Radiographic Testing

Physical Principles and Fundamentals

K. A. S. I Saranath,
Scientific Officer,
National Centre for Non Destructive Testing,
Sri Lanka Atomic Energy Board.
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 Overview
In radiography, test objects are exposed
to X-rays, gamma rays or neutrons, and
an image is produced.

Overview
Radiography is used to test a variety of
products, such as castings, forgings and
weldments.

It is also used heavily in the aerospace

and marine industry for the detection of
cracks

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 Radiography can be used on most materials.

Radiography provides a permanent record of

the test object.
Advantages of
Radiography Radiography reveals discontinuities within a
material.

Radiography discloses fabrication errors and

often indicates the need for corrective action.

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 The radiographer must have access to both sides of
the test object.

Planar discontinuities that are not parallel to the

radiation beam are difficult to detect.

Disadvantages Radiography is an expensive testing method

of Radiography
Film radiography is time consuming.

Some fine surface discontinuities may be difficult to

detect. (Cracks)

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 Atomic Structure

• All matter is made of atoms.

• Atoms are made of sub-atomic
particles
• Protons
• Neutrons
• Electrons
• Protons and neutrons group
together to make up the nucleus.
• Electrons orbit around the nucleus.

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 Proton Neutron Electron

Properties of Charge 1.602 x 10-19 C 0 - 1.602 x 10-19 C

electrons,
protons and Mass 1.673 x 10-23 kg 1.675 x 10-23 kg 9.109 x 10 -31 kg
neutrons
Relative
1636 1639 1
mass

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 Atomic and Mass
numbers

• The number of protons in the

nucleus determines the type of the
element.
• E.g. – Hydrogen(1-proton), Carbon
(6-protons)
• Atomic number (Z) is the number
of protons
• Mass number (A) is the sum of
protons and neutrons

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 Isotopes

• Atoms having the same Z but

different A are known as isotopes
of an element.
• They have different mass but same
chemical properties.
• Many elements are found as
different isotopes.

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 Radioisotopes

• As the proton number increases,

more neutrons are needed to
stabilize the nucleus.
• In order to become stable these
isotopes break apart into smaller
atoms.
• They are known as radioisotopes
• E.g.
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6C Stable

13
6C Stable

14
6C Unstable
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 Natural Radioisotopes

• Nuclear reactions which occur

spontaneously are said to be an
example of natural radioactivity.
• There are three naturally occurring
radioactive series among the
elements in the periodic table.
• These are known as the uranium
series, the actinium series and the
thorium series.

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 Artificial
Radioisotopes

• Not all nuclear reactions are

spontaneous.
• These reactions occur when stable
isotopes are bombarded with
particles such as neutrons.
• This method of inducing a nuclear
reaction to proceed is termed
artificial radioactivity.

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 Alpha α

Beta β
Radioactivity
Gamma γ

Neutron n

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Penetrating
power

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 Electromagnetic
waves

• X rays and gamma rays are

portions of what is known as
the electromagnetic
spectrum. 𝐶 = 𝑓λ 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
• They are transverse waves
and do not require a
medium for travel.
h= 6.626 x10-34 m2kg/s - Planck’s constant
• They travel at the speed of
light and in vacuum it is
3×108 𝑚𝑠−1

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Electromagnetic
spectrum

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 X ray generation

• X-rays can be generated by

an X-ray tube, a vacuum
tube that uses a high
voltage to accelerate the
electrons released by a hot
cathode to a high velocity.
• The high velocity electrons
collide with a metal target,
the anode, creating the X-
rays.

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 X ray generation

• Incoming electrons are slowed

down by the target atoms and a
part of the kinetic energy of
electrons are lost.
• Majority of this energy is
converted to heat but a small
portion is converted to X rays.

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 Intensity

Bremsstrahlung

• Bremsstrahlung or “breaking
radiation” is the continuous X Energy
radiation produced by slowing
Intensity
down of electrons.

Wavelength

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 Characteristic X rays

• When the applied voltage is

high enough electrons in the
inner shells can be ejected by
the bombarding electrons.
• In such cases an electron
from a higher energy level
falls back to fill the vacancy
emitting a photon of a
definite wavelength, thus
giving a sharp peak on the
spectrum
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Characteristic
X rays

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 𝐴 = λN
Gamma rays
A – Activity
N – Number of atoms
λ – decay constant
• Gamma rays are naturally emitted
by radioactive isotopes.
• The intensity of gamma rays is Units
determined by its activity(A) and Becquerel (Bq) – one disintegration per second ← SI unit
depends on the number(N) of Since Bq is very small, Giga Becquerel (GBq) is often used.
Curie (Cu) is the old unit
atoms in the sample.
• The activity of a radioisotope may
be described as the number of
atomic transformations per unit 1 Ci = 37,000,000,000 Bq which can be written as
time within that radioisotope. 37 x 109 Bq or 37 GBq or 0.037 TBq
• Activity is measured in Curie(Ci) or
Becquerel (Bq) 21
 Activity

Gamma rays

• Activity of a source and the

number of radioactive atoms in a Time
source decays exponentially with
time. 𝐴 = 𝐴0 𝑒 −λ𝑡 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −λ𝑡
• Decay constant is a constant for a
given radioactive isotope.
A – Activity at time t
• These properties are valid for any A0 – Activity at t=0
type of radiation (alpha, beta, N – Number of atoms at time t
N0 – Number of atoms at t=0
gamma) λ – decay constant
t – time
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 Activity

Half life A

A/2

• Half life is the time it takes for the

activity to become half of its t1/2 Time
original value.
• It is usually denoted as 𝑡1/2 ln 2
𝑡1/2 =
• For a given radioactive source, half λ
life is a constant.
λ – decay constant
T – time

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 Specific activity

• Specific Activity is the activity

per unit mass

• Typical units: Ci/kg or Bq/g

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Co 60 decay

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 • Half lives of some radioactive isotopes

Isotope Half life

Half life Oxygen 15 122 seconds

Iodine 131 8.1 days

Iridium 192 74 days

Carbon 14 5730 years

Uranium 235 704 million years

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 Gamma
spectrum

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 Gamma
spectrum

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 1
𝐼∝ 2
𝑑
Inverse
square law

• Intensity(I) of X rays and gamma rays is inversely

proportional to the square of the distance (d) from the
source.

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 Interaction with
matter
I1
I2

• When passing through matter X

rays and gamma rays interact with
matter.
• This affects the intensity, energy
and the direction of travel of the
incoming radiation.

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 Photoelectric
absorption

• When X rays with relatively low

energy passes through matter, all
of its energy may be transferred to
an orbital electron of an atom.
• Part of the energy is used to eject
the electron and the remainder
contributes to its velocity.
• This usually takes place when
photon energy is less than 0.5 MeV

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 Compton effect

• When higher energy photons (0.1

to 3 MeV) pass through matter, a
part of the energy may be spend
in ejecting an electron.
• Photon with the remainder of the
energy is deflected from the
original direction.

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 Pair production

• At very high energies (above 1.02

MeV), a photon can interact with
a nucleus of an atom.
• In this interaction, the energy of
the photon is converted into an
electron and a positron.

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 Intensity

Penetration of I0
radiation through Barrier

matter

I
• Penetration of radiation through
matter depends primarily on the
energy of the photons. Distance

• Incoming X or gamma rays will

undergo attenuation inside the 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝜇𝑥
material due to:
1. Photoelectric effect
I – Intensity beyond barrier
2. Compton effect I0 – Incoming Intensity
3. Pair production μ – Linear attenuation coefficient
x – Distance

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 Attenuation
coefficient

• Linear attenuation coefficient

depends on the type of material
and the energy of the photons.
• In the energy region mostly used
for radiography, “μ” decreases
with increasing energy.
• Therefore higher energies will
penetrate easily.

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 HVL and TVL ln 2
𝑇𝑉𝐿 =
ln 10
𝐻𝑉𝐿 =
𝜇 𝜇

• Half value layer (HVL) is the

Intensity
distance at which intensity
becomes half of the incident
intensity. I

• Tenth value layer (TVL) is the

distance at which intensity 𝐼
becomes one tenth of the 2
incident intensity. 𝐼
10

HVL TVL Distance

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 Detection of
Radiation

• Radiation cannot be seen, heard or

felt. Therefore it is difficult to detect
it.
• But Radiation can be detected and
measured by its properties.
• Radiation may produce
physical,chemical and biological
effects.
Ex:Change of Colors
Chemical Changes
Emission of Visible light
Electric Charge
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 Type of Detectors
1. Gas filled Detectors
Ionization Chambers
Proportional Counters
Geiger -Mueller (G-M) Detectors
3. Solid State/ Semi conductor Detectors
4. Other Detectors
Neutron Detectors
Thermo Luminescence Detectors (TLD)
Film

2. Scintillation Detectors
Solid
Liquid

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Type of Detectors

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 Gas Detectors

• Three main practical operating regions, one of

which each type of gaseous detector utilizes.

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 Ionization chamber
detectors

• Consists of a cylindrical gas filled

chamber and two electrodes
across which an electrical
potential is applied (50-300V).
• Gas inside the chamber is ionized
by incoming radiation.
• Positive ions travel to cathode
and negative ions to anode which
creates a current.
• This current is proportional to the
received radiation dose.
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Ionization chamber
detectors

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 Advantages Disadvantages

• Can measure both • Sensitive circuitry is

exposure and exposure needed.
Ionization
rate
chamber • Problems measuring
detector • Response is largely very low exposures
independent of energy

• Can be very accurate at

high exposure rates

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 Geiger – Müller tubes
Anode wire

• Similar to ionization chamber but

applied voltage is typically 800-
1000V
• Ionized gas ions moving toward the
electrodes have enough energy to Tube wall
ionize other gas molecules.
• This increases the overall signal.

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 Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple rugged design • Response depends on

energy
Geiger - • Detectors can be made
Müller tubes very small

• Associated circuitry is
fairly simple

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 Proportional counter

• Uses a combination of the

mechanisms of a Geiger–Müller
tube and an ionization chamber.
• Operates at an intermediate
voltage region between these.
• Output proportional to absorbed
energy.
• Widely used where energy levels
of incident radiation must be
known.

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 Advantages Disadvantages

• Ability to measure • Amplification depends

energy of radiation on applied voltages
Proportional
counter • Ability to distinguish
between alpha and beta
radiation

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 Incoming photon

Scintillation detectors
Scintillation material

• These detectors use special

crystalline materials like Sodium
Iodide (NaI).
• X or gamma rays interact with the
crystal a small flash of light ( a
scintillation) is produced. Photomultiplier tube

• With a photo multiplier these signals

can be amplified and turned into
electric signals.

Signal out
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 Advantages Disadvantages

• Very sensitive • Poor energy response –

probability of
Scintillation scintillation depends on
detectors energy

• Saturation at high doses

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Thank You

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