such as the
brachial or femoral artery.

pH 7.35 – 7.45 (normal)

7.35 - 7.40 (acidiotic side)
7.40 – 7.45 (alkalotic side)
<7.35 = acidic
>7,45 = basic/alkaline

PCO2 35-45 mmHg

<35 = alkalotic
>45 = acidotic
HCO3 22-26 mEq/L
<22 = acidotic
>26 = alkalotic
FULLY pH is NORMAL
COMPENSATED
PARTIALLY HCO3/PCO2 IS NOT
COMPENSATED NORMAL

UNCOMPENSATED HCO3/PCO2 IS NORMAL

THIS DOCUMENT IS THE PROPERTY OF PHINMA EDUCATION