FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPUTER NETWORK

 Communication: Communication is the exchange of information from one

place to another. In the case of electronic communication, information is sent and
receive through same medium electronically i.e., in the form of electric signal.
There are three major components of communication.
1 Sender: Sender is the component which sends information.
2 Media: Media transfers information from one place to another.
3 Receiver: Receiver in the components to which information is sent.
There are specially three types of communication.
1. Simplex communication: In this type of communication always flows from
sender to receiver i.e., in only one direction that means, sender is always
sending and receiver is always receiving information. Example- Radio, TV,
etc.

sender Receiver

2. Half-duplex communication: In this type of communication information

flow either from sender to receive or vice-versa i.e., in both direction but
only one direction at a time. Example- okie-Talky.

sender Receiver

3. Full-Duplex communication: In this type of communication information

flows in both direction at the same time. Example- Telephone, Telefax, etc.

sender Receiver
 Computer Network: Computer Networking collection of computers which
are connected together meet or without wire such that the computers communicate
with each other. Network provides data communication as well as resources
sharing with includes data, files, software and hardware among all the system
connected to the network. Networking is a process of inter connecting two or
more computers for sharing resources.
 Advantages of Network:
 A network allows efficient management of resources. Example- multiple
users can share single high-quality printer rather a then having multiple low
quality printers individual desk top.
 A network helps speed of data sharing. Transferring files across a
networking always faster than another non-network.
 Disadvantages of computer Network:
 It increases cost of organization. Some extra devices and resources are
required, which increases the cost of an operation. Example- NIL, HUB, Cables,
medium.
 Since all the computers are connected with some medium and placed far
from each other. so, the data in between the communication, may be hacked and
used by third party.
 Special skill main powers are needed to operate a network which increases
another extra expense.
 Types of Networks: On the basic of area converted or size, computer
network is divided into three types.
1) Local Area Network (LAN): If a network is connected to a single location,
typically one building or complex is called local Ara Network (LAN). LAN
consists of only one transmission media. Types such as co-axial cable, twisted
pair cable but not both. It is simpler and chipper than other networks but imposes
limitation.

printer Computer 1

…….. HUB

Computer 2 Computer 3
 LAN are characterized by computively high-speed communication because
it uses one kind of cable, with generally limited to five kilometer or less. The two
most common important components in land are the five server (Hardware) and
network operating system (software).
2) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): When LAN grows and spreads in an
area then it is called as Metropolitan Area Network. As its name implies, cover a
city or large graphical area. A MAN nearly extends beyond 100KM and contains a
communication of different Hardware, Software and protocol. Different
communication media can be adobtacal here. Cable deviate work are example of
MAN.

printer Scanner
Computer 1 server

……..

Computer 2 Computer 3

Computer 5 …….. Computer 6

scanner

Fig: MAN
3) Wide Area Network (WAN): When a network in spread over wide areas,
such as across cities, stages or countries, then it is called WAN. Is this the
communication of many different types of LAN and MAN. In WAN
communication takes place via telephones, satellites or micro webs. Links rather
than through a physical cable. Internally on example of WAN.

server

C7

C1 C2 C3
Fig: WAN

 Components of Network: Following are the components or features that all

network has in common.
 Server: Server is the computer which provides network resources to the
clients.
 Client: Client is the computer that access shared network provided by the
server.
 Medium: Medium is the way/path through which information flows.
 Resource: Resource are files, printers, scanners or other items to be used
by the network users.
 Network Architecture: (type of network on the basic of computers interact
with each other.) the network architecture tells us how are the information
transferred and received by or from the computers in a network. It deals with
interaction of computers one another in a network. It can be divided into two
types.
1) Peer-to-Peer (point to point) Architecture: In peer-to-peer network there are
no any dedicated servers. All the computers are equal and therefore are termed as
peers. Normally, each computer functions as client and server. Here, computers
are connected in pair (point to point) connection.

Fig: peer-to-peer
Fig: peer-to-peer
Peer-to-peer network is suitable for the following environment.
 There are limited users.
 The users are located in the area.
 Users need freely access data and programs.
2) Client server Network Architecture: In this architecture, computers are
connected to a central device (server) and communication is done through it. The
central computer known as server is the powerful computer which provides all the
required services to all the low power computers known as clients or workstations.
Here, computers are either client or server.
Types of servers:
 File and point server: It manages user access and use of file and printer
resources.
 Application server: It makes the data available to clients.
 Mail server: It manage electronic data available to be transmitted and
receiver in the network.
 Communication server: It handles data flow and mail manager.

printer

…….. Computer 3
Computer 1

Computer 2
 Transmission Media: Transmission media is the path/way through which
information flows. There are two types of transmission media.
A. Guided/wired transmission Media: If data transfer from some end-to-end
connection like wire or cable then such transmission media is called as guided
wired transmission media. Here, data travel through fixed given path. Example-
twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable etc. There is major three types
of guided transmission media.
1. Twisted pair cable: Twisted pair cable consist of a pair of insulated wire
twisted together. It is the cheapest and easily available wire. Twisting in
cable is done to eliminate noise or interference associated with the cabling
system. It can be categorized into two types.
i. UTP (Unsheltered Twisted Pari): This type of cable does not have any metal
shield except plastic coating. It is less expensive and highly sensitive to
electro magnetic interference. It is commonly used for telephone connections.
Now a days it is also used for LAN. It can support data transfer rate from 10
to 100 MBPS.

Fig: UTP
ii. STP (Shield Twisted Pair): It is similar to UTP but is shielded in metal sheath
along with plastic coating. It offers a high band width and good protection
from external/interference. It can support data transfer rate from 16 to 500
MBPS.
Metal sheath
2. Coaxial cable: It consists of a thick copper wire in the core, surrounded by
on insulating plastic with a net of thin copper wires as earthing and on the outer
most part. it is insulated by thick plastic cover.

Core (copper conduvtor)

Inner insulator
Boided outer conductor

Fig: coaxial cable Outer insulator

3. Fiber optic cable: It is a thin filament of glass or fiber wrapped in a

protective jacket along which data travel as high-speed pluses of light. It is the
most advanced and latest technology in communication. It is also called as optical
fiber is mainly used where long cable length is required and externally high speed
is desired. It transmits light rather than electrical signal. The transmission speed of
signals is equal to speed of high.

core

sheeth
Clodding
Light/source

Fig: optical fiber

B. Unbounded/Wireless/Unguided Transmission Media: Unguided media is the

transmission media by which information is sent and received through some
frequency or ware like radio wave, micro wave etc. It is well suitable for wide
area network. Basically, there are three types of unbounded/unguided/wireless
media.
1. Radio wave: Radio wave are easy to generate and can travel long distance. It
can penetrate buildings easily. So, they are widely used for communications.
Radio waves are omni directional i.e., they can travel all directions from source.
2. Micro wave: Micro wave signal are similar to radio and TV signals which
are used for long distance telephone communication, cellular telephones,
television distributions and other users. These signals cannot bend or pass
obstacles like hill. So, the transmitter and receiver of a micro waves systems
which are mounted on very high towers, should be in a line of sight. The range of
transmission is limited to about 50 kms. Micro waves are relatively in expensive.
3. Infrared: This is widely used for short range communication. Example- the
remote control used on television, VCR, stereos, all use informed communication.
They are relatively directional, cheep and easy to build but has major drawback,
they do not pass solid obstacles.
 Topology (LAN Topology): Topology is the physical arrangement or
connectivity of computer in a network. There is major four of topology or LAN
topology.
A. Bus Topology: In bus topology all the devices (computers) are connected
through a central wire, called as bus. Here, all computer shares a signal central
wire. This arrangement is quite popular in LAN because it is easy to install and
requires less wire

C1 C3
Bu
s

C2 C4

Fig: Bus topology

B. Star Topology: In star topology all the devices are connecting with central
Hub or switch. It is relatively easy to configure but requires more cable.

C2

C3 Hub C1
C. Ring Topology: In ring topology all the devices are connected to one another
forming a logical ring or circle. It is widely used in LAN. Here, a message goes
from station to taken station to forming a ring.

C1

C4 C2

C3
Fig: Ring Topology

D. Mesh Topology: The mesh topology is the only one point to point design.
Here, each computer is connected to all other computers in the network.

C2

C1 C3

C4

Fig: Mesh Topology

 Network (connectivity) Devices: The basic devices which are used to

connects network or computers in a network are called as network
connectivity/connecting devices or simply network devices. Example- Hub,
switch, router, repeater, bridge, gateway etc.
Following is the major network connecting devices:
1. Bridge: A bridge inter connected to network that use the same technology.
2. Repeater: Repeater is a device which copies or repeats signals that receives.
It also implies all received signals before transmission.
3. Gateway: It is used to connected totally decimal networks. They are mainly
used to connected a LAN and a main them computer.
4. Router: Router translates the data between networks and commonly transfer
data between different technology.
5. Modem: Modem is a device which is used to convert digital signals
generated by the computer into on a log signal to be carried out by a public excess
telephone line. A modem Drives its meaning from modulation and Demodulation,
is a composing word that make up devices. A modulation converts digital signal
into analog signal. a Demodulator converts analog signal into digital signal.
6. Hub: A Hub is a connectivity device which contains multiple parts for
connecting to network components. It connects compiler in star topology. A signal
data packet send through the hub goes to all connected computers.
7. Switch: Switch is similar to hub kept that switch is more intelligent that hub.
8. NIC (Network Interface Card): It is a network card or add-on-card
configured to fit our computer. It connects the PC (Personal computer) to network
cable.
 OSI (Open-Source Interconnection) model of Network: The international
origination (ISO) for standardization develops the OSI (Open-Source
Interconnection) model in 1977. The OSI model defines the following rules.
a) How network devices contact with each other, how understand the language
of each other and how the communicated each other.
b) Methods by which a device in a network no when to transmit data and when
not.
c) How the physical transmission media are arranged and connected.
The OSI model consists of the following server layers.

Application layer Application layer

Presentation layer Presentation layer
Sessin layer Sessin layer
Transport layer Transport layer
Network layer Network layer
1. Application layer: It is the most layer of the OSI model and it provides
services that directly support user application such as database access E-mail and
file transfer etc.
2. Presentation layer: It translate the data access from Application layer in the
language understandable network all computer. It does protocol conversion, data
translation, compaction and encryption, character sale conversion and
interpretation of graphics command.
3. Session layer: This layer established the session in which the communication
has done between two computers. It provides services such as name look up and
security to allow to programs to find each other and established the
communication link.
4. Transport layer: It ensures that packets are deliver error free, insecure and
with no losses and duplicity. It provides error free transmission of data from one
computer to another.
5. Network layer: This layer decides the best route for data transfer, which
adopted from transport layer and forwards pockets for devices that are further
away than a signal link. It translates logical network address to physical machine
address. It also defines how the network moves information from one to another.
6. Data link layer: This layer provides for the flow of data cover a signal link
from one device to another. It except the packets from the network layer and
packets the information into data units called forms to be presented to the physical
layer for transmission.
7. Physical layer: It is simply responsible for sending bits from one computer
to another. This layer deals with the physical connection the network and with
transmission and reception of signals. The first layer of the OSI reference model is
the physical layer.
 Protocol: Protocol is a set of rules and conversions for sending information
over a network. These rules govern the contain, format, timing, sequencing and
error control of messages exchange Amon Network Devices. Some common
protocols are as follows:
1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol): TCP is responsible for delivering
information correctly. TCP established a connection between sender and receiver
before transforming a data. The internet protocol (IP) is a network layer that
contains addressing information and some control information that enables
packages to be routed.
2. IPX/SPX (Internet Package Exchange/Sequential Package Exchange):
IPX/SPX is the most commonly used with novel network operating system for
networking purpose. It is fast, well stablished protocol but not used on the
network now a days.
3. Apple Task: It is a protocol suite develop by Apple co-operation in the
yearly 1980. It was developed to allow multiple users to share resources such as
files and printers. It is one of the yearly implementations of distributed plan/server
networking system.
4. Net BIOS: It stains for network Basic Input output system. It is a section
layer network protocol. It provides an interface with a consistent setup command
for requesting lower-level network services to transmit information from note to
note.
5. Net BEUI: Net BEUI standard users’ interface is the transfer layer protocol
that is commonly find in smaller network. It is the faster protocol then others. It is
suitable for internet. It can send and receive files and folders.
 LAN Transmission Methods: There are three types of LAN transmission
methods. In these types of transmission, a signal packet sends to one or more
knows.
A. Unicast: In unicast a signal data packet is sent from the source to a
destination on a network.
B. Multi cast: A multi cast transmission consists of a signal data package that is
copied and send to a specify pf nods on the network.
C. Broad cast: It consists of a signal data package that is copied and send to all
know on the network.
 Access Control Methods: Multiple devices can’t talk on the network
simultaneously. Some type of methods must be used to allow one devices access
to the network media at a time called as media access control method. There is
main two methods:
1. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection): When
a station wants to transmit, it listens to the cable. If the cable is busy, the station
waits unit it goes idle, otherwise it transmits immediately. If two or more stations
simultaneously being transmitting on an idle cable they will collide. All collide
stations then torment their transmission, wait a transom time and repeat the whole
process all over again.
2. Token passing: In token passing network a special network package called
as token is pass from device to device. When a device has data to send, it must
wait until it has a token and then sends its data. When the data transmission is
completed, the token is reserved so that other devise may use the network media.
 Packet: A packet is a group of bits of fixed maximum size and while define
format that is switched and transmitted as a composited message exceeds the
maximum size is Portesham and carry as several packet.
I typically am packet contains addressing information defining the
source of the destination of a packet, control information. Define the type of
data carried in the pocket. Sum fawn of check sum to reviled that pocket
has been Carly received.
 Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 STANDARD: The internet protocol was developed
in the nearly 1970 at xerox as a means of connecting work stations. In the yearly
1980 DEC, Intel, Xerox, completed the “DIX” internet standard for a 10 Mbps
LAN base on coaxial transmission. This standard form me the basic for the IEEE
802.3 LAN standard that was first issued 1985 for thick coaxial. The IEEE 802.3
has been revised and expanded every two years.
IEEE 802.3 10 Mbps physical layer medium alternatives
Type 10 Base 5 10 Base 2 10 Base T 10 Base F
Medium Tick coaxial Thin coaxial Twisted pair Optical fiber
Max. Segment 500 m 185 m 100 m 2 km
Topology Bus Bus Star Star

Types of SERVERS: There are five types of servers.

1) DNS (Domain Name Server): The domain name server maps and internet
wide structure (IP Address) into unique alphanumeric, address (E.g.- ntc.net.np)
for host against. IP Address is the numeric address like 192.168.4.5.
2) Web Server: The server software used to be world wide web (W.W.W) is
report to as web server. When a clint asked a specify page, the server graph, the
page and retorn to IP clints.
3) POP server (Post Office Protocol): This is a server where our incoming
mails are store. In our mail box for us to collect from it. It is designed to allow
single user host to read mail form the server.
4) SMTP server (Simple Transfer Protocol): It is used to transfer electric mail
between mail. It is a server-to-server protocol, so other protocols are used to
access the message. Its assets the incoming mail from other internet host and
drops to our mail box.
5) FTP (File Transfer Protocol): It allow a user on one host to access a transfer
file to and from another ghost over a network. It is usually the name of the
program the user invokes to execute the protocol.
 Bandwidth: Bandwidth is the maximum number of bits transferred through a
transmission medium at a time. There are mainly three types of bandwidths.
i. Narrow band (up to 300 H2)
ii. Voice band (300-500 H2) and
iii. wideband (over 3000 H2).
 Wireless Network: In wireless network, there is no requirement of physical
cable for data transmission or communication. A network that uses radio wave are
the easiest to implement. Simply placing two computers near each other is enough
to establish communication. This type of network connection helps in linking two
connect computers in nearby buildings.
 IP Address: IP Address is the unique numerical address given to a computer
which is a part of the network. We can access each computer in a network only
with the help of IP address assigned to it. It contains four sections each separated
by period (.). Each section can have the value between 0 and 255. Example-
192.160.5.10.
 FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface): It is a specification for fiber optical
network transmitting at a speed of up to 100 Mbps in token ring topology. It is
suited to system that require the transfer of information such as medical imaging,
3D, seismic processing and full motion on videos.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Computer Protocol): It is a protocol that manages
automatic assignment of TCP/IP addressing information. It can save you a great
deal of time when you are configuring and maintaining a TCP/IP network.
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): It is used to map on IP address into a
MAC (Media Access Control) address.
 RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol): It is a protocol in TCP/IP
stock that provides a method for finding IP address based on MAC address.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): It is transport layer protocol similar to TCP.
It provides a connectionless service for application-level procedure. Thus, UDP is
basically on unreliable service i.e., delivery and duplication are not guaranteed but
reduce the overhead of protocol.

FINISH