Larmors theorem:

By the larmors theorem An electron subjected only to the force

exerted by the nucleus about which it is moving will undergo
larmor precision but no other change in motion when placed in
magnetic field.

Larmors formula:

Larmors precision:

In physics larmors precision is the precision of the magnetic

moment of an object about an external magnetic field.

Larmors frequency:

Spin velocity of an atom or molecules is called larmors

frequency.
𝑀 = 𝑀0 𝐿(𝛼) (13)
1
𝑀0 = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝛼 −
𝛼
Where 𝐿(𝛼) is known as Langevin function. Fig. 2 shows a plot of
𝐿(𝛼) as a function of 𝛼. The curve indicates that for large values of
𝛼 that is at very high filed strength or low temperatures, the
function 𝐿(𝛼) approaches saturation value at unity i.e. M = M0.
This corresponds to the maximum alignment of the dipoles along 𝐿(𝛼)
the direction of the field.
From equation (13) we have
1
𝑀 = 𝑀0 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝛼 − 𝛼
1 𝛼 𝛼3 1
𝑀 = 𝑀0 + − 45 +⋯ −
𝛼 3 𝛼 𝜇𝑚 𝐵
𝛼 𝛼3 𝛼=
𝑀= 𝑀0 3 − +⋯ 𝑘𝑇
45
Fig. 2 A plot of the Langevin function L(α) as a
For small values of α i.e., α<<1, we have
𝛼 function of α
𝑀 = 𝑀0 3 (14)
The paramagnetic susceptibility can be written as
𝑀
χ𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎 = 𝐻

𝑀0 𝛼
3 𝑀0 𝛼
= =
𝐻 3𝐻
 3.6 CLASSICAL THEORY OF PARAMAGNETISM 93

Substituting Equations 3.10 and 3.11 into this expression, we have

ðp
M ¼ 2pK m ea cos u sin u cos u du
0
Ðp
nm 0 ea cos u sin u cos u d u
¼ Ðp
a cos u sin u d u
0 e

To evaluate these integrals, we put x ¼ cosu and dx ¼ 2sinu du. Then

Ð 1
nm 1 xeax dx
M ¼ Ð 1
ax
1 e dx
 a   
e þ ea 1 1
¼ nm a  ¼ nm coth a  : (3:12)
e  ea a a

But nm is the maximum possible moment which the material can have. It corresponds to
perfect alignment of all the atomic magnets parallel to the field, which is a state of complete
saturation. Calling this quantity M0, we have
M 1
Exam M0
¼ coth a  :
a
(3:13)

The expression on the right is called the Langevin function, usually abbreviated to L(a).
Expressed as a series, it is
a a3 2a5
L(a) ¼  þ   (3:14)
3 45 945
which is valid only for a  1. L(a) as a function of a is plotted in Fig. 3.3. At large a, L(a)
tends to 1; and for a less than about 0.5, it is practically a straight line with a slope of 13,
as seen in Equation 3.14.

Fig. 3.3 Langevin function.

94 DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM

The Langevin theory leads to two conclusions:

1. Saturation will occur if a (¼ mH/kT ) is large enough. This makes good physical
sense, because large H or low T, or both, is necessary if the aligning tendency of
the field is going to overcome the disordering effect of thermal agitation.
2. At small a, the magnetization M varies linearly with H. As we shall see presently, a is
small under “normal” conditions, and linear M, H curves are observed, like that of
Fig. 1.13b.

The Langevin theory also leads to the Curie law. For small a, L(a) ¼ a=3, and Equation
3.12 becomes

nma nm2 H
M¼ ¼ : (3:15)
3 3kT

Therefore,
M nm2
xv ¼ ¼ ,
H 3kT
(3:16)
x nm2
xm ¼ v ¼ :
r 3rkT

where r is density. But n, the number of atoms per unit volume, is equal to Nr/A where N is
atoms/mol (Avogadro’s number), r is density, and A is atomic weight. Therefore,

N m2 C emu Am2
xv ¼ ¼ (cgs) or [dimensionless](SI)
3AkT T cm3 Oe m3 Am1

and

N m2 C emu Am2 m3
xm ¼ ¼ (cgs) or ¼ (SI) (3:17)
r3AkT rT g Oe kg Am1 kg

which is Curie’s law, with the Curie constant given by

N m2
C¼ : (3:18)
3Ak

The net magnetic moment m per atom may be calculated from experimental data by means
of Equation 3.17. Consider oxygen, for example. It is one of the few gases which is
paramagnetic; it obeys the Curie law and has a mass susceptibility of

emu
xm ¼ 1:08  104 (cgs)
g Oe
J=T Am2 m3
xm ¼ 1:36  106 or or (SI)
kg Am1 kg Am1 kg
 Quantum Theory of Paramagnetism
❑ The Langevin’s classical theory of paramagnetism is incapable of providing a consistent explanation of the magnetic phenomena resulting from the
motion of electric charges. Classical theory assumed that the permanent magnetic dipole moment (µ) of an atom can posses any orientation with
respect to the magnetic field B. However, according to quantum theory, magnetic moments are quantized i.e., permanent magnetic dipole moment (µ)
of an atom possesses specific orientation with respect to the magnetic field B. To overcome various difficulties, let us discuss the essence of quantum
theory of paramagnetism based on the following basic facts:
1. For each unit of orbital angular momentum, an electron in an atom has one Bohr magneton (𝜇𝐵 = 𝑒ℎΤ4𝜋𝑚) of magnetic moment
associated with it. The magnetic moment is antiparallel to the angular momentum.
2. For each unit of spin angular momentum (ħ/2), there is also associated one half Bohr magneton (𝜇𝐵 /2) of magnetic moment to an
electron.
3. The total effective angular momentum of an electron is described as the vector sum of orbital and spin contributions, i.e. J = L+S,
where L and S are orbital and spin angular momentum.
4. The effective magnetic moment is given by gµBJ, where g is the Lande’s splitting factor or the spectroscopic splitting factor g is
given by
𝐽 𝐽+1 +𝑆 𝑆+1 −𝐿(𝐿+1)
𝑔 = 1+
2𝐽(𝐽+1)

5. For energy level splitting scheme (Fig. 1) for an electron with only spin angular momentum in a magnetic field , the energy
difference between the levels is given by
∆𝑈 = 𝑔𝜇𝐵 𝐵 S = +1/2
gµBB
S = -1/2
Fig. 1. Splitting of an energy level for an electron with spin 1/2
and zero orbital momentum in a magnetic field.

6. According to quantum mechanics, the magnitude of the total angular momentum vector is given by [J(J+1)]1/2 not by simply J.
Also there are 2J+1 ways in which the atomic dipoles may orient relative to magnetic field. The probability of such orientation is determined by the
Boltzmann factor exp(- ∆𝑈/kT).
Soft magnetic materials have been used widely in generators,
transformers, and switching circuits. These materials are easily
magnetized and reach saturation magnetization with a relatively
low magnetic field. They have very narrow loops, as
characterized by minimal hysteresis, low coercivity, high initial
permeability and maximum permeability.

The coercivity is sensitive to structures. Defects and impurities

can restrict the motion of domain walls, resulting in an increase
of the coercivity. Therefore, a soft magnetic material must have
very few impurities and defects so that the domain walls can
move easily.
# What are Magnetic materials and
Magnetism & Magnetization?

Those materials which have an attractive or

repulsive force on other materials, which originates
from electron's spin motion and their orbital motion
around the nucleus are called Magnetic materials.

This phenomenon is known as Magnetism.

Magnetization is defined as the Magnetic Moment

per unit volume.

# Types of Magnetic materials /Magnetism.

1.Diamagnetism
2.Paramagnetism
3.Ferromagnetism
4.Antiferromagnetism
 5.Ferrimagnetism

a. Diamagnetism -
➔ Composed of atoms which have no net
magnetic moments; i.e. (all the orbital shells are
filled) and no unpaired electrons.
➔ When an external field is applied, a negative
magnetization will be produced in the direction
opposite to the applied field.

➔ Do not retain magnetic property in the absence

of a magnetic field.
➔ The value of susceptibility is independent of
temperature and it is negative.
➔ Examples : Cu, He, Au etc.

b. Paramagnetism -
They have unpaired electrons in random
orientation.
 Does not exhibit net magnetic moments
without an applied field.

When an external magnetic field is applied, it

will tend to align themselves in the same
direction to the applied field, resulting in a net
positive magnetisation.
The susceptibility is often inversely
proportional to the temperature and it is positive
Examples : Na, Al, Mn etc.

c. Ferromagnetism -
➢ One of the strongest forms of magnetism.
➢ Has unpaired electrons.
➢ Atoms are arranged in a lattice and the atomic
magnetic moments are coupled to align parallel
to each other, to maintain a lowered energy state.

➢ Maintain a parallel orientation even when the

applied field is removed.
 ➢ The susceptibilities of ferromagnetic materials
are positive and large.

➢ Ferromagnetic material loses its

ferromagnetism and becomes paramagnetic
above its Curie temperature.
➢ Examples : Fe, Co, Ni etc.

d. Antiferromagnetism -
The exchange interaction between neighboring
atoms results in anti-parallel alignment of the
atomic magnetic moments.
The magnetic moments of opposing directions
cancel each other leading to zero net
magnetisation.

As the temperature increases, the susceptibility

increases and goes through a maximum at a
critical temperature called Neel temperature.
Examples : Cr, MnO, FeO etc.
e. Ferrimagnetism -
➢ Atomic magnetic moments are arranged in
antiparallel manner.
➢ The magnitude of moments pointing in one
direction does not equal that pointing in the
opposite direction, so a spontaneous
magnetization is produced.

➢ As the temperature increases, resulting in a

decrease of spontaneous magnetization.
➢ The arrangement of the spins becomes
completely random at Curie point and above
which it shows paramagnetic behavior.

➢ Susceptibility decreases with increasing

temperature.
➢ Examples : Fe3O4, MnZn, NiZn etc.
# Why do paramagnetic materials show
magnetism?

In paramagnetic materials, electrons are considered

to be free like molecules in a gas.

They tend to pair up but there are always a few

unpaired electrons to produce a weak temperature
independent paramagnetism known as Pauli
paramagnetism. For this reason paramagnetic
materials show magnetism.

# What are the sources of permanent

magnetic moments?

Permanent magnetic moments can arise from the

following three different sources -

● The orbital magnetic moments of the electron

 ● Spin magnetic moments of the electron
● Spin magnetic moments of the nucleus

# Soft magnetic materials.

Those magnetic materials which are easy to

magnetize and demagnetize are called soft magnetic
materials.

1.They have low Hysteresis loss due to small

Hysteresis area.
2.Susceptibility and permeability are high.
3.Magnetic energy stored is less.

4.They possess low value of BH product.

5.The Eddy current loss is less because of high
resistivity.
# Hard magnetic materials.

Materials which retain their magnetism and are

difficult to demagnetize are called hard magnetic
materials.

1.They have large Hysteresis loss due to large

Hysteresis area.
2.Susceptibility and permeability are low.
3.Magnetic energy stored is high.

4.They possess high value of BH product.

5.The Eddy current loss is high.

# Conventional hard magnetic materials.

The hard magnetic materials which have (BH) Max

values ranging between about 2 and 80 kg/m³ are
known as conventional hard magnetic materials.
Ex : (Cu-Ni-Fe) alloy, (Al-Ni-Co) alloy etc.

# High energy hard magnetic materials.

The hard magnetic materials which have (BH) Max

values in excess of about 80 kg/m³ are considered to
be high energy hard magnetic materials.
Ex : Nd2Fe14B etc.

# Uses of magnetic materials

➢ Electric motors
➢ Generators
➢ Transformers
➢ Telephone receivers
➢ Radars
➢ Television
➢ Computers
➢ Loud speakers etc.
# Curie temperature.

The temperature above which a ferromagnetic

substance loses it's Ferromagnetism and becomes
paramagnetic is called curie temperature.

In other words, curie temperature or curie point is

the temperature where a material's permanent
magnetism changes to induced magnetism.

# What is Magnetic susceptibility?

Magnetic susceptibility is a measurement of the

ability of a material to be magnetized.
In other words, magnetic susceptibility is a
measurement of how easily it responds to an applied
magnetic field.
# Temperature dependence susceptibility of
various magnetic materials.

a. Diamagnetic materials -
In diamagnetic materials, the susceptibility X, which
is defined as the variation in magnetization, M of a
material with
applied magnetic
field, H will be
negative.

The value of
susceptibility for
diamagnetic materials is independent of
temperature. This is shown in the following figure.

b. Paramagnetic materials -
In paramagnetic materials, the susceptibility is
temperature dependent.
As the temperature
increases, the
thermal agitation
will also increase
and so the atomic
magnetic moments
will become harder
to align to the
direction of the applied magnetic field.

The susceptibility of paramagnets is often inversely

proportional to the temperature, as shown in the
figure.

c. Ferromagnetic materials -
The susceptibility of ferromagnetic materials is
positive and large. Every ferromagnetic substance
has its own individual temperature, called curie
temperature, above which it loses its ferromagnetic
properties.
Above curie
temperature,
ferromagnets become
paramagnetic and the
susceptibility will be
inversely proportional
to the temperature as
shown in the figure.

d. Antiferromagnetic materials -
As the temperature increases, the susceptibility
increases and goes through a maximum at a critical
temperature called
Neel temperature
(TN).

But above (TN), spin

arrangement
becomes random and the susceptibility decreases
with increasing temperature.
e. Ferrimagnetic materials -
The susceptic behavior of ferrimagnetic materials is
the same as ferromagnetic materials.

As the temperature
increases, the
susceptibility of
ferrimagnetic
materials decreases.
Above Curie
temperature (Tc), it loses ferrimagnetic properties
and becomes paramagnetic.

# Relationship between permeability and

susceptibility. /Response of a substance to a
magnetic field.

A magnetic field can be described by either

magnetic induction, B or the field strength, H.
In vacuum,

is called the permeability of free space.

When a substance is placed in a magnetic field, it

gets magnetized and hence a magnetization M is
produced in it. Here,

.................. (1)
For isotropic medium,
............... (2)
Where, is the susceptibility of the medium.

Substituting the value of M from equ. (2) into equ.

(1);
is known as the permeability of the medium. It is
often more convenient to use the relative
permeability, which is defined as,

# Atomic Theory of Magnetism.

In an atom, the electrons revolve around the nucleus

in different circular orbits. Let us consider,

an electron of mass m, having

an electronic charge (-e)
moving in a circular orbit of
radius r with a velocity v
(angular velocity ) as shown
in figure 16.3.

Now,
For circular orbit,

From electromagnetic theory, the magnitude of the

magnetic moment produced,
Where, L is the orbital angular momentum of
electron and is normal to the plane of the orbital.
This equation is valid only for motion of electron
and not for the spin of the electron or nucleus.

# Bohr Magneton./Magnetic dipole moment of

an atom due to revolving electron.

Bohr Magneton is magnetic dipole moment

associated with an atom due to orbital motion and
spin of an electron.The Bohr magneton, is given
by:

Where,
e is the elementary charge
h is the reduced Planck constant
m is the electron mass
The value of Bohr magneton in SI units is 9.27

Consider, an electron is revolving around a nucleus

in a fixed orbit.
Dipole moment is given by,

Now the dipole moment is,

The orbital angular momentum (L) of an electron is,
integral multiple of,

Here,

Again, angular momentum,

So,

Putting equ. (2) into equ.(1),

# Magnetic Induction, Magnetic permeability,
Magnetic susceptibility.

Magnetic Induction -
The property by which an ordinary piece of iron
acquires magnetic properties temporarily due to the
presence of another magnet close to it, is known as
magnetic induction.

Magnetic Permeability -
The ability of material to permit flow of magnetic
flux through itself is called magnetic permeability.

Magnetic susceptibility -
Magnetic susceptibility is a measurement of how
easily it responds to an applied magnetic field.

# Storage mechanism in Magnetic Media.

Magnetic disk drives contain both side coated metal

disks. These disks are rotated at a high speed to read
or write data. The tracks are circular and
electromagnetic read or write heads are positioned
by access arms between the slightly separated disks.

Data is saved on these tracks in binary form. The

storage capacity is really high which can store every
type of data be it text, sound, picture, etc.Magnetic
disks can be used as fixed unit or removable unit.
Normally removable are used for keeping backup of
the data to be on the safer side.

The surface of a magnetic disk is divided into

concentric tracks. These tracks are used to record
data on. Each track is further divided into sectors.
Each sector normally holds the same capacity.
Ex : Magnetic tape, Floppy disk, Hard disk drive
etc.

# Curie’s Law.

For many paramagnetic materials, the

magnetization of the material is directly
proportional to an applied magnetic field, for
sufficiently high temperatures and small fields.

However, if the material is heated, this

proportionality is reduced. For a fixed value of the
field, the magnetic susceptibility is inversely
proportional to temperature, that is

where,
 > 0 is the (volume) magnetic susceptibility, M is the
magnitude of the resulting magnetization (A/m),

H is the magnitude of the applied magnetic field

(A/m),
T is absolute temperature (K),
C is a material-specific Curie constant (K).
# Magnetic moment of a single unpaired
electron

The electron has a magnetic moment due to its spin

in addition to the magnetic moment due to its orbital
motion.

Orbital Magnetic moment,

and Spin Magnetic moment,

As a result, an electron’s resultant magnetic moment

is the vector sum of its orbital and spin magnetic
moments.
820 • Chapter 20 / Magnetic Properties

B
Hard

1.5
Magnetization, M (106 A/m)

[0001]
Soft

[1010], [0001] H
1.0
[1120]

0.5

[1120]
[1010]

0
0 0.2 0.4
Magnetic field strength, H (106 A/m)
Figure 20.18 Magnetization curves for single crystals of
cobalt. The curves were generated when the magnetic field
was applied in [0001] and [1010]/[1120] crystallographic
directions.
(Adapted from S. Kaya, “On the Magnetisation of Single Crystals of
Cobalt,” Sci. Rep. Tohoku Univ., 17, 1157 (1928).)
0.6 0.8
Figure 20.19 Schematic magnetization
curves for soft and hard magnetic materials.
(From K. M. Ralls, T. H. Courtney, and
J. Wulff, Introduction to Materials Science
and Engineering. Copyright © 1976 by
John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by
permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

20.9 SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS

The size and shape of the hysteresis curve for ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials are of
considerable practical importance. The area within a loop represents a magnetic energy
loss per unit volume of material per magnetization–demagnetization cycle; this energy
loss is manifested as heat that is generated within the magnetic specimen and is capable
of raising its temperature.
Both ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials are classified as either soft or hard on the
soft magnetic basis of their hysteresis characteristics. Soft magnetic materials are used in devices that
material are subjected to alternating magnetic fields and in which energy losses must be low; one
familiar example consists of transformer cores. For this reason, the relative area within
the hysteresis loop must be small; it is characteristically thin and narrow, as represented
in Figure 20.19. Consequently, a soft magnetic material must have a high initial perme-
ability and a low coercivity. A material possessing these properties may reach its satura-
tion magnetization with a relatively low applied field (i.e., may be easily magnetized and
demagnetized) and still have low hysteresis energy losses.
The saturation field or magnetization is determined only by the composition of the
material. For example, in cubic ferrites, substitution of a divalent metal ion such as Ni2
for Fe2 in FeO–Fe2O3 changes the saturation magnetization. However, susceptibility
and coercivity (Hc), which also influence the shape of the hysteresis curve, are sensitive
to structural variables rather than to composition. For example, a low value of coercivity
corresponds to the easy movement of domain walls as the magnetic field changes magni-
tude and/or direction. Structural defects such as particles of a nonmagnetic phase or voids
in the magnetic material tend to restrict the motion of domain walls and thus increase the
coercivity. Consequently, a soft magnetic material must be free of such structural defects.
822 • Chapter 20 / Magnetic Properties

Table 20.5 Typical Properties for Several Soft Magnetic Materials

Initial Saturation Flux Hysteresis
Relative Density Bs Loss/Cycle Resistivity
Material Composition (wt%) Permeability Mi [tesla (gauss)] [J/m3 (erg/cm3)] R (⍀ # m)
Commercial 99.95 Fe 150 2.14 (21,400) 270 (2,700) 1.0 ⫻ 10⫺7
iron ingot
Silicon–iron 97 Fe, 3 Si 1,400 2.01 (20,100) 40 (400) 4.7 ⫻ 10⫺7
(oriented)
45 Permalloy 55 Fe, 45 Ni 2,500 1.60 (16,000) 120 (1,200) 4.5 ⫻ 10⫺7
Supermalloy 79 Ni, 15 Fe, 5 Mo, 0.5 Mn 75,000 0.80 (8,000) — 6.0 ⫻ 10⫺7
Ferroxcube A 48 MnFe2O4, 52 ZnFe2O4 1,400 0.33 (3,300) ~40 (~400) 2,000
Ferroxcube B 36 NiFe2O4, 64 ZnFe2O4 650 0.36 (3,600) ~35 (~350) 107
Source: Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Stainless Steels, Tool Materials and Special-Purpose Metals,
Vol. 3, 9th edition, D. Benjamin (Senior Editor), 1980. Reproduced by permission of ASM International, Materials Park, OH.

Another property consideration for soft magnetic materials is the electrical resistiv-
ity. In addition to the hysteresis energy losses described previously, energy losses may
result from electrical currents that are induced in a magnetic material by a magnetic
field that varies in magnitude and direction with time; these are called eddy currents. It
is most desirable to minimize these energy losses in soft magnetic materials by increas-
ing the electrical resistivity. This is accomplished in ferromagnetic materials by forming
solid solution alloys; iron–silicon and iron–nickel alloys are examples. The ceramic fer-
rites are commonly used for applications requiring soft magnetic materials because they
are intrinsically electrical insulators. Their applicability is somewhat limited, however,
inasmuch as they have relatively small susceptibilities. The properties of some soft mag-
netic materials are shown in Table 20.5.
The hysteresis characteristics of soft magnetic materials may be enhanced for some
applications by an appropriate heat treatment in the presence of a magnetic field. Using
such a technique, a square hysteresis loop may be produced, which is desirable in some
magnetic amplifier and pulse transformer applications. In addition, soft magnetic mate-
rials are used in generators, motors, dynamos, and switching circuits.

20.10 HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Hard magnetic materials are used in permanent magnets, which must have a high resist-
hard magnetic ance to demagnetization. In terms of hysteresis behavior, a hard magnetic material has
material high remanence, coercivity, and saturation flux density, as well as low initial perme-
ability and high hysteresis energy losses. The hysteresis characteristics for hard and soft
magnetic materials are compared in Figure 20.19. The two most important character-
istics relative to applications for these materials are the coercivity and what is termed
the energy product, designated as (BH)max. This (BH)max corresponds to the area of the
largest B–H rectangle that can be constructed within the second quadrant of the hyster-
esis curve, Figure 20.22; its units are kJ/m3 (MGOe).4 The value of the energy product is

4
MGOe is defined as
1 MGOe ⫽ 106 gauss-oersted
Conversion from cgs–emu to SI units is accomplished by the relationship
1 MGOe ⫽ 7.96 kJ/m3
 20.10 Hard Magnetic Materials • 823

Figure 20.22 Schematic magnetization curve that

B displays hysteresis. Within the second quadrant are
Bd ⫻ Hd < ( BH)max
Hd drawn two B–H energy product rectangles; the area of
the rectangle labeled (BH)max is the largest possible,
Bd which is greater than the area defined by Bd–Hd.

(BH)max

representative of the energy required to demagnetize a permanent magnet—that is, the

larger (BH)max, the harder the material in terms of its magnetic characteristics.
Hysteresis behavior is related to the ease with which the magnetic domain bounda-
ries move; by impeding domain wall motion, the coercivity and susceptibility are en-
hanced, such that a large external field is required for demagnetization. Furthermore,
these characteristics are related to the microstructure of the material.

Concept Check 20.6 It is possible, by various means (e.g., alteration of microstructure

and impurity additions), to control the ease with which domain walls move as the magnetic
field is changed for ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials. Sketch a schematic B-versus-H
hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetic material, and superimpose on this plot the loop alterations
that would occur if domain boundary movement were hindered.
[The answer may be found at www.wiley.com/college/callister (Student Companion Site.)]

Conventional Hard Magnetic Materials

Hard magnetic materials fall within two main categories—conventional and high en-
ergy. The conventional materials have (BH)max values that range between about 2 and
80 kJ/m3 (0.25 and 10 MGOe). These include ferromagnetic materials—magnet steels,
cunife (Cu–Ni–Fe) alloys, and alnico (Al–Ni–Co) alloys—as well as the hexagonal fer-
rites (BaO–6Fe2O3). Table 20.6 presents some critical properties of several of these hard
magnetic materials.
The hard magnetic steels are normally alloyed with tungsten and/or chromium.
Under the proper heat-treating conditions, these two elements readily combine with
carbon in the steel to form tungsten and chromium carbide precipitate particles, which
are especially effective in obstructing domain wall motion. For the other metal alloys, an
appropriate heat treatment forms extremely small single-domain and strongly magnetic
iron–cobalt particles within a nonmagnetic matrix phase.
824 • Chapter 20 / Magnetic Properties

Table 20.6 Typical Properties for Several Hard Magnetic Materials

Coercivity Curie
Remanence Hc [amp- (BH)max Temperature
Composition Br [tesla turn/m [kJ/m3 Tc Resistivity
Material (wt%) (gauss)] (Oe)] (MGOe)] [ⴗC (ⴗF)] R (⍀ # m)
Tungsten steel 92.8 Fe, 6 W, 0.95 5,900 2.6 760 3.0  107
0.5 Cr, 0.7 C (9,500) (74) (0.33) (1,400)
Cunife 20 Fe, 20 Ni, 0.54 44,000 12 410 1.8  107
60 Cu (5,400) (550) (1.5) (770)
Sintered 34 Fe, 7 Al, 0.76 125,000 36 860 —
alnico 8 15 Ni, 35 Co, (7,600) (1,550) (4.5) (1,580)
4 Cu, 5 Ti
Sintered BaO–6Fe2O3 0.32 240,000 20 450 ~104
ferrite 3 (3,200) (3,000) (2.5) (840)
Cobalt rare SmCo5 0.92 720,000 170 725 5.0  107
earth 1 (9,200) (9,000) (21) (1,340)
Sintered Nd2Fe14B 1.16 848,000 255 310 1.6  106
neodymium– (11,600) (10,600) (32) (590)
iron–boron
Source: Adapted from ASM Handbook, Vol. 2, Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose Materials.
Copyright © 1990 by ASM International. Reprinted by permission of ASM International, Materials Park, OH.

High-Energy Hard Magnetic Materials

Permanent magnetic materials having energy products in excess of about 80 kJ/m3
(10 MGOe) are considered to be of the high-energy type. These are recently developed
intermetallic compounds that have a variety of compositions; the two that have found
commercial exploitation are SmCo5 and Nd2Fe14B. Their magnetic properties are also
listed in Table 20.6.

Samarium–Cobalt Magnets
Samarium–cobalt, SmCo5, is a member of a group of alloys that are combinations of
cobalt or iron and a light rare earth element; a number of these alloys exhibit high-energy,
hard magnetic behavior, but SmCo5 is the only one of commercial significance. The energy
product of these SmCo5 materials [between 120 and 240 kJ/m3 (15 and 30 MGOe)] are
considerably higher than those of the conventional hard magnetic materials (Table 20.6);
in addition, they have relatively large coercivities. Powder metallurgical techniques are
used to fabricate SmCo5 magnets. The appropriately alloyed material is first ground into
a fine powder; the powder particles are aligned using an external magnetic field and then
pressed into the desired shape. The piece is then sintered at an elevated temperature, fol-
lowed by another heat treatment that improves the magnetic properties.

Neodymium–Iron–Boron Magnets
Samarium is a rare and relatively expensive material; furthermore, the price of
cobalt is variable, and its sources are unreliable. Consequently, the neodymium–iron–
boron, Nd2Fe14B, alloys have become the materials of choice for a large number and
wide diversity of applications requiring hard magnetic materials. Coercivities and energy
products of these materials rival those of the samarium–cobalt alloys (Table 20.6).
The magnetization–demagnetization behavior of these materials is a function of do-
main wall mobility, which is controlled by the final microstructure—that is, the size, shape,
and orientation of the crystallites or grains, as well as the nature and distribution of any
 20.11 Magnetic Storage • 825

second-phase particles that are present. Microstructure depends on how the material is
processed. Two different processing techniques are available for the fabrication of Nd2Fe14B
magnets: powder metallurgy (sintering) and rapid solidification (melt spinning). The powder
metallurgical approach is similar to that used for the SmCo5 materials. For rapid solidifica-
tion, the alloy in molten form is quenched very rapidly such that either an amorphous or
very fine-grained and thin solid ribbon is produced. This ribbon material is then pulverized,
compacted into the desired shape, and subsequently heat-treated. Rapid solidification is
the more involved of the two fabrication processes; nevertheless, it is continuous, whereas
powder metallurgy is a batch process, which has its inherent disadvantages.

These high-energy hard magnetic materials are used in a host of different devices
in a variety of technological fields. One common application is in motors. Permanent
magnets are far superior to electromagnets in that their magnetic fields are maintained
continuously and without the necessity to expend electrical power; furthermore, no heat
is generated during operation. Motors using permanent magnets are much smaller than
their electromagnetic counterparts and are used extensively in fractional horsepower
units. Familiar motor applications include cordless drills and screwdrivers; in automo-
biles (starters; window winders, wipers, and washers; fan motors); in audio and video
recorders; clocks; speakers in audio systems, lightweight earphones, and hearing aids;
and computer peripherals.

20.11 MAGNETIC STORAGE

Magnetic materials are important in the area of information storage; in fact, magnetic
recording5 has become virtually the universal technology for the storage of electronic
information. This is evidenced by the preponderance of disk storage media [e.g., com-
puters (both desktop and laptop), and high-definition camcorder hard drives], credit/
debit cards (magnetic stripes), and so on. Whereas in computers, semiconductor ele-
ments serve as primary memory, magnetic hard disks are normally used for secondary
memory because they are capable of storing larger quantities of information and at a
lower cost; however, their transfer rates are slower. Furthermore, the recording and
television industries rely heavily on magnetic tapes for the storage and reproduction of
audio and video sequences. In addition, tapes are used with large computer systems to
back up and archive data.
In essence, computer bytes, sound, or visual images in the form of electrical signals
are recorded magnetically on very small segments of the magnetic storage medium—a
tape or disk. Transference to (i.e., “writing”) and retrieval from (i.e., “reading”) the
tape or disk is accomplished by means of a recording system that consists of read and
write heads. For hard drives, this head system is supported above and in close proximity
to the magnetic medium by a self-generating air bearing as the medium passes beneath
at relatively high rotational speeds.6 In contrast, tapes make physical contact with the
heads during read and write operations. Tape velocities run as high as 10 m/s.
As noted previously, there are two principal types of magnetic media—hard disk
drives (HDDs) and magnetic tapes—both of which we now briefly discuss.

Hard Disk Drives

Hard disk magnetic storage hard drives consist of rigid circular disks with diameters
that range between about 65 mm (2.5 in.) and 95 mm (3.75 in). During read and

5
The term magnetic recording is often used to denote the recording and storage of audio or video and audio signals,
whereas in the field of computing, magnetic storage is frequently preferred.
6
It is sometimes stated that the head “flies” over the disk.
 Langevin’s classical theory of diamagnetism z

❑ Diamagnetism:
The diamagnetism is the occurrence of negative B e
susceptibility that arises from Lenz’s law which states that when the flux in
an electric circuit is changed, in induced current is set up in such a F FL
B x
direction as to oppose the flux change. Let us consider the Bohr model of O
atom, i.e. consider an electron which revolves around a central nucleus as
shown in Fig. 1. If m is the mass of electron, -e is the charge of the electron
and r is the radius of the orbit then in the absence of an external filed the
centripetal force acting on the electron due to the nucleus is given by y
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹0 = = 𝑚𝜔02 𝑟 Fig. 1 Motion of an electron in xy-plane.
𝑟 2
𝑍𝑒
= 2 (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑍𝑒 2
𝜔0 = (2)
4𝜋𝑚𝜀0 𝑟 3

where 𝑣 = 𝜔0 𝑟
Ze is the charge of nucleus
 When a magnetic field is applied along the z-axis (perpendicular to the xy plane), an additional force FL equal to the Lorentz
force starts acting on the electron in a direction away from the center. The Lorentz force is given by

𝐹𝐿 = −𝑒 𝑣 × 𝐵 = −𝑒𝜔𝑟𝐵 (3)
Where the magnetic field B is the perpendicular to r. Because of the change in net force on the electron, there is a change in the
angular frequency from ω0 to ω. The resulting equation of force can be written as

𝑚𝜔2 𝑟 = 𝐹0 − 𝑒𝜔𝑟𝐵
2 𝑍𝑒 2
or, 𝑚𝜔 𝑟 + 𝑒𝜔𝑟𝐵 − =0
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
𝑒𝜔𝐵 𝑍𝑒 2
or, 𝜔2 + − =0
𝑚 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑟 3
𝑒𝜔𝐵
or, 𝜔2 + − 𝜔02 = 0 (4)
𝑚

Solving this quadratic equation, we have

−𝑒𝐵ൗ𝑚± 𝑒𝐵Τ𝑚 2 +4𝜔02

𝜔=
2
𝑒𝐵 2 𝑒𝐵
or, 𝜔 = ± + 𝜔02 − 2𝑚
2𝑚
𝑒𝐵 𝑒𝐵 2
If 𝜔0 ≫ then term can be neglected, therefore,
2𝑚 2𝑚
𝑒𝐵
𝜔 = ±𝜔0 − 2𝑚 = ±𝜔0 − 𝜔𝐿 (5)
 𝑒𝐵
Where the change of frequency 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝑚 is called the precessional frequency or Larmour frequency. The (±) sign on 𝜔0 implies
that those electrons whose orbital moments are parallel to the field are slowed down by 𝜔𝐿 . In this case, ω = ω0- ωL. Similarly
those electrons whose moments are antiparallel to the field are speeded by the same amount. In this case, ω = -ω0- ωL.
The change in the frequency of electronic motion as a result of the application of the magnetic field produces magnetization. In
the absence of the field the electron motion being spherically symmetrical and produces no net current or flux. On the other
hand, in the field, the electron’s motion is no longer spherically symmetric but precesses about the field (i.e. the plane of the
orbit does not remain stationary) and produces a net current I. Due to change the in frequency 𝜔𝐿 , the current for each electron
can be written as
I = Charge × Revolution per unit time or frequency
𝑒𝜔
= − 2𝜋𝐿 (6)
If each atom contain Z electrons then the current becomes

𝑍𝑒 2 𝐵
𝐼=− (7)
4𝜋𝑚

The magnetic moment of this current loop can be written as

𝜇𝑚 = 𝐼 × Area of the loop

𝑍𝑒 2 𝐵
=− × 𝜋𝜌ҧ 2
4𝜋𝑚
𝑍𝑒 2 𝐵ഥ𝜌2
= − 4𝑚 (8)

Where 𝜌ҧ is the mean square radius of the projection of the orbit on a plane perpendicular to the field axis as shown in Fig. 2.
 B
As the field is acting parallel to the z-axis, therefore
𝜌ҧ 2 = 𝑥ҧ 2 + 𝑦ത 2 (9)
the mean square distance (average radius) of the electron from the r
nucleus is
𝑟ҧ 2 = 𝑥ҧ 2 + 𝑦ത 2 + 𝑧ҧ 2 (10)
o BB
For spherically symmetric charge distribution, we have ρ
𝑥ҧ 2 = 𝑦ത 2 = 𝑧ҧ 2 (11)

From equations (9) and (10), we have

𝜌ҧ 2 = 2𝑥ҧ 2
and 𝑟ҧ 2 = 3𝑥ҧ 2 Fig. 2 Great circle and the
But we have to use average because all the electrons in atom do not projection of inclined circular orbit.
have the same effective radii, so that
ഥ2
𝜌 2
=
𝑟ҧ 2 3
2
or, 𝜌ҧ 2 =
𝑟ҧ 2 (12)
3
From equation (8) we have,
𝑍𝑒 2 𝐵𝑟ҧ 2
𝜇𝑚 = − (13)
6𝑚
If N is the number of atoms per unit volume, the magnetization, M = N 𝜇𝑚 , the diamagnetic susceptibility per unit volume is

𝑀 𝑁μ𝑚 μ0
χ𝑑𝑖𝑎 = = [𝐵 = μ0 𝐻]
𝐻 𝐵
𝑁μ0 𝑍𝑒 2 𝐵𝑟ҧ 2
= 𝐵 × − 6𝑚
μ0 𝑍𝑒 2 𝑁𝑟ҧ 2
= − 6𝑚 (14)
This is the classical Langevin equation for diamagnetism. From Eq. (14), it is clear that the diamagnetic susceptibility is
proportional to N implying the diamagnetic susceptibility depends on the size of the atom. We also observe that the diamagnetic
susceptibility is proportional to 𝑟ҧ 2 , meaning thereby that the outer electrons make the larger contribution to the diamagnetic
susceptibility.
 Sources of Paramagnetism

❑ Paramagnetism is found in:

1. Atoms, molecules and lattice defects having an odd number of electrons; that is there should be at least one
electron which does not pair. The atoms of the group I, III, V and VII of the periodic table, gaseous nitric oxide (NO); organic
free radicals such as triphenylmethyl C(C6H5)3 and F-centers in alkali halides satisfy this criterion.

2. Free atoms with unfilled inner shell: transition metals (Z = 57-72) and (Z = 91-102), rare earth and actinite
elements have atoms with unfilled inner shells.

3. A few compounds with an even number of electrons including molecular oxygen and organic biradicals.

4. Metals: The electrons in a metal are considered to be free like molecules in a gas. They tend to pair up but
there are always a few unpaired electrons to produce a weak temperature independent magnetism known as Pauli
paramagnetism.
 Langevin’s theory of paramagnetism
The atom of paramagnetic substances possesses a permanent dipole moment by virtue of incomplete cancellation of
electron spin and/or orbital magnetic moments. In the absence of an external magnetic field, the orientations of these
atomic magnetic moments are random, such that the paramagnetic substance possesses no net polarization. When the
substance is subjected to an external magnetic field, B each of the atomic dipole experience torque. Due to the
torque, the atomic dipole rotates and align themselves along the direction of B and the net magnetic is in the
substance in the presence of external magnetic filed B as shown Fig. 1. These magnetic dipoles are acted on
individually with no mutual interaction between adjacent dipoles.

B=0 B≠0

Fig. 1 Atomic dipole configuration with and without an external magnetic field for a paramagnetic material.
Langevin’s explained the features of paramagnetism purely on classical considerations and treated the paramagnetic
solid as paramagnetic gas in which each particle (atom) is assumed to have permanent magnetic moment, µm. Let us
consider a dipolar system which is placed in a uniform magnetic filed as shown in Fig. 2. The force, F exerted by the
filed on the positive and negative charges of the dipole is equal and acts in opposite directions. Thus, a torque exerted
by the filed on the dipole having a dipole moment µm is given by
F
S
𝜏 = 𝜇𝑚 × 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑚 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1) B
θ
Where θ is the angle between the direction of the filed and the moment, and the
direction of the torque is such that it tends to return the dipole into the direction
of the field, i.e., to reduce θ. The potential energy of the dipole in the field is given by N
F
U = −𝜇𝑚 ∙ 𝐵 = −𝜇𝑚 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (2)
Fig. 2 The turning couple produced
on the dipole by the external field.
dU = −𝜇𝑚 𝐵 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= 𝜇𝑚 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑑𝜃 (3)

Let dN out of total N no of particles have their magnetic axis inclined at an angle θ with the B, then the no. of
particles in the energy range of U and U+dU in according to Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics is given by
𝑈
−
𝑑𝑁 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝑈 (4)
Using (2) and (3) in (4)

−𝜇𝑚 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
−
𝑑𝑁 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 𝜇𝑚 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑑𝜃
𝜇𝑚 𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 𝜇𝑚 𝐵 𝑒 𝑘𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑑𝜃
= 𝛽𝑒 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑑𝜃 (5)

Where 𝛽 = 𝜇𝑚 𝐵 (6)

𝜇𝑚 𝐵
𝛼= (7)
𝑘𝑇

Let N is the total no of particles having inclination between 0 to π then

𝜋
𝑁 = ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑁 (8)

Using (5) in (8) we have

𝜋
𝑁 = ‫׬‬0 𝛽𝑒 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑑𝜃 (9)

Let x = cosθ, dx = -sinθ dθ

When θ = 0, x = cos0 = 1
θ = π, x = cosπ = -1
From equation (9) we have

−1
𝑁 = 𝛽 ‫׬‬1 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 (−𝑑𝑥)

1
𝑁 = 𝛽 ‫׬‬−1 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝛽
𝑁 = 𝛼 𝑒 𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝛼

𝛼𝑁
𝛽 = 𝑒 𝛼 −𝑒 −𝛼 (10)

The component of 𝜇𝑚 along B is 𝜇𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 so the total dipole moment due to all the N particles per unit volume i.e.,
magnetization, M is given by
𝜋
𝑀 = ‫׬‬0 𝜇𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑁
𝜋
𝑀 = ‫׬‬0 𝜇𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝛽𝑒 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
𝑀 = 𝛽𝜇𝑚 ‫׬‬0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑒 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ 𝑑𝜃 (11)

Let cosθ = y, sinθ dθ = -dy

When θ = 0, y = cos0 = 1
θ = π, y = cosπ = -1
−1
𝑀 = 𝛽𝜇𝑚 ‫׬‬1 𝑒 𝛼𝑦 𝑦 (−𝑑𝑦)
1
𝑀 = 𝛽𝜇𝑚 ‫׬‬−1 𝑦 𝑒 𝛼𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 1

𝑀 = 𝛽𝜇𝑚 න 𝑦 𝑒 𝛼𝑦 𝑑𝑦
−1
1 1 𝑑(𝑦)
𝑑𝑢
𝑀= 𝛽𝜇𝑚 𝑦 ‫׬‬−1 𝑒 𝛼𝑦 𝑑𝑦 − ‫׬‬−1 𝑑𝑦 ‫𝑦𝛼 𝑒 ׬‬ 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 න 𝑢𝑣𝑑𝑡 = 𝑢 න 𝑣𝑑𝑡 − න න 𝑣𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
1 1 𝑒 𝛼𝑦
𝑀 = 𝛽𝜇𝑚 1 ∙ 𝑒 𝛼(1) − (−1)𝑒 𝛼(−1) − ‫׬‬−1 1 ∙ 𝑑𝑦
𝛼 𝛼
𝑒 𝛼 +𝑒 −𝛼 1 𝑒 𝛼𝑦
𝑀 = 𝛽𝜇𝑚 − ‫׬‬−1 𝛼 𝑑𝑦
𝛼

𝑒 𝛼 +𝑒 −𝛼 1
𝑀 = 𝛽𝜇𝑚 𝛼
− 𝛼2 𝑒 𝛼(1) − 𝑒 𝛼(−1)
𝑒 𝛼 +𝑒 −𝛼 𝑒 𝛼 −𝑒 −𝛼
𝑀 = 𝛽𝜇𝑚 − (12)
𝛼 𝛼2

Using equation (10) we have

𝛼𝑁𝜇𝑚 𝑒 𝛼 + 𝑒 −𝛼 𝑒 𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝛼
𝑀= 𝛼 −
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝛼 𝛼 𝛼2
𝑒 𝛼 + 𝑒 −𝛼 1
𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 −
𝑒 𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝛼 𝛼
1 𝑒 𝛼 +𝑒 −𝛼
𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝛼 − Where = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝛼
𝛼 𝑒 𝛼 −𝑒 −𝛼
𝑀 = 𝑀0 𝐿(𝛼) (13)
1
𝑀0 = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝛼 −
𝛼
Where 𝐿(𝛼) is known as Langevin function. Fig. 2 shows a plot of
𝐿(𝛼) as a function of 𝛼. The curve indicates that for large values of
𝛼 that is at very high filed strength or low temperatures, the
function 𝐿(𝛼) approaches saturation value at unity i.e. M = M0.
This corresponds to the maximum alignment of the dipoles along 𝐿(𝛼)
the direction of the field.
From equation (13) we have
1
𝑀 = 𝑀0 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝛼 − 𝛼
1 𝛼 𝛼3 1
𝑀 = 𝑀0 + − 45 +⋯ −
𝛼 3 𝛼 𝜇𝑚 𝐵
𝛼 𝛼3 𝛼=
𝑀= 𝑀0 3 − +⋯ 𝑘𝑇
45
Fig. 2 A plot of the Langevin function L(α) as a
For small values of α i.e., α<<1, we have
𝛼 function of α
𝑀 = 𝑀0 3 (14)
The paramagnetic susceptibility can be written as
𝑀
χ𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎 = 𝐻

𝑀0 𝛼
3 𝑀0 𝛼
= =
𝐻 3𝐻
 𝜇𝑚 𝐵
𝑀0 𝑘𝑇
χ𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎 =
3𝐻

𝑀0 𝜇𝑚 𝐵
χ𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎 = 3𝐻𝑘𝑇

𝑀0 𝜇𝑚 𝜇0 𝐻
χ𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎 = [B = µ0H]
3𝐻𝑘𝑇

𝑁𝜇𝑚 𝜇𝑚 𝜇0
χ𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎 = [𝑀0 = 𝑁𝜇𝑚 ]
3𝑘𝑇

2 𝜇
𝑁𝜇𝑚 0
χ𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎 = 3𝑘𝑇

𝐶
χ𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎 = 𝑇 (15)

𝑁𝜇𝑚2 𝜇
0
Where 𝐶 = is known as Curie constant.
3𝑘
Consequently Equation (15) is known as Curie law.
Example 1: A paramagnetic salt contains 1028 ions/m3 with the magnetic moment of one Bohr magneton. Calculate the
paramagnetic susceptibility and the magnetization produced in a uniform magnetic field of 106 A/m, at room temperature.

Solution:

Given, N = 1028 ions/m3 , µm = µB = 9.27×10-24 A/m2, H = 106 A/m, χ = ? M = ?

2 𝜇
𝑁𝜇𝑚 0
We know, χ= = 0.87×10-4
3𝑘𝑇

M = χH = 87 A/m

Example 2: Approximately how large must be the magnetic induction for the orientation energy to be comparable to the
thermal energy at room temperature? Assume µm = 5µB.
 Quantum Theory of Paramagnetism
❑ The Langevin’s classical theory of paramagnetism is incapable of providing a consistent explanation of the magnetic phenomena resulting from the
motion of electric charges. Classical theory assumed that the permanent magnetic dipole moment (µ) of an atom can posses any orientation with
respect to the magnetic field B. However, according to quantum theory, magnetic moments are quantized i.e., permanent magnetic dipole moment (µ)
of an atom possesses specific orientation with respect to the magnetic field B. To overcome various difficulties, let us discuss the essence of quantum
theory of paramagnetism based on the following basic facts:
1. For each unit of orbital angular momentum, an electron in an atom has one Bohr magneton (𝜇𝐵 = 𝑒ℎΤ4𝜋𝑚) of magnetic moment
associated with it. The magnetic moment is antiparallel to the angular momentum.
2. For each unit of spin angular momentum (ħ/2), there is also associated one half Bohr magneton (𝜇𝐵 /2) of magnetic moment to an
electron.
3. The total effective angular momentum of an electron is described as the vector sum of orbital and spin contributions, i.e. J = L+S,
where L and S are orbital and spin angular momentum.
4. The effective magnetic moment is given by gµBJ, where g is the Lande’s splitting factor or the spectroscopic splitting factor g is
given by
𝐽 𝐽+1 +𝑆 𝑆+1 −𝐿(𝐿+1)
𝑔 = 1+
2𝐽(𝐽+1)

5. For energy level splitting scheme (Fig. 1) for an electron with only spin angular momentum in a magnetic field , the energy
difference between the levels is given by
∆𝑈 = 𝑔𝜇𝐵 𝐵 S = +1/2
gµBB
S = -1/2
Fig. 1. Splitting of an energy level for an electron with spin 1/2
and zero orbital momentum in a magnetic field.

6. According to quantum mechanics, the magnitude of the total angular momentum vector is given by [J(J+1)]1/2 not by simply J.
Also there are 2J+1 ways in which the atomic dipoles may orient relative to magnetic field. The probability of such orientation is determined by the
Boltzmann factor exp(- ∆𝑈/kT).
The magnetic dipole moment (µ) of an atom is given by
µ = -gµBJ ………………..(1)
𝐽 𝐽+1 +𝑆 𝑆+1 −𝐿(𝐿+1)
Where 𝑔 = 1 + …….(2), is called Lande’s splitting factor.
2𝐽(𝐽+1)
µB (= 𝑒ħΤ2𝑚) is the Bohr magneton.
J = L+S
J is the total angular momentum
L is the orbital angular momentum B
S is the spin angular momentum A
C
The potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic field B is given by J
mJ = Jcosθ θ
𝑈 = −µ ∙ 𝐵 = -µB cosθ (3)

Using Eq. (1) in Eq. (3) we have O

𝑈 = - (-gµBJ)B cosθ
𝑈 = gµBB Jcosθ Fig. 2 Projection of angular momentum
𝑈 = mJgµBB (4) along the field.

Where mJ is known as magnetic quantum number and can have the following values

mJ= -J, -(J-1)…….0……(J-1), J i.e. 2J+1 values.

1
For 1s electron, L = 0, S = 2
1 1 1 1
J = L+S = 0+ 2 = , mJ= + 2, −2
2
From equation (2) we have, g = 2

1 1
For mJ = + 2, g = 2 and For mJ = − 2, g = 2, we have from equation (4)
𝑈 = mJgµBB = µBB and 𝑈 = -µBB
1
Let N be the number of atoms per unit volume of paramagnetic substance. 𝑈 = µBB, mJ = + 2
N2
N1 = Number of atoms in the lower state
B=0 Higher state
N2 = Number of atoms in the lower state
N = N1+N2 (5)
Lower state
According to Maxwell-Boltzmann law N1 1
𝑈 = -µBB, mJ = − 2
−𝑈
𝑁1 ∝ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 B≠0
−(−𝜇𝐵 𝐵)
𝑁1 ∝ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 Fig. 3 Energy level splitting for one electron in magnetic
𝜇𝐵 𝐵
𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (6) field B.
where 𝑁0 is the proportionality constant.

Similarly for higher energy state

−𝜇𝐵 𝐵
𝑁2 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (7)
 𝜇𝐵 𝐵 1.00
Let x = (8)
𝑘𝑇
Lower state
Using equation (8) in (6) and (7) we have
0.75

Fractional population
𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝑥 (9)
𝑁2 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑥 (10)

Using equation (9) and (10) in (5) we have 0.50

N = 𝑁0 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) (11)

Fractional population in lower state 0.25

Higher state
𝑁1 𝑁0 𝑒 𝑥
=
𝑁 𝑁0 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) 0
𝑁1 𝑒𝑥
= (12)
𝑁 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
𝜇𝐵 𝐵
Similarly fractional population in higher state 𝑥=
𝑘𝑇
𝑁2 𝑒 −𝑥
Fig. 4 Fractional population of a two-level system in thermal
= (13) equilibrium at temperature T in a magnetic field B
𝑁 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )

The projection of the magnetic moment of the upper state along the field direction is -µ and of the lower state is µ. The resultant
magnetization for N atoms per unit volume is

M = µ (N1-N2)
 𝑒𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
M = Nµ −
𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥

𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
M = Nµ 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥

M = Nµ tanh 𝑥 (14)

For x << 1, tanh 𝑥 ≈ x and we have

𝜇𝐵 𝐵
𝑀 = 𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝑘𝑇

2 2
𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝐵 𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝜇0 𝐻
𝑀 = = [ B = µ0H ]
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇

The paramagnetic susceptibility can be written as

2 2
𝑀 𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝜇0 𝐻 𝑁𝜇𝐵 𝜇0 1
χ= = = [χ ∝ ] (15)
𝐻 𝐻𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇 𝑇

Which is in agreement with the classical result. However, for J > 1/2 an atom with an angular momentum quantum number J
has (2J+1) equally spaced energy levels. The magnetization is then given by

M = Nµ 𝐵𝐽 (𝑥) (16)
Where the Brillouin function 𝐵𝐽 is defined as
2𝐽+1 2𝐽+1 𝑥 1 𝑥
𝐵𝐽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ − 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ
2𝐽 2𝐽 2𝐽 2𝑗

𝜇𝐵 𝐵
For x ( = ) << 1
𝑘𝑇
1 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥3
cothx ≈ + (17) [𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑥 = + − + ⋯………….]
𝑥 3 𝑥 3 45

Using equation (17) we have

2𝐽+1 2𝐽 2𝐽+1 𝑥 1 2𝐽 𝑥
𝐵𝐽 = + − 2𝐽 + 6𝐽
2𝐽 2𝐽+1 𝑥 6𝐽 𝑥

1 2𝐽+1 2 𝑥 1 𝑥
𝐵𝐽 = 𝑥
+ 12𝐽2
− 𝑥
+ 12𝐽2

2𝐽+1 2 𝑥 𝑥
𝐵𝐽 = − 12𝐽2
12𝐽2

4𝐽2 +4𝐽+1 𝑥 𝑥
𝐵𝐽 = −
12𝐽2 12𝐽2

4𝐽2 𝑥 4𝐽𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝐵𝐽 = + 12𝐽2 + 12𝐽2 − 12𝐽2
12𝐽2

𝑥 𝐽+1
𝐵𝐽 = 3 (18)
𝐽
Using equation (18) in (16), we get

Nµ (J+1)x
M= 3𝐽
Nµ (J+1)𝜇𝐵 𝐵 𝜇𝐵 𝐵
M= [x = ]
3𝐽𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
N 𝜇2 (J+1) 𝐵
M= [µB ≈ µ]
3𝐽𝑘𝑇

N 2 2
𝑔2 𝜇𝐵 𝐽 (J+1) 𝐵
M= [µ = -gµBJ , 𝝁 = µ = gµB J]
3𝐽𝑘𝑇

N𝜇𝐵2 B 𝑔2 𝐽 J+1
M=
3𝑘𝑇

N𝜇𝐵2 𝜇0𝐻 2
𝜇𝑒𝑓𝑓
M= 3𝑘𝑇
Here µeff is the effective number of Bohr magneton, defined as

2
𝜇𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑔2 𝐽 J+1

Therefore the susceptibility is given by

𝑀 N𝜇𝐵2 𝜇0 𝜇𝑒𝑓𝑓
2
𝐶
χ= 𝐻= =
3𝑘𝑇 𝑇

N𝜇𝐵2 𝜇0 2
𝜇𝑒𝑓𝑓
Where C = is known as Curie constant.
3𝑘