Permutations and Determinant of Square Matrix

Simple Examples
1 1
If M is a 1 1 matrix, then M = (m) ! M = (m )
Then M is invertible if and only if m 6= 0.

a b
For M a 2 2 matrix, if M =
c d
1 1 d b
M = ad bc c a
M is invertible if and only if ad bc 6= 0
For 2 2 matrices, this quantity is called the determinant of M .
a b
det M = det = ad bc
c d
2 1 3
m1 m12 m13
Ex: M = 4m21 m22 m23 5
m31 m32 m33
det M = m1 m2 m3 m11 m23 m32 + m12 m23 m31 m12 m21 m33 m13 m22 m31
1 2 3

+m13 m21 m32 6= 0

In the subscripts, each ordering of the number 1; 2; 3 occur exactly once.
Each of these is a permutation of the set f1; 2; 3g.
1. Permutations and Determinant Formula
Given a positive integer n, a permutation of an ordered list of n distinct
objects is any reordering of this list.

Ex: permutation of f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g

1 2 3 4 5
=
4 2 5 1 3
We can consider a permutation as an invertible function from the set of
numbers [n] := f1; 2; :::; ng to [n], (3) = 5.
1 2 3 4 5
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
= (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
In this example, = 4 2 5 1 3

Properties of permutation:
1. There are n! permutations of n distinct objects.
2. Every permutation can be built up by successively swapping pairs of
objects.
3. For any given permutation , there is some number of swaps it takes to
build up the permutation. If this number happens to be even, then is called
an even permutation; if this number happens to be odd, then is called an odd
permutation; n! is even for all n 2, and exactly half of the permutations are
even and the other half are odd. The trivial permutation which sends i ! i for
every i is an even permutation, since it uses zero swaps.

1
 Theorem: The number of elements in the symmetric group Sn is given by
jSn j = n (n 1) (n 2) 3 2 1 = n!

Ex:
1. the identity function id : f1; :::; ng ! f1; :::; ng, given by id(i) = i,
8i 2 f1; :::; ng, is a permutation in Sn .
2. If n = 2, jSn j = 2! = 2

1 2 1 2
= =
1 2 2 1
3. If n = 3, 3! = 6
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
S3 = f ; ; ; ;
1 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
; g
3 1 2 3 2 1

Composition of permutations
; 2 Sn , we can compose them to obtain a new function , pi after
sigma, that takes on the values
( )(1) = ( (1))
( )(2) = ( (2))
..
.
( )(n) = ( (n))

Ex. From S3 , suppose that the permutation and given by

(1) = 2; (2) = 3; (3) = 1 and (1) = 1; (2) = 3; (3) = 2
( )(1) = ( (1)) = 2
( )(2) = ( (2)) = 1
( )(3) = ( (3)) = 3

Def: The sign function is a function sgn that sends permutations to the set
f 1; 1g with rule of correspondence de…ned by
1 if is even
sgn( ) =
1 if is odd

Def: TheP
determinant of n n matrix M is
det M = sgn( )m1 (1) m2 (2) :::mn(n)
The sum is over all permutations of n objects; a sum over all the elements
of f : f1; :::; ng ! f1; :::; ngg. Each summand is a product of n entries from
the matrix with each factor from a di¤erent row. In di¤erent terms of the sum
the column number are shu- ed by di¤erent permutations .

Theorem: If M = (mij ) has a row consisting entirely of zeros, then mi (i) = 0

for every and some i. Moreover det M = 0.

2
 Ex: n2= 4; n! = 24; n = 5; n! 3 = 120
m11 m12 m13 m14
6m21 m22 m23 m24 7
M =6 4m31 m32 m33 m34 5
7

m41 m42 m43 m44

det M = m11 m22 m33 m44 m11 m23 m32 m44 m11 m22 m34 m43 m14 m22 m33 m41
m11 m23 m34 m42 + m11 m24 m32 m43 + m12 m23 m31 m44 + m12 m21 m34 m43 + 16 more terms.

Ex: Diagonal matrix, Mji = 0 whenever i 6= j, then all the summands of the
determinant P
involving o¤-diagonal entries vanish and
det M = sgn( )m1 (1) m1 (2) :::mn(n) = m11 m22 :::mnn
The determinant of a diagonal matrix is the product of its diagonal terms.
det I = 1
Sine the identity matrix is diagonal with all diagonal entries equal to one,
its determinant is one.

Interchanging Rows
Interchange row i and row j of a matrix M and then compute the determi-
nant. For the permutation , let b be the permutation obtained by swapping
positions i and j.
sgn(b) = sgn( )
Let M 0 be the matrix M with row i and row j swapped.
Assume i P < j;
det M 0 = sgn( )m1 (1) :::mj (i) :::mi (j) :::mn(n)
P
= sgn( )m1 (1) :::mi (j) :::mj (i) :::mn(n)
P
= ( sgn(b))m1b(1) :::mib(i) :::mjb(j) :::mnb(n)
P
= sgn(b)m1b(1) :::mib(i) :::mjb(j) :::mnb(n)
b
= det M
det M 0 = det M

Theorem: If M and M 0 di¤er by a row swap, det M 0 = det M .

Apply this theorem to identity matrix M = I

det Pij = 1
Where Pij is the identity matrix with row i and row j swapped.

Theorem: If M has two identical rows, then det M = 0.

2. Elementary Matrices and Determinants

Reminder:
For any matrix M , and a matrix M 0 equal to M after a row operation,
0
M = EM

3
 Row Interchange
Let R1 through Rn denote the rows of M , and let M 0 be the matrix M with
row j and2row3j swapped.
2 3
.. ..
6 .i7 6 .j 7
6R 7 6R 7
6 7 6 7
6 .. 7 6 7
M = 6 . 7 ; M 0 = 6 ... 7
6 7 6 7
6Rj 7 6 Ri 7
4 5 4 5
.. ..
. .
2 3
2 3 1 2 3
.. 6 .. 7 ..
6 . 7 .
6 .j 7 6 7 6 i7
6R 7 6 0 1 7 6R 7
6 7 6 76 7
0 6 .. 7 6 . . 7 6 .. 7
M =6 . 7=6 . 76 . 7
6 7 6 76 7
6 Ri 7 6 1 0 7 6Rj 7
4 5 6 74 5
.. 6 .. 7 .
. 4 . 5 ..
1
2 3
1
6 .. 7
6 . 7
6 7
6 0 1 7
6 7
6 .. 7
6 . 7 =: Pij
6 7
6 1 0 7
6 7
6 .. 7
4 . 5
1
is just the identity matrix with row i and row j swapped. The matrix Pij is
an elementary matrix and
M 0 = Pij M
det Pij = 1

Row Multiplication
2 13
R
6 .. 7
M = 4 . 5, where Ri are row vectors.
Rn
i
Let R ( 2) be the identity matrix,
3 with the ith diagonal entry replaced by .
1
6 .. 7
6 . 7
6 7
Ri ( ) = 6
6
7
7
6 . 7
4 .. 5
1

4
 3 2
R1
6 .. 7
6 . 7
6 i7
Then M 0 = Ri ( )M = 6
6 R7
7
6 . 7
4 .. 5
Rn
equal M with one row multiplied by .
P
det M 0 = sgn( )m1 (1) ::: mi (i) :::mn(n)
P
= sgn( )m1 (1) :::mi (i) :::mn(n)
= det M

Theorem: M 0 = Pij M ! det M 0 = det M .

Row Addition
Rj + Ri
Eij ( ) is an identity matrix with an additional in the (i; j) position.
2 3
1
6 .. 7
6 . 7
6 7
6 1 7
6 7
6 .. 7
Eij ( ) = 6 . 7
6 7
6 1 7
6 7
6 .. 7
4 . 5
1
2 3
1 2 3 2 3
6 .. 7 .. ..
6 . 7 .
6 7 6 i7 6 i . j7
6 1 7 6 R 7 6R + R 7
6 76 7 6 7
6 .. 7 6 .. 7 6 .. 7
6 . 76 . 7 = 6 . 7
6 76 7 6 7
6 1 7 6Rj 7 6 Rj 7
6 74 5 4 5
6 .. 7 . .
4 . 5 .. ..
1
P
det M 0 = sgn( )m1 (1) :::(mi (i) + mj (j) ):::mn(n)
P
= sgn( )m1 (1) :::mi (i) :::mn(n) +
P
sgn( )m1 (1) ::: mj (j) :::mj (j) :::mn(n)
= det M + det M 00 = det M + 0 = det M

…nal exam …ll-in-blank problem:

use the de…nition of determinant

5
 P
det(M ) = sgn( )m1 (1) :::mi (i) :::mn(n)
to calculate the determinant of the identity matrix, which term m11 :::mii :::mnn
is the only one to survive, and the function is identity permutation.
Theorem: M 0 equals M with a multiple of one row added to another!
det M 0 = det M

3. Determinant of Products
In summary , the elementary matrices for each of the row operations obey
Eji = I with row i; j swapped; det Eji = 1
Ri ( ) = I with in position i; j; det Ri ( ) =
Sji ( ) = I with in position i; j; det Sji ( ) = 1

Elementary Determinants
Theorem: If E is any of the elementary matrices Eji , Ri ( ), Sji ( ), then
det(EM ) = det(E) det(M )

rref (M ) = E1 E2 :::Ek M
where each Ei is an elementary matrix.

What is the determinant of a square matrix in reduced row echelon form?

1. If M is not invertible, then some row of rref (M ) contains only zeros.
det(rref (M )) = 0.
2. Otherwise, every row of rref (M ) has a pivot on the diagonal. Since M
is square, rref (M ) has to be identity matrix, det(rref (M )) = 1.
det(rref (M )) = det(E1 E2 :::Ek M ) = det(E1 )::: det(Ek ) det M

Theorem: For any square matrix M , det M 6= 0 if and only if M is invertible.

Determinants and Inverses

Corollary: any elementary matrix Eji , Ri ( ), Sji ( ) is invertible, except

i
R (0). In fact, the inverse of an elementary matrix is another elementary matrix.

M and N are both n n square matrices, Ei and Fi are elementary matrices

M = E1 :::Ek (rref (M ))
rref (M ) = I reduced row echelon form
N = F1 :::Fl (rref (N ))
det(M N ) = det(E1 :::Ek (rref (M ))F1 :::Fl (rref (N ))
= det(E1 :::Ek IF1 :::Fl (rref (N ))
= det E1 ::: det Ek det I det(F1 )::: det(Fl ) det rref (N )
= det M det N

4. Properties
P of Determinant
det M = sgn( )m1 (1) :::mn(n)

6
 A minor of an n n matrix M is the determinant of any square matrix
obtained from M by deleting one row and one column. Any entry mij of a
square matrix M is associated to a minor by deleting the ith row and jth
column.
Write thePdeterminant of a matrix in terms of its minors
det M = sgn( )m1 (1) :::mn(n)
P
= m11 sgn( 01 )m2 01 (2) :::mn01 (n) +
P 01
m12 sgn( 02 )m2 02 (1) m3 02 (3) :::mn02 (n) +
02
P
m3 sgn( 03 )m2 03 (1) m3 03 (2) m4 03 (4) :::mn02 (n) + :::
1
03
0k
Here the symbol refers to the permutation with the input k removed.

a b x y
Ex: M = ;N =
c d z w
det M = ad bc
det N = xw yz
a b x y ax + bz bw + ay
det M N = det( ) = det = adwx bcwx
c d z w cx + dz dw + cy
adyz + bcyz
det M det N = (ad bc)(xw yz) = adwx bcwx adyz + bcyz
a b x y
det(M + N ) = det( + ) = ad bc + aw bz cy + dx + wx yz
c d z w
det M + det N = ad bc + xw yz
det(M + N ) (det M + det N )
= ad bc + aw bz cy + dx + wx yz
ad + bc xw + yz)
= aw bz cy + dx

Ex: compute
2 the
3 determinant
1 2 3
M = 44 5 65
7 8 9
5 6 4 6 4 5
det M = 1 det 2 det + 3 det
8 9 7 9 7 8
= (45 48) 2(36 42) + 3(32 35)
= 3 + 12 9 = 0
M 1 does not exist:
2 3
1 2 3
Ex. N = 44 0 05
7 8 9
2 3
det N = ( 1)1+2 4 = 4(18 24) = 24
8 9

7
 2 3 2 3 2 3
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Ex: det 44 5 65 = det 43 3 35 = det 43 3 35 = 0
7 8 9 6 6 6 0 0 0

Theorem: If M is a square matrix then det M T = det M

proof: P
det M = sgn( )m1 (1) :::mn(n)
P 1
(1) 1
(n)
= sgn( )m1 :::mn
P 1
(1) 1
(n)
= sgn( 1 )m1 :::mn
P (1) (n)
= sgn( )m1 :::mn
= det M T
2 3
1 2 3
Ex: M = 40 5 65
0 8 9
5 6
det M = det = 45 48 = 3
82 9 3
1 0 0
5 8
det M T = det 42 5 85 = det = 45 48 = 3
6 9
3 6 9

Determinant of the Inverse

Let M and N be n n matrices.

det(M N ) = det M det N , and det I = 1
1 = det I = det(M M 1 ) = det M det M 1

Theorem: det M 1 = det1M

Adjoint of a Matrix

d b a b a b
det( ) = det I
c a c d c d

m11 m12
M=
m21 m22
1 1 m22 m12
M = m11 m22 m12 m21 m1 m11
2

det M = m11 m22 1 2

m2 m1 6= 0

Def: For M = (mij ) a square matrix, the adjoint matrix adj(M ) is

adj(M ) = (cofactor(mij ))T
The cofactor of M corresponding to the entry mij of M is the product of the
minor associated to mij and ( 1)i+j .

8
 2 3
3 1 1
Ex: adj 41 2 05
0 1 1
2 3T
2 0 1 0 1 2
6 det 1 1 det
0 1
det
0 1 7
6 7
6 1 1 3 1 3 1 7
6
= 6 det det det 7
6 1 1 0 1 0 1 7 7
4 1 1 3 1 3 1 5
det det det
2 0 1 0 1 2
2 3T 2 3
2 1 1 2 0 2
= 40 3 35 = 4 1 3 15
2 1 7 1 3 7

Theorem: For M a square matrix with det M 6= 0, then

M 1 = det1M adj(M )
M 1 M = det1M adj(M )M
I = det1M adj(M )M
(adj(M ))M = (det M )I
2 3 2 3
3 1 1 2 0 2
adj 41 2 0 5=4 1 3 15
0 1 12 1 32 3 7 3 2 3
3 1 1 2 0 2 6 0 0
M (adj(M )) = 41 2 0 54 1 3 15 = 40 6 05 = 6I3
2 0 1 1 32 1 3 73 2 0 0 36
2 0 2 3 1 1 6 0 0
(adjM )M = 4 1 3 15 41 2 0 5 = 40 6 05 = 6I3
1 3 7 0 1 1 0 0 6
2 3 1 2 3
3 1 1 2 0 2
41 2 0 5 = 61 4 1 3 15
0 1 1 1 3 7
2 3 1 2 1 1
3
3 1 1 3 0 3
41 2 0 5 = 4 16 1 15
2 6
1 1 7
0 1 1 6 2 6

Volume of a Parallelepipe
Volume= j det(u; v; w)j

Find
2 the determinant
3 via expanding minors
2 1 3 7
66 1 4 47
6 7
42 1 8 05, determinant: 64
1 0 2 0

9
2 3 2 3
2 1 3 7 2 1 1 7
66 1 4 47 66 1 8 47
6 7 : 2 col1 col3 : 6 7
42 1 8 05 42 1 4 05
1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0
2 3 2 3
1 1 7 1 1 7
41 8 45 ! 40 7 35
1 4 0 0 5 7
7 3
det = 49 15 = 64
5 7

10