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8th Grade Science Lessons 1-20
8th Grade Science Lessons 1-20
8th Grade Science Lessons 1-20
Lesson 1
Review of Earth Science/Earth System Science
Student Assignment:
Lesson Wrap-Up:
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
Geology physical
historical Physical
Historical
Oceanography
Meteorology
Astronomy -
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
Earth’s Layers
hydrosphere atmosphere
geosphere
biosphere
Hydrosphere -
Atmosphere - atmosphere
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
Geosphere -
Crust
Mantle
Outer Core
crust
lithosphere
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
Biosphere
Plate Tectonics
two
Destructive forces
Constructive forces
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
Earth System
system
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
Earth as a System
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
Resources
Renewable resources
nonrenewable resources
Population
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
Environmental Problems
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
Lesson 1
Review of Earth Science/Earth System Science
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions:
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
7.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
Part 2: Vocabulary
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 1
__________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
Lesson 2
Review of Earth Science: Scientific Inquiry/Maps
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will be reviewing Earth Science from 7th
Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the vocabulary words
in your Science Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
Everything in science is based on two assumptions. The first assumption is that the natural
world behaves in a consistent and predictable manner. The second assumption is that
through careful, systematic study, we can understand and explain the natural world’s
behavior. We can use this knowledge to predict what should or should not be expected. By
knowing how oil deposits form, geologists can predict where oil will be found. All scientists
approach the study of the natural world with certain habits of mind. Curiosity, honesty and
openness to new ideas are important characteristics of a scientist. Skepticism is also an
important quality. Skepticism is a willingness to question an idea unless that idea is
supported with firm evidence. Scientists use a range of skills and methods, including
methods to ensure safety in the laboratory.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
How do we apply scientific theory to our world as we know it? Let’s take a “look” at our
world and the different views which have grown into fact through careful exploration and
scientific explanation.
A globe can also represent the Earth. A globe is a sphere that shows the relative sizes and
shapes of Earth’s land features and waters. Maps and globes provide different types of
information about the Earth’s surface.
Land Features on Maps
Relief maps show what the landscape of an area actually looks like. A relief map shows
how high or low each feature is on Earth. Relief maps show three main types of land
features – mountains, plains, and plateaus.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
Mountains are higher than the land around them. It is called a mountain range when there
is a group of mountains together. Several mountain ranges connected in a long chain is
called a mountain belt. Mountain belts can span several countries.
Plateaus stand high above sea level, but unlike mountains, have fairly level surfaces.
They are often found near mountain ranges.
Plains are flat or rolling geological features and in the United States, there are generally
two types of plains. There are coastal plains, which are near the eastern and southern
shores, and interior plains, which are found in the center of the country. The Great Plains
cover a third of the country.
Map Symbols and Scale
Usually, when someone is using a map, it is a road or city map. These maps provide
information about human-made features and may include some natural features. In order
to use these maps, you need to know how to use the map legend and how to read a map
scale.
The map scale
shows the
relationship
between distances
on a map and the
actual distances on
the Earth’s surface.
Depending on the
size of the area
shown on the map,
the scale may be in
miles (kilometers)
or yards (meters).
To find more detail,
you need to find a
map that covers a
smaller area.
Map scales can be expressed in several ways: a ratio, a bar, or equivalent units of
distance. A ratio of 1:25,000 means that 1 centimeter on the map represents 25,000
centimeters, or .25 kilometer, on Earth. A bar scale gives you a picture that shows how
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
much space on the map represents each unit of measure. Equivalent-units scales tell you
how many inches/centimeters on the map equal a mile or kilometer.
The map legend, or key, is the chart that explains the meaning of the symbols found on
the map. There may be symbols for highways, parks, trails, or other points of interest.
Most maps also include a compass to show which directions on the map are north, south,
east, and west. Generally, north points up on a map.
Latitude and Longitude
To help locate things on the Earth’s surface, people use latitude and longitude. Latitude
and longitude lines form an imaginary grid over the surface of the Earth. This grid makes
it possible for everyone to use the same system to locate objects and places on the planet.
Latitude is based on an imaginary line that circles the Earth halfway between the north
and south poles. This imaginary line is called the equator. The equator divides the Earth
into the northern and southern hemispheres. A hemisphere is one half of a sphere.
Latitude is measured in the degrees north or south of the equator. The equator is 0 . A
degree is 1/360 of the distance around a full circle.
Latitude lines are all parallel to the equator and are evenly spaced between the equator
and the poles. Latitude lines are always labeled north or south, depending on their
location in relation to the equator; this shows whether the location is in the northern or
southern hemisphere. The North Pole is 90 N, and the South Pole is 90 S.
Longitude is the distances east or west, in degrees, of the prime meridian. The prime
meridian, like the equator, is 0 . Longitude lines are labeled 0 to 180 west and 0 to
180 east. If you understand longitude and latitude, you can find any spot on the Earth. is
based on an imaginary line that goes from the North Pole to the South Pole.
This line is called the Prime Meridian and goes through Greenwich, England. The prime
meridian divides the Earth into the Western and Eastern hemispheres.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
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A planar projection is based on a circle. Imagine that a circle of paper was laid on a part
of the Earth’s surface and a map was made based on this. As you move away from the
center point, the landmasses on the map become distorted.
Each type of projection is an attempt to solve the problem of representing a sphere on a
flat surface. Each type of map can show certain areas of the world correctly, but distorts
other areas.
Topographic Maps
Have you ever hiked on a nature trail or in the mountains? Imagine that you are getting
ready to take a hike through the state park and want to be prepared for anything that you
might encounter. How will you know if you need to climb hills or cross streams? You will
need to know about the topography of the land to answer these questions.
Topography is the shape, or features, of the land. Topographic features can be natural
features, such as mountains, rivers, or plateaus, or human-made, such as roads, bridges,
and dams. To display these features you need a topographic map. A topographic map is
a flat map that uses lines to show the Earth’s surface features. These maps show
distance, as well as, elevation. These numbers may be given in feet or meters.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
Look at the map above, notice the wiggly lines? These lines are called contour lines and
these lines show the elevation, slope, and relief of an area. The elevation of a place is
how high above sea level it is. The numbers on the contour lines show the elevations of
different points.
The slope of an area is how steep it is. The distance between the contour lines will tell
you how steep an area is; the farther apart the lines, the more gradual the slope. A steep
area has contour lines that are closer together.
Relief is the difference between the highest point and lowest point of an area. If you find
the elevation of the highest point of an area and then subtract the lowest elevation, you
have just measured the relief of the area.
Contour Lines
The contour lines on a map help you to visualize what the area actually looks like. There
are several facts about contour lines that can serve as rules to help you read a
topographic map.
Contour lines never cross. Contour lines never cross because each line
represents a different elevation.
Circles show highest and lowest points. Contour lines form closed circles around
mountaintops, hilltops, and the centers of depressions in the land (sunken areas in
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
the ground). Often, the elevation of a mountain or hill is written in feet or meters in
the center of the circle.
Contour interval is always the same on a map. The contour interval is the
difference in elevation from one contour line to the next. For example, if the contour
interval on a map was 25 feet, then the difference in elevation from one circle to the
next is 25 feet. Contour intervals can differ from one map to the next, but the
interval always remains the same on each individual map.
Index contour lines mark elevations. On a topographic map, you will notice that
there are contour lines that are darker than the others. These darker lines are called
index contour lines and often have numbers written on the line. These numbers tell
you the elevation of the land at that contour line. These lines help you to calculate
the elevation of any contour line on the map. To do this, count the number of lines
above or below the index line and multiply by the contour index. For example, if you
want to find the elevation of the top of a hill on a map with a contour index of 25
feet, you would count the number of lines between the index line and the top of the
hill. (Let’s say this is 5 lines for this example.) To find the elevation of the top of the
hill, you need to multiply the number of lines (5) by the contour index (25) and then
add to the number on the index line (for this example, use 100). So the elevation of
our hill is: 5 (lines) x 25 feet (contour interval) = 125 feet + 100 feet (the index line
from this example). Our hill’s elevation is 225 feet.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
Topographic maps
also contain many
different symbols
for natural and
human-made
features. The
United States
Geological Survey
(USGS) has
created a list of
symbols to make
reading these
maps easier. On
the left side of the
page you will see
several common
symbols.
Note: Not all
symbols needed:
Only symbols for
railroad, small tree,
grass or meadow,
marsh, trail, and
paved road.
The USGS makes
topographic maps
for almost every
part of the United
States. These
maps are used by
engineers,
archaeologists,
forest rangers, and
biologists rely on
topographic maps.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
U.S. Geological
Survey satellite
image of the
Pentagon, taken
April 26, 2002.
The
reconstruction
of the section
damaged in the
September 11
terrorist attacks
is visible on the
building's west
(left) side; the
diagonal line is
a construction
crane.
Courtesy of the
U.S. Geological
Survey.
17:40, 13 June
2005
Today, it is much easier to make maps. Remote sensing is used to help make maps much
more detailed and accurate. Mapmakers can use satellite images and pictures taken from
airplanes to create detailed maps of the Earth’s surface.
Satellites use sensors to help build images of the Earth. A sensor is a mechanical or
electrical device that receives and responds to a signal, such as light. These sensors are
able to detect much more than the eye can see. They collect information about the
different types of energy coming from the Earth’s surface and then send that information to
computers on Earth.
The computers then turn that information into images. Satellites can help create images of
entire planets, single continents, states, or even a single landmark. If you look at the
image above, you will see how satellites can help create images of a single object on the
Earth’s surface.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
To study changes in the Earth’s surface, scientists use false-color images. False-color
images are images that assign different colors to different features.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
Lesson 2
Review of Earth Science: Scientific Inquiry/Maps
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
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2. Explain how latitude and longitude can help you locate any place on Earth.
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3. Why do all flat maps distort the Earth’s surface?
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4. Imagine that your family is on a long car trip. What symbols on a road map would you
pay the most attention to? Explain.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
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7. How would you show the top of a hill, an area of vegetation, or a hiking trail on a
topographic map?
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8. For an area with gently sloping hills and little relief, would you draw contour lines close
together or far apart? Explain why.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
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9. How would a road map and a topographic map of the same area differ? What
information would each provide?
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10. How are satellites used to make images of Earth from outer space?
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11. What are some of the types of information collected by remote sensing?
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13. Explain how satellite images might be used to predict what a natural area might look
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
________________________________________________________________________
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14. If you wanted to compare a region before and during a flood, how could false-color
images help you?
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B. a mechanical or electronic device that receives and responds to a signal, such as light.
C. a computer image in which colors are not the same that the human eye would see and
where different colors are assigned to different types of radiation coming from an
object.
D. Computer systems that can store, arrange, and display geographic data in different
types of maps.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
Part 3: Vocabulary
Complete each statement with the correct vocabulary word provided below.
Map scale Slope Latitude Contour line Prime Meridian Equator
Skepticism Elevation Contour interval Theory Projection Relief
Hypothesis Longitude Topography Map legend
19. _____________ is an imaginary east-west line around the center of Earth that divides
the planet into the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere; a line set at
0 latitude.
20. The comparison of distance on a map with actual distance on what the map
represents, such as Earth’s surface is known as ______ _________. (This may be
expressed as a ratio, a bar scale, or equivalent units.)
21. The angular distance north or south in degrees from the equator is ______________.
26. An imaginary north-south line that divides the planet into the Eastern Hemisphere and
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 2
________________________________.
28. On a topographic map, the difference in elevation from one contour line to the next is
called a __________________________ ___________________________.
32. All natural and human-made surface features of a particular area is called
_____________________________.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 3
Lesson 3
Earth Science/Earth Science System Test:
Student Assignment:
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 3
Lesson 3
Earth Science/Earth Science System Test:
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions:
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 3
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 3
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 3
Part 2: Vocabulary
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 3
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
Lesson 4:
Review: Minerals
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will review what you have learned about
Minerals in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the
vocabulary words you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in your Science
Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
Many people think that rocks and minerals are the same thing. Minerals must have all four
of the characteristics listed above; rocks only have two of these characteristics: they are
solid and they form in nature.
Rocks are usually made up of two or more types of different minerals.
If you look at the diagram above, you can see that granite, a rock, is made up of several
different minerals. Two different samples of the same rock may have very different
amounts of the different minerals that they contain. However, minerals are always made
up of the same materials in the same proportions.
Formed in Nature
All minerals are formed by natural processes. Each mineral can form in nature without
involving living organisms.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
Minerals form in many different ways. Halite, also known as table salt, forms when water
evaporates in a hot, shallow part of the ocean. The water disappears, leaving the salt
behind. Many types of minerals form when molten rock cools. Minerals also form deep in
the Earth as high pressures and temperatures cause changes in solid rock.
Solid
All minerals are solids. All solids have a definite volume and a rigid shape. Volume is the
amount of space that an object takes up; the larger an object, the larger its volume.
According to this definition, a substance that is a liquid or a gas is not a mineral. However,
many liquids and gases have solid forms that are minerals. Water can exist as a liquid
(water), gas (vapor/steam), and a solid (ice). Ice is a mineral.
Definite Chemical Makeup
Some minerals, such as copper, consist of just one element. All of the atoms in copper
are the same type.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
Chlorine
Sodium
Crystal Structure
When people think of crystals, they often think of clear, sparkling gems. These gems
sparkle because they have smooth flat surfaces that reflect the light. However, not all
crystals sparkle. The definition of a crystal is a solid in which the atoms are arranged in an
orderly, repeating, three-dimensional pattern.
Each mineral has its own type of crystal structure. It is possible for two different minerals
to have the same chemical composition, yet have different crystal structures. If you look at
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
your pencil, you will see graphite; this graphite has the same chemical composition as a
diamond. What makes them different? Both are made of carbon, but they have very
different crystal structures which give them different and unique properties. Diamonds are
very hard and sparkle. Graphite is soft, gray, and dull.
Finding a perfect crystal in nature is rare. A perfect crystal can only grow when a mineral
has the space to grow without any interruptions. Most crystals have imperfect shapes
because their growth was limited by the formation of other crystals near them; each
structure has a different shape.
Mineral Groups
Minerals are classified into groups based on their chemical makeup. The most common
chemical group is called silicates. All of the minerals in this group contain oxygen and
silicon joined together. Oxygen and silicon are the two most common elements in the
Earth’s crust.
It is possible to find thousands of different kinds of minerals on the Earth, but only about
30 of them are common in the Earth’s crust. These 30 different minerals make up most of
the rocks in the crust. Because of this, they are often called rock-forming minerals.
Silicates make up about 90 percent of the rocks on the Earth’s crust. Quartz, feldspar,
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
and mica are common silicates. In fact, most rocks that you will find around your house
are probably granite, which is made up of these three silicates.
Carbonates are the second most common group or rock-forming minerals. All of the
minerals in this group contain carbon and oxygen joined together. Calcite is a common
carbonate mineral. Calcite is commonly found in seashells, stalactites, and stalagmites.
There are many other mineral groups. While they may not be as common as the silicates
and carbonates, each group is important. Most metals come from the group known as
oxides. Oxides consist of an element, usually a metal, joined to oxygen. Hematite, a
source of iron, is a member of this group.
Minerals Are Identified by Their Properties
To identify minerals, you need to observe their properties. You can begin by looking at the
minerals color, but many minerals occur in more than one color. There are many other
properties that you can observe to determine what a mineral is.
Color and Streak - Some minerals are always the same color, but some minerals can be
almost any color. Usually, a mineral has a small range of colors that it can be. For
example, certain minerals will almost always be black or brown. There are three main
factors that cause minerals to appear as different colors.
First, a mineral may get its color from tiny amounts of an element that is not a part of the
mineral’s normal chemical makeup. Quartz is a good example of this; pure quartz is clear,
but there are many other colors present in nature. A small amount of iron in a sample of
quartz can give the mineral a violet color.
Second, a mineral’s color can change depending on what it is coming in contact with. If
the mineral is near the Earth’s surface and is in contact with the atmosphere or water, it
may change in color.
Third, a mineral can have defects in its crystal structure that will cause it to change color.
Some minerals have a different color when they are ground into a fine powder. A mineral’s
streak is the color of the powder that is left behind when a mineral is scraped across a
surface. Geologists use a tool called a streak plate to determine the color of a minerals
streak. A streak plate is a tile of unglazed porcelain. A mineral’s streak is a better indicator
of color than the surface appearance of the mineral. All samples of the same mineral have
the same color streak – even if the mineral samples appear to be a different color.
Luster - A mineral’s luster is the way in which light reflects from its surface. The two main
types of luster are metallic and nonmetallic. Metallic luster makes the mineral appear to
be made of metal. Nonmetallic luster can also appear shiny, but do not appear to be
made of metal. An example of a shiny luster that is nonmetallic would be a diamond.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
Luster can also change from one sample of a mineral to the next. Often exposure to the
atmosphere or water can change the luster of a mineral. When this happens, it is
necessary to break the mineral to use a fresh surface to identify the luster.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
determined by its crystal structure and the bonds between its atoms. Harder minerals have
stronger bonds. Scientists use a scale, known as the Mohs scale, to describe a mineral’s
hardness. This scale is based on the idea that a harder mineral will scratch a softer
mineral. The scale goes from 1 to 10; 1 being the softest, 10 being the hardest.
Below you will see the Mohs scale:
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
Mineral Product
Millions of people wear gemstones everyday. These gemstones are various minerals,
such as ruby, emerald, and diamond. The ancient Egyptians used gems in jewelry over
4,000 years ago. These gemstones undergo many changes from the time that they are
found and the time that they are worn as beautiful jewelry.
When gemstones are found, they are usually rough and irregularly shaped. To turn this
stone into jewelry, a jeweler uses a gem cutter to grind the gem into the desired shape.
The jeweler then polishes the gem to increase the beauty and sparkle of the gem. The
gem is then ready to be made into jewelry.
To polish these gemstones, the jeweler must use a material that is at least as hard as the
gem itself. The gem is then usually placed in other minerals – gold and silver – to make
jewelry. Copper is usually combined with the gold and silver to make them stronger.
Mineral Formation
Before they can be found and turned into jewelry, gemstones, as well as other minerals,
form within the Earth or on the Earth’s surface through natural processes. Minerals are
formed when atoms of one or more elements joint together and crystals begin to form.
Each mineral has its own unique chemical makeup, so the minerals that form in an area
depend on the elements present. Temperature and pressure also influence the type of
minerals that can form.
Water Evaporation
Because water usually has many different substances dissolved in it, when water
evaporates, minerals can form. When salt water evaporates, the atoms that make up
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
halite join to form crystals. Gypsum can also form as water evaporates. The minerals that
form depend on the substances present in the water.
Cooling Water
Hot water moves through the Earth’s crust. As this water moves through rocks, it
dissolves minerals. As the water cools, the dissolved minerals become solid again and
separate from the water. Many minerals are moved from one place to another in this
process. Sometimes when the water cools, the dissolved substances form minerals
different from the original dissolved minerals.
Cooling Molten Rock
Magma is the molten rock found inside the Earth. Many different minerals grow from
magma. Magma has all of the types of atoms that are found in minerals – as the magma
cools, the atoms join together to form different minerals. Minerals also form as lava cools.
Lava is molten rock that has reached the Earth’s surface.
Heat and Pressure
Heat and pressure within the Earth cause new minerals to form. As the heat and pressure
change, he bonds between atoms break and join again. These new atomic bonds create
minerals.
Organisms
Some minerals are produced by living things. Ocean animals, such as oysters and clams,
form calcite to make their shells. Even you produce minerals! Your own body produces
apatite – one of the main minerals in teeth and bones.
Mining Minerals
Many of the minerals that modern society uses to create things must first be removed from
the ground. Some of these minerals are found close to the Earth’s surface, others are
buried deep underground.
Most minerals are combined with other minerals in rocks. To make mining the mineral
profitable, there must be large quantities of it present in the rock. Rocks that contain
enough of a mineral to be profitable for mining are called ores.
Some minerals are mined through surface mining. Surface mining can involve digging up
quantities of minerals that are close to the surface, or even scraping the bottom of bodies
of water where minerals collect.
Strip mining is a process in which miners strip away all of the plants, soil, and unwanted
rocks from the Earth’s surface. Special machines are then used to dig out the ore. Open
pit mining is similar to strip mining, but requires digging a deep pit in an area where ores
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 4 (DR)
are present. Roads are built to the top of the pit and machinery is used to dig out the ore
so that trucks can carry it to the top of the pit.
(The Homestake Mine in Lead, South Dakota / 17 May 2005, 15:18:10 / originally posted to Flickr as Gold mine in Lead, SD / Rachel Harris)
Wikimedia Commons
When an ore is found deep below the Earth’s surface, deep mining is necessary. To
reach these ores, miners dig an opening to reach the minerals. Often miners dig into the
sides of mountains to reach ores. These passages become similar to tunnels that are
blasted in the rock. The miners remove the ore that they are looking for and then blast
and dig to make the tunnel longer. These tunnels, or mines, can be long horizontal
passages in the side of a mountain or deep vertical passages under the ground.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder - discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text
that you need assistance with.
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Lesson 4:
Review: Minerals
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the most common group of minerals? What is the percentage of the crust
that they make up?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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5. When a piece of quartz is heated to a very high temperature, it melts into a liquid. Is it
still a mineral? Why or why not?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Describe what would happen if you rubbed a mineral with a Mohs hardness value of 7
against a mineral with a value of 5.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. Which mineral identification tests would be easy for a person to perform at home?
Which would be difficult?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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10. Diamond and graphite contain only carbon atoms. How can you tell which minerals’
atoms are bonded more closely?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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Part 2: Definitions
Provide the definition for each word listed below in one or two sentences.
11. Crystal- _____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. Cleavage-____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 5
Lesson 5
Review of Rocks: The Rock Cycle
Igneous/Sedimentary/Metamorphic
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will review what you have learned about
Rocks and Rock Cycle from 7th grade science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes
and record the vocabulary words that you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand
in your Science Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
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Like minerals, rocks are important to modern society. Because they are so abundant,
people use them for a wide variety of purposes. We build houses out of rocks, we pave
our roads with rocks, we carve art out of rocks, and we use rocks as sources of metals.
Rocks are valued because they last a long time and many are beautiful. The Great Wall of
China is built partially out of blocks of granite. The Great Pyramid in Egypt is made up of
Limestone blocks. The faces of the presidents at Mt. Rushmore are carved in the granite
of the mountain. Rocks can last for thousands of years and the structures that are left
behind tell us the stories of the past. Rocks can also tell us how an area has changed
over time. Examining the rocks of North America tells us that the continent was once
covered in ice. Maps that show the types of rock and its location are called geologic maps.
Rocks Change
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Igneous rock forms when molten rock cools and becomes solid. Igneous rock can form
inside the Earth or on the Earth’s surface. Igneous rocks that form deep within the Earth
can reach the surface over time. They can be pushed to the surface when mountains are
pushed up or the rock above them can slowly wear away, exposing the igneous rock
beneath.
Sedimentary rock forms when pieces of older rocks, plants, and other loose material get
pressed or cemented together. Running water carries materials that then settle out of the
water, forming a layer of sediment. Over time, new layers of sediment are laid down on
top of this and eventually the weight presses the material together to form rocks.
Sedimentary rocks can also be formed when water evaporates and leaves behind the
minerals that were dissolved in it.
Metamorphic rock forms when heat or pressure cause older rocks to change into new
types of rock. When a rock gets buried below the crust, where pressure and temperature
are greater, the new conditions cause the structure of the rock to change. This change
allows new minerals to grow in place of the old ones and creates a new type of rock.
Much like igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks can be pushed to the surface over time.
Rocks in the Crust of the Earth Sedimentary 5%
All three types of rocks are found in the Earth’s crust,
but they are not evenly distributed. Igneous and metamorphic
rocks make up 95% of the Earth’s crust. Sedimentary rock only
makes up 5% of the crust as shown in the diagram to the right
of the ENTIRE CRUST.
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Near Earth’s
Surface:
Molten rock
that cools near
or at the
Igneous Earth’s surface
rocks hardens
quickly. The
igneous rocks
have small
Deep inside mineral
the Earth: crystals
Molten rock
that cools
inside the
Earth hardens
slowly,
forming rocks
that have
large mineral
crystals.
Igneous Rocks
We know that igneous rocks form from molten rock, but where does the molten rock come
from? As you go deeper into the Earth, the temperature increases. The farther down you
go, the hotter it gets. Deep in the Earth, temperatures are hot enough to melt rock. This
molten rock is known as magma. Lava is the name for molten rock that reaches the
Earth’s surface.
Igneous rocks are classified by their mineral composition and the size of their mineral
crystals. Rocks formed in magma can have the same composition as rocks form in lava,
but the two will have a different name. How is this possible? The crystal size of the rocks
formed in the magma will be different than the size of the crystals formed in the lava. You
will learn more about this later.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 5
Origins
Igneous rocks are classified based on where they formed. There are two different kinds of
igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous rock is one that forms when
magma cools within the Earth. Extrusive igneous rock is one that forms when lava cools
on the Earth’s surface.
Granite is the most common intrusive rock that is found in continents. If the same magma
reaches the surface, it will form extrusive rocks such as rhyolite and pumice. An extrusive
rock that forms much of the ocean floor is Basalt; this same magma that produces the lava
that makes Basalt creates Gabbro within the Earth.
Extrusive igneous rocks are easy to see on the Earth’s surface; but you can also find
intrusive igneous rocks on the surface of the Earth, how does this happen? Water and
wind can break away the surface rocks and expose intrusive igneous rocks. They may
also be pushed to the surface during events like earthquakes or the formation of
mountains.
Texture - The texture of an igneous rock depends on the crystal size of the rock. The
crystal size depends on the amount of time that it took the molten rock to cool. Intrusive
igneous rocks form within the Earth. These rocks form large crystals because the interior
of the Earth is very hot and the high temperatures allow magma to cool slowly. This slow
cooling process allows large mineral crystals to form.
Extrusive igneous rocks are formed when lava reaches the surface of the Earth. The
mineral crystals in extrusive igneous rocks are small because the surface of the Earth is
cooler than the interior and the lower temperatures cause the lava to cool quickly. This
process does not allow time for large crystals to form.
Some igneous rocks have crystals of varying sizes. These rocks began to form below the
surface of the earth and then where pushed to the surface as the lava erupted. Before the
lava erupted, the rock began to form with large crystals, after the lava erupted, the rest of
the crystals that formed were small.
Composition - While texture is important, it is not enough to classify igneous rocks. There
are many substances that have similar textures but are very different. Baby powder and
powdered sugar are similar in texture, but are very different. Igneous rocks can also
appear the same, but have different compositions.
Most igneous rocks are mainly made of silicate materials. This is because, as you read in
a previous Lesson, silicates are the most common minerals in the Earth’s crust. Because
of this, scientists classify igneous rocks based on texture and the amount of silica present
in the rock and they use special equipment to determine silica content, but you can
estimate the level of silica in an igneous rock by looking at the color. Igneous rocks with
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 5
high levels of silica are usually light in color, like granite and rhyolite; igneous rocks low in
silica, like gabbro and basalt, are dark in color.
Igneous Rocks are Long-Lasting
Igneous rocks can be harder and more long-lasting than other types of rocks. Intrusive
igneous rock formations form underground and are then pushed to the surface or are
exposed when other surface rocks are worn away by water or the atmosphere.
Extrusive rock formations are created on the surface of the Earth. Lava can reach the
surface of the earth either by flowing up through a crack in the Earth’s surface or by
erupting from a volcano. Depending on how much silica is in the lava, it will react in
different ways.
Lava that is low in silica spreads easily and spreads out over a great area. This can cause
large plateaus or plains of igneous rock. If the lava erupts from a single point, it may form
large volcanoes with sloping sides. This is how the Hawaiian Islands formed. The islands
are a chain of volcanoes that began erupting at the seafloor. As the volcano erupted, it
built up and eventually grew tall enough to form an island.
Lava that is high in silica does not flow well. This type of lava builds cone shaped
volcanoes with steep sides. Because this type of lava is thick and sticky, it may build in
pressure until it explodes violently.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sediments are materials that settle out of water and air. Pieces of plant and animal
remains, loose pieces of rocks, and minerals can make up sediments. Sedimentary rocks
develop from the layers of sediments that build up on land or underwater.
As water and air flow over a surface, they wear away the rock and carry pieces with it.
Strong winds can carry sand and rocks. Rivers, streams, lakes, and even oceans also
help move sediment. Layers are formed as these sediments settle; large particles first,
followed by smaller ones.
As these layers build up, the lower layers are pressed together by the pressure from the
layers of sediment above. Some particles of sediment, like silt and clay, may be formed
into rock by pressure alone. Other sedimentary rock particles are held together by
minerals that have crystallized between them. These minerals act as a cement to hold the
rocks together. Both processes transform sediment into rocks over long time periods.
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world running. Coal is an unusual sedimentary rock because it is formed from the remains
of plants instead of earlier rocks.
The coal that we use today was formed millions of years ago in swamps. As plants died,
the remains fell on top of the remains of earlier plants. Over time, these layers built up
and put pressure on the layers below. The weight of the layers of sediment pressed the
plant remains together to form coal.
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Sand can also form ripples as water or wind moves over it. These markings are often
preserved in rock as the sediments form rock layers and tell geologists about the strength
and direction of the ancient winds.
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minerals in the place of the original ones. Shale is a sedimentary rock that is formed from
silt and clay, during recrystallization, garnet can form from these minerals.
The types of metamorphic change that occur depend on the types of parent rocks and the
conditions present. Different rocks, different temperatures, and different pressures will all
cause different results. When high pressure and high temperatures are present,
metamorphic changes can occur over large areas. When only one is present, the changes
occur over smaller areas.
Change Over Small Areas
Metamorphic changes occur in small areas when only high temperatures are present or
only high pressure is present. When magma comes into contact with surrounding rock,
some of this rock is exposed to the high temperature, but does not melt. These rocks
experience metamorphic change as the high temperature causes recrystallization.
Rocks can also be changed by being exposed to only high pressure. When rocks at or
near the Earth’s surface are squeezed together, they experience high pressure and this
pressure causes metamorphic changes.
Change Over Large Areas
Most metamorphic changes happen in areas where high temperatures and high pressure
are present. An example of this would be rocks deep under the Earth’s surface that are
being pushed together. These rocks are buried, pressed together, bent, and heated – this
causes metamorphic changes as the rock is pushed upward to form mountains.
The deeper the rock, the greater the metamorphic change that they will undergo. As you
travel deeper below the Earth’s surface, temperatures become higher. When these higher
temperatures combine with higher pressures, greater metamorphic changes occur.
Bands of Minerals
Foliation is an arrangement of minerals in flat or wavy parallel bands. Slate is a rock that
displays foliation. The arrangement of the minerals allows the rock to be split into thing
sheets along the boundaries between its flat bands of minerals.
The word foliation comes from the Latin word folium. The word foliage, also comes from
this Latin word meaning “leaf”. Foliated rocks either split into leaf-like sheets or have
bands of minerals that are lined up and easy to see, much like the veins in a leaf.
Foliated Rocks - Foliation occurs when rocks are under great pressure. Foliation occurs
when minerals flatten out or line up in bands. These bands are very thin at low levels of
metamorphism. With higher pressure and temperature, the mineral mica can begin to
grow and give the rock a shiny look like in phyllite and schist.. At even higher levels, the
minerals in the rock can form light and dark bands like in gneiss.
Nonfoliated Rocks - Metamorphic rocks that do not show foliation are called nonfoliated
rocks. Marble is an example of a nonfoliated rock. Marble is made up mainly of one
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 5
mineral, so the different minerals cannot separate and line up in layers. Artist use marble
for carving and sculpting because it will not split into layers as the artist is working.
Rocks, such as hornfels, that are subjected to high temperatures, but not high pressure
are also nofoliated.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder - discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text
that you need assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 5
Lesson 5
Review of Rocks: The Rock Cycle
Igneous/Sedimentary/Metamorphic
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Which rock types are most common within the Earth’s crust? Which type is most
common at the Earth’s surface?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. Why is the set of natural processes by which rocks change into other types of rocks
called a cycle?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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5. Which type of rock would you expect to be common on the floor of a large, deep lake?
Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. What is the main difference between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
7. What are the two major properties used to classify igneous rocks?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
8. Why can intrusive igneous rocks be left behind when surrounding rocks are worn
away?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
9. If granite within the Earth melts and then erupts at the surface, what type of extrusive
rock is likely to form?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
10. Would you expect extrusive rocks produced by an explosive volcano to be light or
dark in color? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
12. Describe how a sedimentary rock can show how fast water was flowing when its
sediments were laid down.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
14. How could the speed of flowing water change to lay down alternating layers of sand
and mud?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
15. What conditions can cause a sedimentary or igneous rock to change into a
metamorphic rock?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
18. Would gneiss be more likely to form at shallow depths or at great depths where
mountains are being pushed up? Why?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Part 2: Vocabulary
Complete each statement with the correct vocabulary word provided below.
Igneous rock rock cycle sedimentary rock
20. Rock formed as pieces of older rocks and other loose materials get pressed or
cemented together or as dissolved minerals re-form and build up in layers is called
___________________________ ___________________.
21. The set of natural, repeating processes that form, change, break down, and re-form
rocks is called _______________ ________________.
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22. __________________ rock forms as molten rock cools and becomes solid.
23. ________________ is a naturally formed solid that is usually made up of more or more
types of minerals.
24. Igneous rock that forms as lava cools on the Earth’s surface is __________________
_________________ _______________.
26. Solid materials such as rock fragments, plant and animal remains, or minerals that are
carried by water or by air and that settle on the bottom of a body of water or on the
ground are __________________________.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 6
Lesson 6
Minerals and Rocks Test: Lessons 4 - 5
Student Assignment:
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 6
Lesson 6
Minerals and Rocks Test: Lessons 4 - 5
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions:
Part 1: Vocabulary /
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 6
Identifying Characteristic
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Part 6: Predict
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 7
Lesson 7
Review of Weathering and Soil
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will review what you have learned about
Weathering and Soil in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and
record the vocabulary words you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in your
Science Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
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wear away particles of rocks in the riverbed and particles from their own surfaces. Waves
beating on a shore can also wear down rocks by abrasion.
http://libraryphoto.cr.usgs.gov/htmllib/btch199/btch199j/btch199z/mfe0115a.jpg
Chemical Weathering is the breakdown of rocks by chemical reactions that change the
rocks’ composition. When minerals come into contact with air and water, some dissolve
and others react and change into different minerals. Iron is an example of this that we
have all seen. Metals that contain iron become rusty when oxygen in the air and water
react with the iron.
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Dissolving
The main cause of chemical weathering is water. As you have learned, some minerals
completely dissolve in water. Many more minerals will dissolve in water that is slightly
acidic. Rainwater becomes a weak acid when carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves
in rainwater. After falling, this slightly acidic water moves through the soil where it picks up
even more carbon dioxide. This weak acid solution breaks down the minerals in many
rocks. The process may also cause rocks to break into smaller pieces.
Another factor that increases the acidity of rainwater is air pollution. Cars and power
plants produce gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide which combine with water
vapor in the atmosphere to form acid rain. Being exposed to acid rain causes rocks to
weather much faster than they would naturally.
Rusting
Carbon dioxide is not the only element in the atmosphere that is involved in chemical
weathering. Oxygen is also involved in chemical weathering. Many of the minerals that
are common on the Earth’s surface contain iron. When these minerals dissolve in water,
the oxygen in the air combines with the water to produce iron oxides, commonly known as
rust. The iron oxides then color the weathered rocks by forming a coating that gives the
rocks a reddish-orange color.
Rates of Weathering
There are many factors involved in the amount of time that it takes a rock to weather.
Surface area, rock composition, and location all influence the rate of weathering. A rock
will weather faster if more of its surface is exposed to the air and water. A large exposed
surface area allows chemical weathering to affect more of the rock. The composition of the
rock is also an important factor. Different kinds of rocks break down at different rates.
The stronger the bonds between the minerals, the longer it takes a rock to weather.
For chemical weathering to occur, water must be present. Heat speeds up this process.
Therefore, chemical weathering occurs faster in hot, wet regions than it does in cold, dry
regions. In cold regions, mechanical weathering caused by the freezing and thawing of ice
occurs more rapidly than it does in hot regions.
Weathering: Weathering Forms Soil
Weathered rock particles eventually become the main ingredient in the soil that surrounds
us. There are four materials in soil: weathered rock particles, organic matter, water, and
air. Soil varies from one area to the next depending on what types of rock particles are
present.
About 20 percent of the volume of soil is made up of water and air. Organic matter makes
up another 5 percent of a soil’s volume. Organic matter that is found in soil comes from the
remains and waste products of other living organisms. As organisms decay, they become
a part of the soil called humus.
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Soils vary depending on many factors. Different soils are made up of different ingredients
and different amounts of those ingredients depending on what is available in the area.
The factors that determine the kind of soil that forms in an area include:
The combination and amounts of materials present in a soil is called soil composition. Soil
composition determines what you can grow in it, what you can build on it, and what
happens when rainwater falls on it.
Soil Horizons
Have you ever dug a hole and noticed that the dirt changed color? This is because soil
develops in a series of horizontal layers called soil horizons. A soil horizon is a layer of
soil with properties that differ from the layer above or below it. Geologists have labeled
the main soil horizons A, B, and C.
The soil horizons from a specific location make up the soil profile. Soil profiles differ from
one location to the next. In some places, the A horizon may be very thick and in other
places very thin. Also, one or more horizon can be missing from the profile. In an area
where soil has only had a short time to develop, the B horizon may be missing.
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Texture
The size of the weathered rock particles in soil determines the soil’s texture. The size of
rock particles in soil are classified into three categories: sand, silt, and clay. Sand particles
are the largest and clay particles are the smallest. Both silt and sand particles are too
small to be seen by the naked eye. Most soils are a combination of all three types of
particles, but the amounts vary by area. The texture of the soil influences how easily air
and water can move through the soil.
Color
You can get clues to the properties of a soil by looking at its color. Soil can be a variety of
colors: red, brown, yellow, green, black, and white. Most of the colors in soil come from
iron compounds and humus. Iron gives soil a reddish color, so soils that are redder have
higher iron content. Soils that are dark, brown or black, are usually high in humus. Color
can also tell you how water moves through the soil. Soils with a brighter color usually allow
the water to move through quickly, when this happens it is said that the soil drains well.
Pore Space
The spaces between soil particles are called pore spaces. Pore spaces allow air and water
to move through the soil. Plants need both the air and water in a soil to grow. Most soil has
a pore space ratio of about 25 to 60 percent. A soil with a pore space of 50 percent is
considered ideal for growing plants if half of that pore space is filled with water and half is
filled with air.
Chemistry
The chemistry of a soil is very important. Plants must be able to absorb nutrients from the
soil to grow. As you have learned, these nutrients come from the minerals and organic
matter in the soil. For the plants to be able to absorb these nutrients, they must be
dissolved in water. The pH level of water determines how well nutrients can absorb into
the water. A pH level is a measure of how acidic something is. Farmers use pH levels to
decide if they need to add lime to make the soil less acidic or add acids to make it more
acidic.
Weathering: Human Activities
The activities of humans have an impact on soil and soil development. Soil is an important
resource that helps to sustain life on Earth. The way that we use land, called land-use
practices, can have large impacts on the soil.
Soil as a Necessary Resource
Soil is responsible for providing us with nearly all of the food that we eat. Soil supports
plant growth and plants provide food for animals. Besides food, soil is responsible for
providing us with other materials, such as the cotton that many of our clothes. Many
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 7
medicines also come from plants as well as the lumber that is used to build houses and
buildings. Even oxygen that we breathe comes from plants.
Besides sustaining plant growth, soil helps life in other ways. Soil helps to filter and purify
water as it drains through the soil and into rivers, lakes, and oceans. Soil also provides a
home for a wide variety of living organisms, from single-celled organisms to small
mammals.
Land-use Practices
The levels of nutrients and pollution in the soil are affected by the way that people use the
land. When soil is exposed to the wind and rain it leads to soil loss. Farming,
construction, and mining are a few of the major activities that impact our soil.
Farming
Most of the world’s food is grown on farms. For over 10,000 years, people have been
farming the land. Even though farming practices have been continually improved, farming
still has harmful effects and can lead to soil loss. Farmers often add nutrients and other
chemicals to the soil to improve crop growth. Many of the fertilizers make it difficult for the
microorganisms in the soil to produce nutrients. Fertilizer also adds to water pollution
when the water draining from the fields carry extra nutrients into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
Farming practices can lead to the loss of soil over time.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 7
Overgrazing is another problem on farmland. When farm animals eat large amounts of the
land cover, the natural vegetation is destroyed. Once the natural vegetation is destroyed,
the soil can blow or wash away more easily. In dry areas, farming and overgrazing has
lead to desertification. Desertification is the expansion of desert conditions in areas
where natural plant cover has been destroyed.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 7
Mining
In a previous Lesson, you learned about open-pit and strip mining. Both of these
processes expose soil to wind and rain that can carry it away. By exposing the rocks and
minerals to the elements, mining speeds up the rate of chemical weather. If the mining
operation exposes sulfide minerals, the increase in chemical weathering can cause a type
of pollution called acid drainage. Acid drainage can also happen when abandoned mines
fill with rainwater. When the sulfide minerals react with the air and water, they produce
sulfuric acid. When this water drains into the soil in surrounding areas, it pollutes the soil.
Soil Protection and Conservation
Soil is impossible or difficult to replace once it is lost. Soil takes a very long time to form.
It can take hundreds of thousands of years to form a soil with well-developed horizons! It
is important to protect and conserve soil. Most forms of soil conservation methods help to
hold soil in place and keep it fertile.
Crop Rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of planting different crops on the same piece of land from
growing season to growing season. This is important because certain crops use a lot of
nitrogen from the soil. Other crops have roots that contain bacteria that can help restore
the nitrogen in the soil. By rotating these kinds of crops, farmers can help keep the soil
fertile.
Conservation Tillage
Conservation tillage uses several methods to help reduce the number of times that fields
are plowed, or tilled, a year. If the amount of times a field is plowed can be reduced, there
will be a reduction in soil loss because less soil is being disturbed by plowing. The less soil
that is disturbed, the less soil that can blow or wash away. One method of conservation
tillage is not plowing the fields at all. After crops are harvested, the remains are left in the
field to cover the soil. New crops are planted in narrow bands of soil among the decaying
crops from the previous season.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 7
Terraces are flat, step-like areas built on a hillside to hold rainwater and prevent it from
running downhill. Crops are then planted on these terraces.
Contour Plowing
Contour plowing is the practice of plowing around the curves of a slope. This helps
channel the rainwater along the plowing path and helps to prevent water from running
downhill. Strip-cropping is sometimes combined with contour plowing to further help stop
rainwater from carrying away soil. In strip-cropping, strips of grasses, shrubs, or other
plant are planted between bands of crops.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 7
Windbreaks
Similar to strip-
cropping, rows of
trees are sometimes
planted between
fields as windbreaks.
The trees “break”
(reduce) the force of
the wind that can
travel across the
land. Reducing the
force of the wind
reduces the amount
of soil that can be
carried away.
Source: Wikimedia Commons
geograph.org.uk/Roger
Gilbertson
Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder - Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text
that you need assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 7
Lesson 7
Review of Weathering and Soil
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Describe three factors that affect the rate at which weathering occurs.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Would weathering affect a marble sculpture inside a museum? Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 7
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
11. How would a soil containing a lot of sand differ from a soil with a lot of clay?
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 7
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. Which would you expect to be more fertile, the soil on hilly land or the soil on a plain?
Why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. How do land-use practices in farming, construction and development, and mining
affect soil?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 7
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
16. How might the problem of soil loss on flat land be different than that on sloping land?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
17. If you were building a new home in an undeveloped area, what steps would you take
to reduce the impact of construction on the soil?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 8
Lesson 8
Review of Erosion and Deposition: Part One
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will review what you have learned about
Erosion and Deposition in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and
record the vocabulary words that you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in
your Science Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 8
Valleys are
often formed
when water
flows over land
and carries
away weathered
rock and soil.
There are many
processes that
shape
landscapes.
Deposition is the name for the part of the process in which sediment is placed in a new
location. Gravity is an important part of the process of erosion and deposition. Water
moves downward because gravity pulls it. As the water flows downward, it carries and
deposits sediment as it flows. Gravity can also be responsible for pulling large masses of
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 8
ice down mountains and also causes the particles carried by wind to settle to the surface
of the Earth.
Water, wind, and ice cause erosion in three major ways; water, rainwater or melting snow,
flows down sloping land. As the water travels, it carries rock and soil particles. Some of
this water makes its way into rivers which carries the sediment along while also depositing
some of the sediment on the river’s bottom. Rivers also deposit sediment on their banks,
on floodplains, and at the mouth of the river. Sediment is also deposited on beaches by
the waves in lakes and oceans.
Tiny particles of dust are lifted and carried by wind. The wind may carry the particles long
distances before the wind dies down and the particles are deposited. Wind can also push
larger particles, such as sand, along the ground.
Ice moves sediment as it moves downhill. The ices moves slowly and carries soil and rock
particles with it and as the ice melts, the soil and rocks are deposited.
Gravity
Coastal Regions and mountainous regions have landslides. A landslide is a type of mass
wasting. Mass wasting is the downhill movements of masses of rock and soil. Gravity
pulls material downward in mass wasting. Sometimes heavy rain or an earthquake can
loosen the rock and soil and as the material becomes looser, it gives way due to the pull of
gravity.
Mass wasting can involve tons of rock sliding down a steep mountain side, or slowly
moving down a gentle slope. Mass wasting can occur suddenly or slowly over time.
Movements of rock and soil are called slides or falls; movements of mud or soil is
described as mudflow.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 8
Mudflows also happen in areas with steep slopes. A mudflow is made up of debris with a
large amount of water. They often happen after heavy rains when the soil becomes too
heavy for the slope to hold it in place. The wet soil slides downhill, picking up more debris
as it flows downward. When the mudflow reaches the bottom of the slope, it spreads out
in a thin sheet.
Erupting volcanoes can also cause mudflows. As the volcano erupts, the heat causes ice
and snow to melt. This water combines with ash from the volcano and then moves down
the side of the volcano, picking up sediment as it travels.
Two other types of mass wasting that occur on hilly land. Slumps and creeps are less
dramatic than rockslides or mudflows, but they are the examples of mass wasting that you
are most likely to see. A slump is a slide of loose debris that moves as a single unit.
Creep is the slowest form of mass wasting as the soil and debris move very slowly - so
slowly that it is impossible to see. Creep takes years and years to produce visible results.
If you look at a hillside that has old fence posts or telephone poles, you may notice that
they are leaning. This is caused by the slow movement of the soil around them. All
hillsides with soil are affected by creep, but the rate depends on the amount of water in the
soil.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 8
Running water is the major force shaping the landscape over most of the world. Water
shapes the landscape in a variety of ways such as: running water erodes and carries rock
particles from one place to another.
When rain falls or ice melts on a slope, some of the water soaks into the ground and some
of it flows down the hill in thin sheets. Within a short distance, this sheet of water
transforms into a channel that forms a stream. A stream is any body of water that flows
down a slope along a channel and streams can be large or very small.
Streams form complex drainage systems. Small streams flow into larger streams. The
area of land in which water drains into a stream system is called a drainage basin. The
water from most drainage basins eventually drains into a lake or ocean.
A divide is a ridge from which water drains from one side or the other. Divides separate
drainage basins and can run along mountains and mountain ranges. On flatter surfaces,
the divide may simply be the highest line of land.
Divides form the borders of drainage basins. Drainage basins can be relatively small or
large portions of continents. In the United States, there are three major drainage basins.
Valleys and Floodplains
Streams carry sediment from the surface of the land as they flow. As this happens, the
streams form valleys. Where the water is flowing more rapidly, like in the mountains, the
valleys are usually narrow and have steep walls. Streams may form wide valleys that
include flood plains. A floodplain is an area of land on either side of a stream that is
underwater when the stream floods.
Often, floodplains are very fertile because the stream deposits much of its sediment as it
floods the area. Floodplains are often the best places to grow crops.
Stream Channels
As streams flow through a valley, they can take many courses. Some are straight, some
have curves, and some are a combination of both. The curves and bends that form
twisting or looping patterns in a stream channel are called meanders. Over time,
meanders change position due to the moving water eroding the outside banks and
depositing sediment along the inside banks.
During times of flood, the stream may move with more force and create a new channel
that bypasses a meander. The meander is then cut off and forms a crescent-shaped lake
called an oxbow lake. These lakes get their name from the U-shaped piece of wood that
fits under the neck of an ox and is attached to its yoke.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 8
Delta
Alluvial Fan
Formed at
Forms at the Formed by
the mount of
base of a the
a river
mountain deposition of
sediment
Fan-shaped
Forms at the
point where
the stream
slows down
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 8
rock and soil; much like flowing water above ground - underground flowing water causes
erosion. Because rainwater is slightly acidic, it can dissolve certain rocks. Limestone is
easily dissolved by rainwater. Over time, the groundwater dissolves the limestone and
carries it away. Eventually, this erosion creates open spaces, called caves, underground.
Large caves are called caverns and these caverns may fill up with air if the water table
drops below the level of the cave.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 8
Source: Bigstock
Some caves are very small, but others are massive networks of rooms and passages.
One of the largest cave systems in the world is located in Kentucky. Mammoth Cave has
more than 350 miles (560 km) of explored passageways. Inside the cave, you will find
streams and even lakes.
Sometimes, the roof of these caves becomes thin and collapses. Sinkhole is the name
for the basin that forms when a cave suddenly collapses. Some caves collapse because
the water that filled the cave has drained away and yet other caves collapse because of
changes in the surface above the cave. These changes can make the cave roof too thin to
support itself. In certain places, sinkholes have destroyed entire city blocks.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 8
Lesson 8
Review of Erosion and Deposition: Part One
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What force and what cause can contribute to both erosion and mass wasting?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 8
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. What are the two major types of glaciers, and where are they found?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 8
11. Describe the land features left behind by glaciers that have melted and shrunk.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
12. Identify two ways in which the erosion effects of glaciers differ from those of rivers.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
13. How would glaciers be affected by changes in climate, such as global warming and
global cooling?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. Make a Venn Diagram to compare and contrast alluvial fans and deltas.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 9
Lesson 9
Review of Erosion and Deposition: Part Two
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will review what you have learned about
Erosion and Deposition in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and
record the vocabulary words that you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in
your Science Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 9
A longshore current is the movement of the water along a shore as the waves hit it at an
angle.
Sandbars - Sometimes the sand that longshore currents deposit along the shore may
build up to form sandbars. A sandbar is a ridge of sand built up by the action of waves
and currents.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 9
If a sandbar
builds up
above the
water’s
surface and
joins with the
land, it is
called a spit.
Source: Big Stock
Sidney Spit
Sidney Spit
island/British
Columbia/CDA
If there is a strong longshore current that moves in the same direction for a long period of
time, it may produce a sandbar that builds up into a barrier island. A barrier island is a
long, narrow island that develops parallel to a coast.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 9
Wind
Winds can carry sand particles thousands of miles. Often, sand dunes can be found near
the coasts of large bodies of water. A dune is a mound of sand built up by the wind. Wind
can carry and move sand in places where there is little vegetation to hold it in place. In
some places, the wind carries away enough of the loose particles, that the remaining land
becomes as hard a cement.
Dunes
When strong winds pick up
and carry sand particles, this
sand is dropped when the
wind dies down or hits
something. Over time, the
continuous deposition of sand
will build a dune. Some
dunes begin as ripples in the
sand that grow larger as the
wind moves over it and
deposits more sand. Other
dunes form around objects,
such as logs, that are hit by
wind carrying sand particles. Source: Bigstock
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 9
Dunes can only form where there are strong winds and loose sand. They can be found on
the inland side of beaches, the sandy floodplains of large rivers, and in sandy deserts.
Dunes can form in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Some dunes are mound-shaped
hills, others are curved and some are straight ridges. Dunes usually have a gentle slope
on the side that faces the wind and a steeper slope on the side that was protected from the
wind.
Loess - Wind can shape the landscape in ways besides moving sand. Over time, wind
can change the shape of the land by depositing large amounts of dust. We don’t usually
think of dust as something large enough to create landforms, but if enough of it is
deposited, hills can form. A strong windstorm can pick up and carry millions of tons of dust.
When the wind dies down, the dust is deposited and these deposits of fine, wind-blown
sediment are called loess.
Loess is a valuable resource. The sediment that forms them forms good soil for growing
crops. Loess covers about 10 percent of the land surface of the Earth. China has very
large amounts of loess. Some of the deposits cover hundreds of thousands of square
miles and are more than 1000 feet thick! Deposits of this size take a very long time to
develop. Some of the loess deposits in China are over 2 million years old. Winds blowing
over the dry regions and deserts in Asia carried the dust that formed these large deposits.
Desert Pavement - Wind
also shapes the landscape
by removing dust and sand.
When the wind carries
away the small particles on
the land’s surface, it leaves
behind a layer of stones
and gravel. The stony
surface that is left
resembles cobblestone
pavement, thus the name
desert pavement.
Source: Wikimedia Commons /Desert
pavement on alluvial fan of Hanaupah
Canyon in Death Valley National Park
Photo by Daniel Mayer. Released under
terms of the en:GNU FDL
Glacier is a large mass of ice that moves over land. Glaciers form in cold regions when
more snow falls than melts each year. As the layers of snow build up, they put pressure
on the lower layers and turn them into ice. On flat land, this ice spreads out into sheets;
on a mountain, the weight of the ice could cause it to slowly flow down the mountain.
Glaciers grow, melt, and move; as this happens, the ice shapes the landscape.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 9
Glaciers can only exist in places where it is cold enough for the water to stay frozen all
year. Glaciers currently cover about 10 percent of the Earth’s surface; you can find them
in mountain ranges and in areas near the north and south poles.
Once, glaciers covered almost 30 percent of the Earth. During long periods of cold
temperatures, called ice ages, glaciers expand. The last major ice age was about 30,000
years ago. Ice covered most of North America and Eurasia during that period. Since then,
global temperatures have risen and caused the glaciers to melt to their current sizes.
Alpine glaciers and continental glaciers are the two major types of glaciers.
Alpine Glaciers
Glaciers that form
in mountains and
flow down through
valleys are called
Alpine Glaciers.
As these glaciers
slowly move down
the mountain,
they cause
erosion. The
weight of the
glacier breaks up
rocks, which then
carries and
pushes the
resulting sediment
away. Over time,
glaciers can
change V-shaped
mountain valleys
into wider, U-
shaped valleys
with wide, flat
bottoms.
Source: Bigstock
Athabasca Glacier, Jasper,
Alaska
Some alpine glaciers can extend all the way down into the land at the base of the
mountain. At this lower end, the glacier experiences warmer temperatures and begins to
melt, dropping sediment. Streams carry some of this sediment away. If an alpine glacier
flows into the ocean, large blocks may break off and become icebergs.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 9
Continental Glaciers
Continental glaciers are
much larger than alpine
glaciers. These glaciers,
called ice sheets, can cover
entire continents. A single
ice sheet covered most of
the United States and
Canada during the last ice
age, then 10,000 years ago,
this ice melted and shrank.
Greenland and Antarctica
are still mainly covered in
ice sheets. These glaciers
are shaped like wide domes
stretched over the land.
The ice sheet on Antarctica
can be as thick as 15,000
feet in places.
Source: Bigstock Antarctica
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 9
Lakes
Melting glaciers also leave behind depressions, or large dents, in the Earth. These
depressions can fill with water from the melting glacier and form a lake. Areas that were
once covered by glaciers are often covered by many small, and some large, kettle lakes.
A kettle lake is a bowl-shaped depression that was formed by a block of ice from a glacier
and then became filled with water.
States like Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota are filled with kettle lakes.
The Great Lakes
Many of the large lakes found in North America formed when the glaciers melted. Some of
these lakes formed when the glaciers melted in valleys and left behind moraines that
dammed the valleys. The Great Lakes in Michigan were formed thousands of years ago
when a great ice sheet moved across the region and then melted. Some of the lakes were
formed when valleys filled with water; some were formed when the glaciers gouged out
huge areas as they moved and then left behind large piles of debris that blocked the water
from draining. In some places, the weight of the glacier actually caused the land to sink
over a mile!
Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder - Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text
that you need assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 9
Lesson 9
Review of Erosion and Deposition: Part Two
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. What effect would a barrier island have on the shoreline of the mainland?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 9
________________________________________________________________________
7. What are the two major types of glaciers, and where are they found?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Describe the land features left behind by glaciers that have melted and shrunk.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
9. Identify two ways in which the erosion effects of glaciers differ from those of rivers.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
10. How would glaciers be affected by changes in climate, such as global warming and
global cooling?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 10
Lesson 10
Weathering Soil/Erosion and Deposition Test
Lessons 7 - 9
Student Assignment: Today’s Lesson is a test on Lessons 7-9 which were a review of
Weathering Soil/Erosion and Deposition from 7th Grade Science. Complete each of the
following test items without the use of notes. Good Luck!
Lesson Wrap Up: How do you think you did?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 10
Lesson 10
Weathering Soil/Erosion and Deposition Test
NAME: ______________________________________________DATE:____________________
Chemical weathering The breakdown of rocks by Iron reacts with air and
chemical reactions that water to form iron oxides or
change the rocks’ mineral rust.
composition.
1. Mechanical
weathering
2. Abrasion
3. Exfoliation
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 10
4. Desertification
Example:
Delta A river deposits sediment as it enters the ocean.
5. Alluvial fan
6. Sinkhole
7. Sandbar
8. Barrier island
9. Dune
10. Loess
11. Moraine
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 10
13. The force of expanding water in the cracks and pores of a rock is an example of
a. chemical weathering c. oxidation
b. mechanical weathering d. desertification
20. The movement of air and water through a soil is influenced most by the soil’s
a. color and chemistry c. pH and nitrogen content
b. texture and pore space d. microorganisms
21. Contour plowing, strip-cropping, and terracing are conservation methods designed
to reduce the
a. runoff of water c. acidity of soil
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 10
23. The main natural force responsible for mass movements of rocks and debris is
a. rainwater c. gravity
b. wind d. fire
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 10
33. How do farming, construction and development, and mining affect soil?
________________________________________________________________________
34. How do ice wedging, pressure release, plant root growth, and abrasion cause
mechanical weathering?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
37. How can rainwater in the Rocky Mountains end up in the ocean?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 10
42. Make a sketch of the soil profile above, labeling the A, B, and C horizons.
43. What does the color of the top layer indicate about this soil?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
44. Which part of the profile is most affected by chemical and mechanical weathering?
Why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 10
Part 5: Glaciers
The image below shows two glaciers joining to form one (A). Make a sketch of the
glaciers to answer the next three questions.
1 2
B
A
45. Place an arrow to show which direction the main glacier (A) is moving.
46. Mark the places where you think till would be found.
48. Why does the main glacier not have an end moraine?
________________________________________________________________________
49. Compare the main glacier valley in the image with the valley at the far right (B).
How are the valleys different? Explain why they might be different.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 10
50. Suppose that you own gently sloping farmland. Describe the methods that you
would use to hold the soil in place and maintain its fertility.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
51. Describe the composition, color, texture, and amount of pore space of a soil that
would be good for growing crops.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
52. How does mechanical weathering differ from chemical weathering? How are the
two processes similar?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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53. What effect will the continued growth of the world’s population likely have on soil
resources?
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54. Soil loss is a problem all over the world. Where might lost soil end up?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 10
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
Lesson 11
Review of Matter
Student Assignment:
Lesson Wrap-Up:
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
Mass
Weight
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
Volume - volume.
Displace
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
Matter: Atoms
atom
molecule
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
Element
Compound
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
Mixture
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
Parts of a Mixture
heterogeneous
homogenous
solid
liquid
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
gas
Solids
Liquids
Gas
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
Lesson 11
Review of Matter: Part One
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions:
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 11
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 12
Lesson 12
Review of Matter: Part Two
Student Assignment:
Lesson Wrap-Up:
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 12
physical properties
Density -
Density
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 12
Chemical Properties
chemical
change
Production of an Odor:
Change in Temperature:
Change in Color:
Formation of Bubbles:
Formation of a Solid:
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 12
Melting
melting point
Freezing
freezing point
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 12
sublimation
Boiling
boiling point
Condensation
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 12
Density -
Heating Properties -
Solubility -
Electric Properties -
Magnetic Properties -
Separating Mixtures -
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 12
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 12
Lesson 12
Review of Matter: Part Two
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Directions:
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 12
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 12
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 12
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 13
Lesson 13
Matter Test: Lessons 11 - 12
Student Assignment: Today’s Lesson is a test on Lessons 11-12 which were a review of
Matter from 7th Grade Science. Complete each of the following test items without the use
of notes. Good Luck!
Lesson Wrap Up: How do you think you did?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 13
Lesson 13
Matter Test: Lessons 11 - 12
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Part 1: Vocabulary
Complete the chart below. If the right column is blank, give a brief description or definition.
If the left column is blank, give the correct term.
Term Description
1. The downward pull of gravity on an object.
2. Liquid
4. Solid
7. Matter
9. Element
11. compound
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 13
Vocabulary - continued
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 13
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24. Whether a substance is a solid, a liquid, or a gas depends on how close its atoms are
to one another and
a. the volume of each atom c. how free the atoms are to move
b. how much matter the atoms have d. the size of the container
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 13
29. An electric current can be used to decompose, or break down, water into oxygen gas
and hydrogen gas. This is an example of a
a. physical change c. change in state
b. chemical change d. pressure change
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 13
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35. In bright sunlight, dust particles in the air appear to dart about. What causes this
effect?
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37. Describe how the molecules n the air behave when you pump air into a bicycle tire.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 13
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38. When a sculptor shapes marble to make a statue, is this a physical or a chemical
change? Explain your answer.
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39. Describe and identify various physical changes that water can undergo.
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40. Why does dew often form on grass on a cool morning, even if there has been no rain?
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41. Describe the difference between evaporation and boiling in terms of the movement of
the liquid’s particles in each case.
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42. What effect does altitude have on the boiling point of water?
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43. Whole milk is a mixture. When bacteria in the milk digest part of the mixture,
changes occur. Lactic acid is produced, and the milk tastes sour. Explain why this
process is a chemical change.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 13
44. Sharpening a pencil leaves behind pencil shavings. Why is a sharpened pencil a
physical change instead of a chemical change?
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45. Dumping cooked spaghetti and water into a colander separates the two substances
because the water can run through the holes in the colander but the solid spaghetti
cannot. Explain how this is an example of separating a mixture based on the physical
properties of its components.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 13
46. Write the heading Matter and Not Matter in the table provided below. Place each of
these terms in the correct category: wood, water, metal, air, light, sound.
47. If you could break up a carbon dioxide molecule, would you still have carbon
dioxide? Explain your answer.
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48. In what ways is sand in a bowl like a liquid? In what ways is it different?
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49. If you cut a hole in a basketball, what happens to the gas inside?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 13
50. Create Venn diagram that shows how mixtures and compounds are alike and
different.
51. If you place a solid rubber ball into a box, why doesn’t the ball change its shape to fit
the container?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
Lesson 14
Review of Energy
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will review what you have learned about
Energy in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the
vocabulary words that you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in your
Science Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
Energy: Forms
Energy is the ability to cause change. All forms of energy have one thing in common –
they cause changes to occur. Almost everything you see happening around you involves
energy. Your television operates on electrical energy, plants use energy from the Sun to
grow, and you use energy from food to carry out your daily activities.
Scientists classify energy into many forms. Each form of energy causes a different type of
change.
Mechanical Energy - Mechanical energy is the form of energy that moves objects. The
energy that you use to turn the page in a book is mechanical energy. The energy that you
use to write your notes is mechanical energy.
Sound Energy - Vibrations of particles in a solid result in sound. The structures in the
ears of people, and other animals, allow them to detect these tiny vibrations and hear
sounds. When you hear a car drive by, you are detecting the vibrations in the air that were
produced by sound energy. Sound energy can only travel through a medium – if there
were no air or substance between you and the car, you would not be able to hear it.
Chemical Energy - Energy that is stored in the chemical composition of matter is called
chemical energy. The types and arrangements of atoms in a substance determine the
chemical energy of that substance. Fire is an example of releasing chemical energy. As
the wood burns, the energy in the wood produces heat.
Thermal Energy - Energy from the movement of particles in matter is called thermal
energy. All atoms and molecules are continually moving; the energy of this motion in an
object is the object’s thermal energy.
Nuclear Energy - The nucleus, or center, of an atom contains large amounts of energy to
hold the particles together. This energy is nuclear energy. When the particles in an atom’s
nucleus break apart, or when the nuclei of two small atoms join together, nuclear energy is
released.
All of the forms of energy can be classified into two general types of energy: kinetic and
potential.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Kinetic energy depends on an object’s mass and
the speed at which the object is moving. All objects are made of matter and that matter
has mass. The more matter that an object contains, the greater its’ mass is.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
As the speed of an object increases, so does the kinetic energy. Now let’s say we have
two bowling balls moving at different speeds. The ball that is moving faster would have a
greater kinetic energy. While the balls have the same mass, the greater speed causes a
greater kinetic energy.
Potential energy is the stored energy that an object has due to its position or chemical
composition. If you pick up your shoe off the floor, it has potential energy because of its
position above the ground.
Gravity is the cause for the most obvious form of potential energy. Gravity is the force that
pulls objects towards the Earth’s surface. If you hold your shoe up above the floor, gravity
is waiting to pull it downward after you let go. The mass of your shoe and its height above
the floor determines how much potential energy the shoe has due to gravity.
Kinetic energy is easy to detect because the objects are moving. Potential energy is more
difficult to detect because objects can have potential energy from different sources. Some
substances contain potential energy because of the atoms that they contain – their
chemical composition.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
When you stretch or compress an object, you are also creating potential energy. As you
push down on a spring, you are increasing the potential energy of the spring. As you
release the spring, you are decreasing the spring’s potential energy. Pushing down on the
spring, you are storing energy; when you release the spring, that stored energy is also
released and the spring bounces. Source: Bigstock
Chemical energy is less visible, but is still potential energy. Chemical energy does not
depend on the position of an object, but the chemical composition of an object. The food
that you eat contains potential energy. This energy comes from the energy that bonds, or
holds together the atoms and molecules of the substance. As your body digests the food,
the bonds in the food are broken and then release energy.
Fuel also contains chemical energy. The potential energy of the fuel depends on the
strength of the bonds between the atoms and molecules in the fuel. As the fuel is burned,
the arrangement of the molecules and atoms in the fuel are rearranged. This
rearrangement of the atoms releases the fuel’s potential energy.
Energy: Changing Forms
Energy changes form. Energy can be converted from one form to another. Energy from
the Sun is converted into chemical energy when plants store it in their cells. When we eat
the food that comes from these plants, we release this chemical energy. We then convert
this energy into kinetic energy as we move around and perform tasks.
The results of some energy conversions are obvious. When the electrical energy in a
lamp is converted to light and heat, we can see and feel the results. Other conversions of
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
energy are not so obvious. Potential energy can be converted into kinetic energy and back
into potential energy. Take a look at the diagram of a skateboarder below.
At the top of the ramp, the skateboarder has potential energy (PE) due to his location. As
he starts moving down the ramp, some of his potential energy changes into kinetic energy
(KE). The kinetic energy moves him down the slope to the ramp at the end.
PE
When the skateboarder leaves the ramp, some of his kinetic energy is changed back to
potential energy as he rises into the air. When the skateboarder descends to the ground,
his potential energy will again convert to kinetic energy.
Using Energy Conversions
People convert energy from one form to another for many different purposes. We have
developed ways to convert energy to make our lives easier. Many cities are provided
electricity when the water stored behind a dam is converted into electrical energy.
While the water is being held behind the dam, it has potential energy. As some of the
water is allowed to flow through the dam, the potential energy is converted back into
kinetic energy. This kinetic energy moves turbines inside the dam; the kinetic energy of the
turbines is converted into electrical energy by generators. The electrical energy is then
carried away to be used by people.
The energy has been converted from potential energy to kinetic energy to electrical
energy. Another source of useful energy begins with the electromagnetic energy from the
Sun. Almost all of the energy on Earth began as electromagnetic energy from the Sun.
This energy is converted in many ways. Plants convert it into chemical energy so that they
can grow. The energy from fossil fuels was stored in plants millions of years ago. These
fossil fuels are then converted into other forms of energy to suit the needs of people.
Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. This means that even though it appears that energy is being used up, it is not
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
disappearing. The law of conservation of energy is true in all known cases – energy is
never lost, it just changes form.
All of the energy in the universe is balanced. When you kick a ball, you transfer energy to
that ball and to the sound created when your foot hits the ball. It would appear that the
energy disappears when the ball stops moving, but it does not. It has been converted into
other forms of energy. As the ball slows down, it transfers energy back into the universe
through the noise that it makes and the heat that it produces as it rolls.
Energy conversions do not always produce only wanted forms of
energy. When we turn on a lamp, we are trying to convert
electrical energy into light. However, not all of the energy is used
as light, as light bulbs burn, they produce heat. Some of the
energy in this conversion is lost to heat, but the overall amount of
energy is the same.
When you turn a fan on, the electrical energy is converted into
kinetic energy as the fan blades move. In the motor of the fan,
some of the electrical energy is turning into heat. As the blades
move or the fan moves back and forth, sound is produced – the
heat and sound are unwanted energy.
Source: Bigstock
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
Efficient Cars - Burning gasoline in cars is another example of a very inefficient energy
conversion. Advances in technology are continually improving the amounts energy from
burning gasoline that is actually converted into the car’s kinetic energy.
Fuel injectors are devices that monitor and control the amount of fuel that is fed into a car’s
engine. By controlling the fuel amounts, fuel injectors increase the distance that a car can
travel on a tank of gasoline. Hybrid cars use both gasoline and electrical energy from
batteries. The combination of energy types allows the car to be more fuel efficient. Hybrid
cars even utilize some of the kinetic energy lost during braking to generate electrical
energy to recharge the car’s batteries.
Improvements in the Use of Energy Resources
Because much of the energy that we use on Earth comes from fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum, and natural gas; scientist are exploring alternative energy sources. Fossil fuels
are non-renewable resources that can run out! We need alternative sources of energy that
cannot disappear.
Solar Energy does not have a limited supply and does not produce some of the harmful
waste products that using fossil fuels creates. Solar energy is collected with solar cells.
Solar cells are made of several layers of light-sensitive materials which convert sunlight
directly into electrical energy.
Solar cells produce electricity quietly and cleanly, but the materials used to make solar
cells are expensive. The cost does not allow for solar energy to be widely used. Also, solar
cells are not very efficient. It takes a large number of solar cells to produces a relatively
small amount of electrical energy. Only approximately 12 to 15 percent of the sunlight that
reaches a solar cell is converted into electrical energy. People also use the Sun’s energy
as heat. Heat from the sun is used to grow plants in greenhouses and to warm buildings.
Large glass windows can allow the heat from sunlight to enter a house or building and trap
that heated air inside.
Wind Energy Source: Bigstock
People have been using the kinetic energy of the
wind to produce electrical energy for hundreds of
years. Advances in technology have greatly
improved the efficiency and usefulness of wind
energy. Specially shaped windmill blades have
been designed that help to increase the efficiency
of capturing wind energy. Some areas that receive
a consistent amount of wind are home to huge
windmill farms. The wind energy is converted to
electrical energy to help provide a clean source of
electricity.
Source: Bigstock
Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder - Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text
that you need assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
Lesson 14
Review of Energy
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
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2. What are some changes that can be caused by sound energy? By electromagnetic
energy?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
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5. What forms of potential energy would be found in an apple on the branch of a tree?
Explain.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
8. Suppose you are jumping on a trampoline? Describe the conversions that occur
between kinetic energy and potential energy.
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10. Look at the skateboarder in this Lesson. Has all of his potential energy been changed
into kinetic energy the moment he lands? Explain.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
11. Provide an example of a common technology that does not efficiently convert energy.
Explain
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12. Describe two ways in which hybrid cars are more energy-efficient than gasoline
powered cars.
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13. List two advantages and two disadvantages of solar power.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 14
14. How are LED’s similar to incandescent light bulbs? How are they different?
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15. What are two ways in which the Sun’s energy can be captured and used? How can
both be used in a home?
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16. Can an object have kinetic and potential energy at the same time?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
Lesson 15
Review of Temperature and Heat
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will review what you have learned about
Temperature and Heat in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and
record the vocabulary words that you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in
your Science Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
Liquid - The particles in a liquid move around much more easily than the particles in a
solid. They slide around and tumble over one another as they move.
Gas - The particles in a gas are much farther apart than the particles in a liquid and move
at high speeds. They might collide with one another, but they do not interact very much.
Not all of the particles in a substance are moving at the same rate. Some particles are
moving faster than others. If one of these fast-moving particles hits a slower moving
particle, it will lose some speed. Likewise, if a slow-moving particle is hit by a fast-moving
particle, it will gain some speed. The speed of particles in a group has a wide range of
speeds and will often change speeds.
Temperature and Kinetic Energy
Within a substance, each of the particles may have a different kinetic energy. Remember,
kinetic energy depends on mass and speed. If the particles are moving at different speeds,
they will have different kinetic energies. To determine the kinetic energy of an object, you
must determine the average kinetic energy of all the particles.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of particles, not just their speed.
Different objects can be the same temperature even though their particles cannot move at
equal speeds. The particles in a bowl sitting on a table cannot move as fast as the air
particles that surround it. However the particles in the bowl have more mass than the air
particles. Because kinetic energy depends on both mass and speed, the bowl and the air
can have the same temperature.
Measuring Temperature
Have you ever passed a temperature sign that said it was 30 and you assumed that it
must be broken because it was much warmer than 30 outside? The sign probably wasn’t
broken; it was probably displaying a different temperature scale than the one you are used
to seeing.
Temperature Scales
There are two common temperature scales that are used to measure temperature. Both of
these scales measure the average kinetic energy of particles.
To establish a temperature scale, you need two known values and the number of units
between these values. The freezing and boiling points of water are often used as the
standard values because they are always the same under the same conditions and they
are easy to reproduce.
In the rest of the world, the scale that is commonly used is the Celsius scale ( C). Anders
Celsius developed this scale in the 1740s. On the Celsius scale, pure water freezes at
0 C and boils at 100 C. On the Celsius scale, there are 100 equal units between these
two temperatures.
30
Remember the 30 sign? Perhaps it was a Celsius scale! On a nice warm day it could be
30 C, or 86 F.
Thermometers
To measure temperature, we use a device called a thermometer. A thermometer
measures temperature through the regular variation of some physical property of the
material inside the thermometer. Mercury and alcohol are often used inside thermometers
because these liquids always expand or contract a certain amount in response to a
change in temperature.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
Liquid-filled thermometers measure how much the liquid inside expands in a narrow tube
as the temperature increases. The tube is marked with distances so that the temperature
can be read. Mercury is a liquid that expands and contracts evenly at both high and low
temperatures. This means that mercury expands or contracts by the same amount in
response to a given change in temperature.
Mercury used to be the standard material found in thermometers, but since mercury is
dangerous to handle, many thermometers today are made with alcohol. Some
thermometers are made with materials whose electrical properties change in response to
changes in temperature. These thermometers are read by computers and the temperature
is displayed on a display panel; much like the sign from earlier in the Lesson.
Thermal Expansion is the name for the property that makes liquid-filled thermometers
work. Thermal expansion affects many substances; all gases, many liquids, and most
solids expand when their temperature increases.
Thermal expansion is important to consider for many reasons. Engineers have to take
thermal expansion into consideration when they plan buildings because steel and concrete
both expand with rising temperatures. Engineers must make the connections in buildings
strong enough to withstand the force of the expanding material.
Thermal expansion in solids occurs because the particles of solids vibrate more as the
temperature rises. As the particles move slightly apart with this movement, the solid
expands. If you look at the sidewalk in front of your house, you will notice lines every few
feet. These lines are expansion joints that allow the concrete to expand without crushing
the concrete around it.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
temperature will be lower than the original temperature of the bowl, but higher than the
original temperature of the ice.
The ice did not cool the bowl. The energy from the bowl flowed into the cooler water
melting from the ice cube. When energy flows from a warmer object to a cooler object; the
thermal energy of both objects changes.
Thermal energy is the total random kinetic energy of particles in an object. Thermal
energy and temperature are not the same things. Remember, temperature is the average
kinetic energy of all of the particles in an object. Thermal energy is the total of all of the
different kinetic energies added together. Temperature is an average; thermal energy is a
total.
Lake Michigan and a glass of ice water may be the same temperature, but Lake Michigan
has a much higher thermal energy because the lake contains many more water molecules.
Measuring Heat
Heat is measured in calories and joules. One calorie is the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 C. The joule (J) is the standard scientific
unit used to measure energy. One calorie is equal to 4.18 joules.
Most people think of calories in terms of food. When talking about food, or nutrition, one
Calorie (C) is one kilocalorie, or 1000 calories. So, one food Calorie contains enough
energy to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 C. Each Calorie in food
contains 1000 calories of energy.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
To determine the amount of Calories in food, the food is burned in a device called a
calorimeter. The amount of energy released from the food through heat is the number of
Calories transferred from the food to the calorimeter. The energy transferred to the
calorimeter is equal to the original amount of energy in the food. A thermometer inside the
calorimeter measures the increase in temperature from the burning food and this is used
to calculate how much energy is released.
Specific Heat
4.5
4.18
4
3.5
Specific Heat (J / gºC)
2.5
1.5
2 0.9
0.67
1.5
0.66
0.45
1
0.5
Some substances change temperature more easily than others. If you have ever taken a
bite of hot pizza, you know that the crust is always cooler than the cheese and sauce on
the pizza. This is because the crust cools more quickly than the sauce and cheese which
contain more water.
We know that one calorie raises the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 C, so we know
that water has a specific heat of exactly 1 calorie per gram per C. One calorie is equal to
4.18 joules, so we know that it takes 4.18 joules to raise the temperature of 1 gram of
water by 1 C.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
In joules, water’s specific heat is 4.18 J per gram per C, or 4.18 J/g C. Look at the chart
below, you will see that 4.18 is much higher than the specific heat of any of the other
substances shown. Water has a very high specific heat.
Any substance that has a high specific heat has to absorb a large quantity of energy for its
temperature to increase. Likewise, it must release a large quantity of energy for its
temperature to decrease. This is why the cheese and sauce on your pizza is still hot while
the crust is cool. The liquid in the cheese and sauce takes longer to cool.
Specific Heat and Mass
Thermal energy depends on an object’s mass. Remember that thermal energy is the total
of the kinetic energy of all of the particles. A large object at a lower temperature can have
the same thermal energy as a small object at a much higher temperature because the
large object has more molecules.
Two objects made of the same substance will have the same specific heat. However, a
smaller object will cool much faster than a large one. The large object has to release more
thermal energy to its surroundings through heat to show a decrease in temperature
because it has so much more mass.
This is why the temperature of large objects changes so slowly. A large body of water
changes temperatures very slowly. The temperature of the lake affects the temperatures of
the surround at the shores. In the spring and summer, the land near the shore will warm
much more slowly because the lake is warming slowly. The energy in the air is being
absorbed by the lake to heat the lake.
In the fall and winter, the lake cools slowly and keeps the nearby land warmer than
surround land. As the lake cools it is releasing energy through heat which keeps the
shores warmer.
Temperature and Heat: Controlling Energy Transfer
We know that heat is always a transfer of energy from objects at a higher temperature to a
lower temperature, but how does the energy get transferred? The transfer of energy can
occur in three different ways: by conduction, convection, and radiation. So if we want to
control heat, we need to control conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction is the process that moves energy from one object to another when they are
touching physically. You have experienced conduction if you have ever burned yourself by
touching a hot pan.
Any time that two objects at different temperatures come into contact with each other,
conduction occurs. We know that in the warmer object, the average kinetic energy of the
particles is higher. When these particles collide with the slower moving, cooler particles,
some of the kinetic energy is transferred from the fast particles to the slow particles. As
long as the two objects are in contact, conduction will continue until both objects are the
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
same temperature. Conduction can also occur in a single object. The energy in the object
is transferred from the warmer part of the object to the cooler part of the object by heat.
Some materials transfer the kinetic energy of particles better than other materials.
Conductors are materials that transfer energy easily. Conductors often have a low
specific heat. Metals are often good conductors because of their low specific heat.
Other materials are poor conductors. These materials are called insulators. Insulators
often have a high specific heat. Wood and plastic foam are good insulators.
Convection is the process that transfers energy by the movement of large numbers of
particles in the same direction within a liquid or gas. In most substances, as the kinetic
energy of the particles increases, the space between the particles increases. This increase
in space between particles causes the density of the substance to decrease. Convection
occurs when a cooler, denser mass of the gas or liquid replaces a warmer, less dense
mass of the gas or liquid by pushing it up.
Most winds and ocean currents are caused by convection. When the temperature of a
region of air increases, the particles spread out and the air becomes less dense.
Cooler, denser air then flows in underneath the warmer, less dense air and pushes the
warmer air upward. When this air cools, it becomes denser than the warmer air beneath it.
The cooled air then sinks and moves under the warmer air.
Convection in liquids is similar to convection in gases. Warm water is less dense than cold
water so it is pushed up by cooler water and the cycle begins.
Radiation is energy that travels as electromagnetic waves, which include visible light,
microwaves, and infrared light. While the Sun is the most significant source of radiation, all
objects emit radiation and release energy into their surroundings.
When radiation is emitted from one object and then absorbed by another object, the result
is the transfer of energy through heat. When the sun emits radiation and your body
absorbs this radiation through heat, it increases the movement of the particles in your skin
and you feel an increase in temperature. Radiation can transfer energy from warmer to
cooler objects much like conduction and convection. Unlike conduction and convection,
radiation does not need to travel through a substance. Radiation can move through empty
space.
Using Materials to Control the Transfer of Energy
It is often important to slow down the transfer of energy. If energy were always transferred
quickly it would be impossible to keep things warm. Insulators are used to help slow the
transfer of energy from warmer objects to cooler objects because they are poor
conductors. Insulators help to keep warm things warm and cool thing cool.
Most people think that insulators keep the cold out when in fact, insulators work by
trapping energy. In the winter many people wear wool because it is a poor conductor. The
wool traps air against your body, because air and wool are both poor conductors, your
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
body loses energy at a slower rate. The insulation in building walls works in the same way.
During the winter, the insulation keeps the warm air trapped on the inside. During the
summer, the insulator slows the movement energy into the building.
Insulated cap
Silvered inner wall
Vacuum between
glass walls Hot coffee
Outer casing of
plastic or metal
Insulated support
A thermos works in a slightly different way. A thermos has two layers with empty space in
between. This space prevents conduction from the inside layer to the outside layer. The
inside of a thermos is often made of a shiny material that reflects much of the radiation that
strikes it. This helps to prevent radiation from entering or leaving the thermos.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder - Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text
that you need assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
Lesson 15
Review of Temperature and Heat
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
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4. Suppose a mercury thermometer shows that the air temperature is 22 C (72 F). Do
particles in the air have more average kinetic energy than particles in the mercury?
Explain.
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5. If a puddle of water is frozen, do the particles in the ice have kinetic energy? Explain.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
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7. How do the units that are used to measure heat differ from the units that are used to
measure temperature?
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9. How are a calorie and a joule similar? How are the different?
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10. Describe the relationship among kinetic energy, temperature, heat, and thermal
energy.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
11. What are three ways in which energy can be transferred through heat? Provide an
example of each.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 15
14. Describe the similarities and differences among conduction, convection, and radiation.
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15. Do you think solids can undergo convection? Why or why not? Explain.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
Lesson 16
Energy/Temperature/Heat Test: Lessons 14 - 15
Student Assignment: Today’s Lesson is a test on Lessons 14-15 which were a review of
Energy and Temperature/Heat from 7th Grade Science. Complete each of the following
test items without the use of notes. Good Luck!
Lesson Wrap Up: How do you think you did?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
Lesson 16
Energy/Temperature/Heat Test: Lessons 14 - 15
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
Definition Characteristics
Kinetic Energy
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
1. Energy
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
2. Potential Energy
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
3. Conservation of energy
4. Energy efficiency
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
For each vocabulary word below, create a web that links at least 4 other pieces of
information to the term. Use definitions, examples, descriptions, parts, or pictures.
6. Heat
7. Thermal energy
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
8. Conduction
9. Convection
10. Radiation
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
In two or three sentences, describe how the terms in the following pairs are related to each
other. Underline the term in your answer.
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15. When energy is converted from one form to another, what is usually produced?
a. chemical energy
b. heat
c. gravity
d. potential energy
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
17. Which of the following is a conversion from chemical energy to mechanical energy?
a. a dark light bulb starting to glow
b. food being heated in an oven
c. a ball rolling down a hill
d. a person lifting a weight
18. An energy-efficient electric fan converts a large portion of the electrical energy that
enters it into
a. an unwanted form of energy
b. kinetic energy of the fan blades
c. thermal energy in the fan’s motor
d. sound energy in the fan’s motor
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
23. The average kinetic energy of particle in an object can be measured by its
a. heat
b. thermal energy
c. calories
d. temperature
26. Water requires more energy than an equal mass of iron for its temperature to
increase because water has a greater
a. thermal energy
b. specific heat
c. temperature
d. kinetic energy
29. Conduction is the transfer of energy from a warmer object to a cooler object through
a. a vacuum
b. a gas
c. direct contact
d. empty space
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
30. Explain how the law of conservation of energy might apply to an energy conversion
that you observe in your daily life.
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31. Describe a situation in which chemical energy is converted into mechanical energy.
Explain each step in the energy conversion process.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
32. How are kinetic energy and temperature related to each other?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
The illustrations below show a skateboarder on a ramp. Use the illustrations to answer the
next five questions.
A.
5
1
4
2
3
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
B.
1 5
2 4
3
34. At what point in the illustrations would the skateboarder have the most potential
energy? The most kinetic energy? Explain.
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35. At what point in the second illustration will the skateboarder’s kinetic energy begin
to be changed back into potential energy? Explain.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
36. When the skateboarder’s kinetic energy is changed back into potential energy, will
this amount of potential energy likely be equal to the skater’s potential energy in
the first illustration? Why or why not?
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37. Describe how energy may appear to decrease in the example shown above. What
energy conversions that produce unwanted forms of energy are occurring?
Explain.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
38. Draw colored bars that might represent the potential energy and kinetic energy of
the skateboarder at each of the five labeled points on illustration A. Explain why
you drew the bars the way you did. Use your digital tools
1. _______________________________________________________________
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2. _______________________________________________________________
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3. _______________________________________________________________
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4. _______________________________________________________________
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5. _______________________________________________________________
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
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40. What would happen to the particles in illustration A if the substance were chilled?
What would happen if the particles in illustration B were chilled?
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41. If energy is transferred from one of the substances to the other through heat, in which
direction would the energy flow (from A to B, or from B to A)? Why?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
42. Suppose energy is transferred from one of the substances to the other through heat.
Draw a sketch that shows what the particles of both substances would look like when
the transfer of energy is complete.
43. How are conduction and convection similar? How are they different?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 16
44. Suppose you are outdoors on a hot day and you move into the shade of a tree. Which
form of energy transfer are you avoiding? Which type of energy transfer are you still
feeling? Explain.
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45. Draw a sketch that shows how convection occurs in a liquid. Label the sketch to
indicate how the process occurs in a cycle.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
Lesson 17
Review of Waves
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will review what you have learned about
Waves in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the
vocabulary words that you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in your
Science Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
Disturbance
Wall
Rope Wave - If you tied a rope to a doorknob and then applied a force to the other end by
flicking it up and down, you would send a wave through the rope. Both the up and down
forces are required to start a wave.
Water Wave
Forces are also required to start water
waves. If you dip an object (such as the
leaf pictured) into a calm pool of water, you
are applying a downward force on the
water. When you remove the object and the
water rushes back up, a wave moves
across the pool.
Source: Bigstock
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
Earthquake Wave
When there is a sudden
release of energy that
has built up in a rock as
the result of another
rock pushing and pulling
it, an earthquake
happens. When the
pushing and pulling
forces on the rock
cause the rock to break,
the energy is transferred
as a wave through the
ground.
Source: eoearth.org
Published: July 18, 2010, 2:05 pm
Edited: July 18, 2010, 2:05 pm
Lead Author: Michael Pidwirny
Creative Commons Attribution-
Share Alike license.
Earthquake waves are a good example of energy transfer. As the wave, or disturbance,
travels through the ground, the ground shakes. These waves can travel miles from their
source, but the ground does not travel at all. Only the energy travels in the wave. The
kinetic energy of the quake is transferred. In a wave, the medium only moves up and
down, the energy moves from place to place.
Wave Classifications
Waves can be classified by how they move. Some waves move up and down or in a side
to side motion. Other waves move in a forward and backward motion.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
Longitudinal Waves are waves that travel in the same direction as the disturbance. Look
at the picture of the spring above. The longitudinal wave is started by moving the spring
forward and backward. The wave also moves forward and backward. The coils of the
spring move forward and bunch up. As the wave moves backward, the coils spread out -
this bunching up is called a compression. Longitudinal waves are often called
compressional waves.
Sound waves are longitudinal or compressional waves. Vibrations push and pull on the
surround air molecules, causing them to move forward and backward. These air molecules
then set more air molecules in motion and a sound wave pushes forward. In a sound
wave the vibrations of the air molecules are in the same direction as the movement of the
wave.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
Waves: Properties
Waves have properties that can be measured. All waves have heights that can be
measured and speeds that can be measured by finding the time that it takes for one wave
peak to travel a set distance. You can also measure the distance between waves and the
length of a single wave. These properties are called amplitude, wavelength, and
frequency.
Measuring Wave Properties
Wave Properties
Wavelength (2) Crest
Crest
Amplitude
Equilibrium Position
Trough
Trough
Trough
A crest is the highest point, or peak, of a wave. A trough is the lowest point, or valley, of
a wave.
Amplitude is the distance between an imaginary line through the middle of a wave and a
crest or trough. In a water wave, the amplitude measures how far above the water a wave
will rise or how far below the level of the water a wave dips. The original position of the
water is referred to as the rest position of the water. Amplitude indicates how much energy
a wave is carrying. The bigger the amplitude, the more energy a wave is carrying.
The distance from one wave crest to the next wave crest is called the wavelength. You
can also measure wavelength from trough to trough.
Frequency is the number of wavelengths that pass a fixed point in a certain amount of
time. The frequency measures how often a wavelength occurs. Frequency is often
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
measured by counting the number of crests or troughs that pass a given point in one
second.
Frequency and Wavelength - As the frequency of a wave increases, it means that the
wave is passing a fixed point more often. This means that the wavelength shortens. As
frequency increases, wavelength decreases. Also, as frequency decreases, wavelength
increases.
If you were to go back to the rope wave example and flick the rope once every second to
create a wave you would have a frequency of one wavelength per second. If you wanted
to increase the frequency of the wavelengths, you would have to flick the rope faster. As
you increase the frequency, you will notice that the waves get closer together. You have
decreased the wavelength.
Measuring Wave Speed
To measure the speed of a wave, you can measure how long it takes for a wave crest to
get from one point to another. An easier way to find wave speed is to calculate it. The
speed of any wave is equal to the wavelength multiplied by the frequency.
Speed = wavelength x frequency
S= x
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
Waves: Predictability
You have learned that waves travel through mediums like water, air, or the ground. Now
you will be learning about how a wave acts when it encounters a new medium. Waves
behave predictably, all waves show specific behaviors called reflection, refraction, and
diffraction.
Reflection
When waves hit a solid barrier, they bounce back. Reflection is the bouncing back of a
wave after it strikes a barrier.
A water wave transfers energy. When a water wave meets a barrier, it pushes against the
barrier. The barrier then applies an equal but opposite force on the water, sending the
wave back in the opposite direction.
REFLECTING SURFACE
INCIDENT WAVE
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
NORMAL OR PERPENDICULAR
--------------------------------------------- --------------
ANGLE OF REFLECTION
REFLECTIVE WAVE
Eye Source: Wikimedia Commons / Madeleine Price Ball (Madprime) Flashlight Source: Bigstock
Sound and light waves also reflect. If you have ever heard an echo, you have heard sound
waves bouncing off of a barrier. If you have looked at your reflection in a mirror, you have
seen sound waves bouncing off the smooth metal behind the glass surface of a mirror.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
Refraction
Sometimes a wave does not bounce back when it meets a barrier. The wave continues to
move forward and enters a new medium at an angle; the wave then bends, or refracts.
Refraction is the bending of a wave as it enters a new medium at an angle other than 90
degrees. Refraction occurs because waves travel at different speeds in different mediums.
Because the wave enters the new medium at an angle, one side of the wave enters the
new medium before the rest of the wave. A wave bends when one side speeds up or
slows down before the other side.
Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves through an opening or around the edges of an
obstacle. Diffraction occurs with all types of waves.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
As a wave encounters a partial barrier, such as an opening in a wall, the waves spread out
as they pass through the opening. Sound waves also diffract. As sound waves enter a
doorway, they spread out. This is why you can hear the television from different rooms in
the house. Diffraction also occurs as waves pass the edge of an obstacle. Light waves
diffract around the edges of an obstacle creating a familiar sight. Shadows are created as
the light waves spread out around an obstacle.
Waves Interact with Other Waves - Besides encountering new mediums, wave
sometimes encounter other waves. Two waves can either add energy or take away energy
in the place where they met. Interference is the meeting and combining of waves.
Waves Adding Together - If two waves with identical properties were coming from
opposite directions to come together at one point, the waves would merge. The
amplitudes would be added together, and the result would be one bigger wave. After the
waves have merged, they return to their original amplitude and continue in their original
directions.
WAVE TWO + =
The adding of two waves is called constructive interference. Constructive interference
builds up, or constructs, a larger wave out of two smaller ones. The amplitude of the new
wave that is created in constructive interference is the sum of the amplitudes of the two
original waves.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
WAVE TWO
+ =
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
If two waves come together that are not lined up, the energy of one wave is subtracted
from the other. If when two waves meet, the crest of one wave is lined up with the trough
of another wave, they cancel each other out. The new wave is smaller. If the waves were
of identical amplitude, they would cancel each other completely out!
However, when identical waves meet, they are usually not aligned. Instead the crests
meet up with crests in some places and crests meet up with troughs in other places. As a
result, the waves add in some places and subtract in others.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder - Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text
that you need assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
Lesson 17
Review of Waves
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
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2. Explain how a wave can travel through a medium and yet the medium stays in place.
Use the term energy in your answer.
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3. Describe two ways in which waves travel, and give an example of each.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
4. Does water moving through a hose qualify as a wave? Explain why or why not.
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5. Suppose you drop a cookie crumb in your milk. At once, you see ripples spreading
across the surface of the milk. What type of waves are these? What is the disturbance?
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6. Make a simple diagram of a wave, labeling amplitude, frequency, and wavelength. For
frequency, you will need to indicate a span of time, such as one second.
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8. Suppose you are watching water waves pass under the end of a pier. How can you
figure out their frequency?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 17
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10. Explain what happens when wave encounter a medium that they cannot travel
through.
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13. Explain how reflection and diffraction can happen at the same time in a wave.
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14. How is interference similar to net force? How do you think the concepts might be
related? Hint: Think about how forces are involved in wave motion.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 18
Lesson 18
Review of Sound: Part One
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will review what you have learned about
Sound in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the
vocabulary words that you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in your
Science Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 18
Sound
Waves
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 18
The cochlea, in the inner ear, contains about 30,000 hair cells. Each of these hair cells
contains a tiny hair. The hairs bend as a result of the vibrations. This movement triggers
changes that cause the cell to send electrical signals along nerves and into your brain.
When the brain receives and processes these signals, you hear a sound.
Sound Waves Vibrate Particles
Sound waves transfer the motion of particles too small to see from one place to another.
What happens between the time that a sound wave is created and the time that the sound
is heard?
What happens between the time that a drum is struck and you hear the drumbeat? First,
the drum skin vibrates rapidly. The drum skin pushes out then in, over and over again.
This happens very, very quickly. The vibrating drum skin pushes against nearby particle in
the air. The particles become compressed - bunched together.
When the drum skin pushes in the opposite way, a space opens up between the drum’s
surfaces and the particles. The particles rush back to fill the space.
The back and forth movement, or vibration, of the particles is the disturbance that travels
to the listener. The bunched up areas, or compressions, and the spaces between the
compressions are parts of the wave.
The wave consists of repeating patterns of compression and spaces between the
compressions. The compressions are areas of high air pressure. The spaces between the
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 18
compressions are areas of low air pressure. The high and low pressure air pushes and
pulls on the surround air then this air pushes and pulls on the air surrounding it. Soon a
sound wave has traveled through the air and has transferred kinetic energy from one place
to another.
In the 1600s, scientists were doing experiments to learn more about air. They figured out
how to pump air out of an enclosed space to create a vacuum. A vacuum is empty space.
It has no particles.
A British scientist, Robert Boyle, designed an experiment to see if sound could travel
through a vacuum. Boyle put a ticking clock into a sealed jar and then pumped some of
the air out of the jar. The ticking of the clock became fainter as he did this. When he had
pumped all of the air out of the jar, he could not hear any ticking at all. Boyle had
demonstrated that sound does not travel through a vacuum.
Sound can only move through a medium that is made up of matter because sound is a
mechanical wave.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 18
It takes less time for a water particle to push on the water particles around it because they
are much closer together than the air particles. As a result, you can hear sounds
underwater sooner than those above the water would.
Sound can also travel through solids that are elastic, which means that they can vibrate
back and forth. In a solid material, the particles are packed even closer than the particles
in a liquid. This means that sound can travels the fastest through solids.
Temperature and Sound
Sound also travels faster through a medium with a higher temperature than a medium with
a lower temperature. As you increase temperature, particles begin to move faster. It is
easier for particles that are already moving quickly to press against the particles that are
around them than it is for particles that are moving slowly.
The unit for measuring frequency, and also the pitch of a sound is the hertz. A hertz (Hz)
is one complete wavelength per second. A wave with a frequency of 30 Hz has 30
wavelengths per second. A sound with a frequency of 150 Hz has 150 wavelengths that
pass a given point every second. A complete cycle can be called a cycle.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 18
Human ears can hear a wide variety of pitches. Most people with good hearing can her
sounds in the range of 20 hertz to 20,000 hertz.
Sound waves below 20
Sound Frequencies Heard by Animals hertz are called
Sound Frequencies Heard by Animals infrasound. People
cannot hear sounds in
porpoise 150000
this range. The waves of
bat 110000 an infrasound have very
dog 50000 long wavelengths and
chimpanzee 33000 can travel great distances
human 20000
without losing much
energy. Elephants use
elephant 12000
infrasound to
tree frog 4000
communicate over long
mosquito 400 distances.
Sound waves in the range above 20,000 hertz are called ultrasound. Humans cannot
hear ultrasounds either. Ultrasounds are very useful.
Natural Frequencies
A natural frequency is the frequency at which an object vibrates. When a sound wave with
a particular natural frequency encounters another sound wave with the same natural
frequency, constructive interference happens. The amplitude of the vibrating object
combines together with the amplitude of the sounds wave. The strengthening of a sound
wave in this way is called resonance.
Sound Quality
Two sounds may have the exact same pitch but do not sound the same. The reason for
this is that each sound has its own particular sound, or quality. Timbre is the term for this
quality. Timbre can be explained by the fact that most sounds are not single waves but are
actually a combination of waves. The pitch that you hear is called the fundamental tone.
Higher frequency pitches are called overtones. The combination of pitches is the main
factor that affects the quality of a sound.
The way that a sound starts and stops is also a factor in the quality of sound. Some
sounds start and stop in blasts, other sounds start and stop much more gently.
The Doppler Effect
The Doppler Effect is the change in perceived pitch that occurs when the source or the
receiver of a sound is moving. In the 1800s, an Austrian scientist named Christian Doppler
wrote a paper about sound waves. He described how pitch changes when a sound source
moves rapidly toward and then away from the listener.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 18
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 18
Lesson 18
Review of Sound: Part One
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
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4. Would the sound from a distant train travel faster through air or through steel train
tracks? Explain.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 18
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6. Describe what is different about the sound waves produced by a low note and a high
note on a musical instrument.
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7. Explain why two people singing the same pitch do not sound exactly the same.
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9. Suppose you could view the waves produced by a high-pitched and a low-pitched
voice. Which wave would display the greater number of crests and troughs? Why?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 19
Lesson 19
Review of Sound: Part Two
Student Assignment: In today’s Lesson, you will review what you have learned about
Sound in 7th Grade Science. As you read today’s Lesson, take notes and record the
vocabulary words that you may be having difficulty with or don’t understand in your
Science Notebook.
After you have finished today’s reading, complete the Lesson review activities.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text that you need
assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 19
Sound: Intensity
The intensity of a sound is the amount of energy its’ sound wave has. The more intense a
sound is, the louder it will sound to listeners. The decibel (dB) is the unit used to measure
sound intensity. Some of the softest sounds measure less than 10 decibels. Other sounds,
such as a loud television or an airplane taking off can hurt your ears; very loud sounds
measure more than 100 decibels.
The amplitude of a sound wave can tell us about its intensity. Amplitude is the measure of
wave energy. A drummer can vary the loudness, or intensity, of a sound by varying the
energy with which he hits the drum. The distance between the source and the listener also
affects the loudness.
Sound waves travel in all directions from their source. As the waves travel farther from
their source, they become spread out over a greater area. This means that their intensity is
decreased. Sound waves with lower intensities are heard a quieter sounds.
There are other forces that can take energy away from sound waves. The force of friction
can act on the medium of a sound wave to decrease the intensity of the waves.
Decibels (dB)
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 19
Devices like mufflers can control the intensity of sounds. Mufflers reduce the intensity of
the sound wave that travels through them. Mufflers are designed to absorb some of the
energy of the sound waves which decreases the amplitude of the wave. As a result, the
intensity of the sound that you hear is much lower than it would be without the muffler.
Amplification is the
increasing of the
strength of an electrical
signal. It is often used
to increase the intensity
of a sound wave. When
you listen to a stereo,
you experience the
effects of amplification.
Sound input to a stereo
is in the form of a weak
electrical signal form a
microphone.
Transistors in an
electronic circuit amplify
the signals. The
electrical signals are
converted into vibrations
in a coil in your stereo’s
speakers. The coil is
attached to a cone,
which also vibrates and
sends out sound waves.
You can control the
intensity of the sound
waves by adjusting you
stereo’s volume.
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0/ Unported license. Wikimedia Commons
Acoustics is the scientific study of sound. Acoustics involves both how sound is produced
and how it is received and heard by humans and animals.
Acoustics also refers to the way sound waves behave inside a space. Engineers design
buildings to reduce unwanted echoes by designing walls and ceiling with acoustical tiles in
a way that controls sound intensity. Acoustical tiles are designed to absorb or redirect
some of the energy of sound waves.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 19
Continual exposure to sounds of 90 dB or louder can damage your hearing. The hair cells
in the cochlea are extremely sensitive. This sensitivity makes hearing possible, but it also
makes it easy to damage the cells.
Earplugs can help prevent damage from exposure to high intensity sounds. In the United
States, there are laws that require employers to reduce sounds at work sites to below 90
dB or to provide workers with ear protection.
Brief, one-time exposures to extremely loud noise can destroy hair cells in the cochlea.
Noises above 130 dB are especially dangerous; noises above 140 dB can even be painful!
Sound: Uses
Ultrasound Waves
Sound has uses beyond communication. Animals and people use reflected ultrasound
waves to detect objects. Some animals use ultrasound waves to find food. People use
ultrasound waves to detect objects underwater or even to create images of the inside of
the body.
Echolocation is sending
out ultrasound waves and
interpreting the returning
sound echoes. Bats use
echolocation to find food in
the dark. They send out
as many as 200
ultrasound squeaks per
second. When they
receive the returning
echoes, they can tell
where prey is and how it is
moving. Bats can also use
echolocation to avoid
running into walls, trees,
and other big objects.
Animals such as dolphins,
whales, and porpoises
also use echolocation to
find fish and other food in
the water.
Source: Bigstock
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 19
Sonar - instruments that use echolocation to locate objects. Sonar stands for “sound
navigation and ranging”. During World War I, scientists developed instruments that used
sound waves to locate enemy submarines. This technology has developed into modern
sonar. Sonar information is used to create images of underwater objects and obstacles.
People use sonar for many things. Fishing boats use sonar to locate schools of fish.
Oceanographers use sonar to map the sea floor. People have even used sonar to find
ancient sunken ships in deep water.
Medical Uses of Ultrasound
Ultrasound has many uses in medicine. Because humans cannot hear ultrasounds,
ultrasound can be used at very high intensities. The high-intensity vibrations can be used
to break up kidney stones in patients. Medical equipment is cleaned with the energy
transferred by ultrasound waves.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 19
The first devices to record sound used needles to cut grooves in pieces of foil. The sound
waves were translated into bumps along the grooves. These grooves contained all of the
information necessary to reproduce the sound waves.
Today, most people listen to music from CDs. A CD is a hard plastic disc that has millions
of microscopic pits arranged in a spiral. These pits contain all of the information that a CD
player can change into electrical signals that are then turned into sound waves.
Lesson Wrap-Up: Reminder - Discuss with your teacher any vocabulary words or text
that you need assistance with.
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 19
Lesson 19
Review of Sound: Part Two
NAME: _________________________________________________________________
DATE: __________________________________________________________________
1. Explain how the terms intensity, decibel, and amplitude are related.
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4. A wind chime produces both soft and loud sounds. If you could see the waves, how
would they differ?
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 19
5. Which of these acoustical designs would be best for a concert hall? Why?
a. bare room with hard walls, floor, and ceiling.
b. room padded with sound-absorbing materials such as acoustical tile
c. room with some hard surfaces and some sound padding
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STUDENT MANUAL EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE / LESSON 19
8. Draw a simple diagram to show how telephone communication works. Begin your
diagram with the mouthpiece and end with the earpiece. See diagram in Lesson.
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Today’s Lesson is a test on Lessons 17-19 which were a review of
Waves and Sounds from 7th Grade Science. Complete each of the following test items
without the use of notes. Good Luck!
How do you think you did?
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Complete the following questions.
For each word below, write a definition, a sentence in which you use the term correctly,
and draw a small picture to show what the term looks like.
1. Amplitude
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2. Diffraction
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3. Frequency
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4. Medium
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5. Crest
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6. Interference
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7. Reflection
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8. Trough
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9. Refraction
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10. Wavelength
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Complete the chart below by using vocabulary terms from the Lessons reviewed.
For each of the following words, write a definition, description, and example for each word.
15. Resonance
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16. Doppler effect
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17. Amplification
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18. Acoustics
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19. Echolocation
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20. Sonar
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24. As you increase the amplitude of a wave, you also increase the
a. frequency
b. wavelength
c. speed
d. energy
25. To identify the amplitude in a longitudinal wave, you would look for areas of
a. reflection
b. compression
c. crests
d. refraction
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26. Which statement describes the relationship between frequency and wavelength?
a. When frequency increases, wavelength increases.
b. When frequency increases, wavelength decreases.
c. When frequency increases, wavelength remains constant.
d. When frequency increases, wavelength varies unpredictability.
28. Which setup in a wave tank would enable you to demonstrate diffraction?
a. water only
b. water and sand
c. water and food coloring
d. water and a barrier with a small gap
29. Two waves come together and interact to form a new, smaller wave. This process is
called
a. destructive interference
b. constructive interference
c. reflective interference
d. positive interference
32. In which of the following materials would sound waves move fastest?
a. water
b. cool air
c. hot air
d. steel
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33. Which of the following effects is caused by amplification?
a. wavelength increases
b. amplitude increases
c. frequency decreases
d. decibel measure decreases
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Look at the graph below showing freeway noise levels at a toll collector’s booth. Use the
data in the graph to answer the next four questions.
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38. Estimate the loudest level of sound that the toll collector is exposed to.
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39. If ear protection should be worn for a sound level above 90 dB, should the toll
collector wear hearing protection? If so, during which times?
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40. Describe how you could turn the line graph into a bar graph. Would the bar graph be
as informative? Explain your answer.
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Look at the diagrams of waves below. For the next two items, choose the wave diagram
that best fits the description, and explain your choice.
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43. Two people are singing at the same pitch, yet they sound different. Explain why.
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44. Write the letters of each of the events in the correct sequence.
a. sound waves race out of a wind chime
b. air friction gradually weakens the chime sound
c. a breeze makes a wind chime vibrate
d. a person nearby hears the wind chime
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45. What two letters in the diagram measure the same thing? What do they both
measure?
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47. Do you think the following is an accurate definition of medium? Explain.
A medium is any solid through which waves travel.
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48. Picture a pendulum. The pendulum is swinging back and forth at a steady rate. How
could you make it swing higher? How is swinging a pendulum like making a wave?
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49. What might happen to an ocean wave that encounters a gap or hole in a cliff along
the shore?
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50. Do you think interference is an appropriate name for the types of waves that you
read about in the last reading? Explain your answer.
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