PRACTICAL CLASS MANUAL & WORKBOOK

ON

ELEMENTARY GEOLOGICAL MAP INTERPRETATION

By

Prof. Y. Ayo. ASIWAJU-BELLO.

Applied Geology Dept., Federal University of Technology, Akure.

MAPS

A map is a 2-dimensional representation of the 3-dimensional configuration of a land surface.

Thus it represents a part of the earth surface as seen when looking down from a great height.

There are different types of maps - viz: topographic maps, geologic maps, economic geological

maps, engineering geological maps, hydrogeological maps, geophysical maps.

TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

This shows the diversity of landform by means of contours. It shows the ground or earth features

like the coast lines, rivers, hills, vegetation, cities, highways, dams, bridges, etc. It also shows the

relief of the mapped area by indicating the range of elevation, i.e. height above sea level for

several points in the area. Geologist usually use topographic maps as base maps, i.e. field-guide

map with which a geologist starts a mapping work.

ELEMENTS OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

1. Orientation: Maps are conventionally oriented in a way that the top is the North, the bottom is

the South, the right is the East and the left is the West.

North

West East

South
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2. Latitudes or Parallels: The equator is the line mid-way between the North and the South pole.

It is perpendicular to the polar axis. The equator bisects the earth into 2 equal halves. Latitude

denotes the angular distance North or South of this midline. The equator is labelled the zero

degree latitude, and it is the line of origin from which other latitudes are measured.

N N

45oN 45oN

45o 45o
o
Equator (0 ) 50o 60o

50oS
60oS
S S

3. Longitudes or Meridians: The longitude crosses latitude at right angles, and the longitudes

merge at the poles. The prime meridian, or zero meridian, runs through Greenwich in England,

and it is the reference for longitude measurements. It can be measured in any direction, i.e.

Eastward or Westward.

N
000o

180o
S
 -3-

4. Scale: It gives the relationship between the size of the map and the actual size of the area

represented on the map, i.e. the relationship between the drawn object on paper, which is the

map, and the actual physical object on the ground. The scale can be stated in 3 different ways:

a) Verbal or Statement Scale: a statement scale in the form of an equation, e.g. 1cm = 1km; or

1cm rep. 1km.

b) Fractional or Ratio Scale: is expressed as a fraction or a ratio;

e.g. . 1 ____ or 1:1,000,000

1,000,000

This means that one unit of anything on the map is equal to one million units on the ground. This

type of scale is used for a very accurate map.

c) Graphic or Bar Scale: a bar marked off to show scaled distances in metres, kilometres or any

other units as may be indicated on the map.

1 0 1 2 3 Km

There are usually two parts to a bar scale -

(i) the primary part which is to the right of the zero. This part normally displays the whole

numbers;

(ii) the secondary part which is to the left of zero. This usually shows the fractions.

A graphic scale is always included on the map. If a map is to be reduced or enlarged, only the

graphic scale remains correct.

Scales are usually put at the top or bottom of maps.

5. Direction:- This is a straight line on the map or ground measured from a standardized common

base line called the zero direction. The north is regarded as line of zero direction. direction can be

expressed in form of azimuth or bearing.

a) Azimuths: are directions expressed as angles measured clockwise from the north throughout

the full range of the directional circle. The South is 180o, East is 090o, Southwest is 225o. Three
 -4-

digits are used in expressing an azimuth.

N
000o

W  270o E 090o

SW 225o

S 180o

b) Bearings: are measured within each of the 4 quadrants of the directional circle. They are

always measured as angles from the South or North, e.g. azimuth 090 is N90oE, Southeast is

S45oE, South-Southeast is S221/2oE.

Base Line or Base Directions: The North is the generally accepted base direction for both

Bearing and Azimuth measurements. There are 3 types of North directions:-

(i) True North: This is the direction to the North pole, represented on the map by the meridians. It

is the base direction used for making most maps.

(ii) Magnetic North: This is the direction established by the needle of the compass. It doesn't

coincide with the true North. The angular difference between the two is called the Magnetic

Declination (M.D.). For practical field mapping, the magnetic compass is used. Therefore, the

measurements made are for the magnetic North as base direction. Corrections have to be made

later to obtain readings relative to the true North.

The earth's magnetic field usually causes the magnetic declination. The magnetic north does not

have a stable position.

 -5-

T.N.
M.N.

Magnetic Declination (M.D.)

It shifts gradually every year. Every large-scale or regional map will always give information on

the magnetic declination of the area at the time of making the map. It will also give the predicted

annual change in that area. For example, M.D. annual change of -0.1 implies a movement of

magnetic North towards the true North at a rate of 0.1 degree per year. M.D. annual change of

+0.1 implies a movement of the magnetic North away from the true North (i.e. movement of

M.N. eastward) at a rate of 0.1 degree per year.

(iii) Grid North: This is the direction of the North-South grid lines on a map. It is a North line

pointing to the top of a map.

6. Topographic Contour Lines: A contour line connects points of equal altitude above or below

the sea level or ordinance datum (O.D.). The vertical distance between two contour lines is called

the contour interval, and it is the difference in height between any one contour and the next one.

The contour lines are drawn with reference to the datum plane or zero contour. There are two

types - form lines and strengthened contours.

(a) Form Lines: These are the thinner lines and do not have any value printed on them.

(b) Strengthened Contours: These are thicker lines and they bear printed values. They are more

carefully surveyed and more accurately determined.

 -6-
Strengthened Contour

Form Line

Generally, the contour lines on a map show the distribution of the high and low grounds. Contour

lines also indicate the variation in the gradient.

Close contours ⇛⇛⇛⇛⇛ steep slope;

Widely spaced contours ⇛⇛⇛⇛⇛ gentle or flat plains.

Gradient = vertical contour interval

contour spacing

= vertical difference in elevation

horizontal distance

RULES GOVERNING CONTOUR LINES OR ATTRIBUTES OF CONTOUR LINES:

1) All points on same line are at the same elevation.

2) All contour lines close somewhere, although it may be outside the map at hand.

3) Contour lines never cross each other. On a vertical cliff, several contour lines may become

superimposed. This does not mean that they are crossing.

4) The lines never divide nor branch.

5) They are far apart on a gentle slope.

6) They are close together on a steep slope.

 -7-

7) Contours bend upstream in valleys and cross the streams at right angles.

8) On a level or flat ground, there are no contours, e.g. on a plateau.

9) An isolated close contour has the same elevation as the next adjacent contour.

10) All points inside a depression contour are lower than that line of the depression.

EXERCISE: The map below contains point elevations measured in an area. Contour line 400m

O.D. has already been sketched out for you. Using contour interval of 50m, draw the remaining

contours. Later on, you will draw the topographic profile from A to B.
 -8-

GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION EXTRACTABLE FROM TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

Topographical map forms the base for the compilation of geological maps. In topographical

maps, the diversity of landform is expressed by contour lines.

- The distribution of the contour lines is an expression of the foundation geology of the area, i.e.

the diversity of landform.

- If the regional pattern of the contour lines is wavy and sharp, then the strata are horizontal.

- Resistant beds are expressed by parallel ridges while valleys are dissected by streams.

- The strike of beds is generally parallel to the trend of the ridges.

- If the dip of a bedding plane is less than 40o, its direction may be determined from the spacing

of the contours. Closely spaced contours represent an eroded scarp face while the widely spaced

contours represent the dip slope, i.e. the plane along the direction of the dip of the bed.
 -9-

TOPOGRAPHIC PROFILE

The topographic profile is a single line representation of a surface, i.e. it is a trace showing the up

and downs of a topography along a definite direction.

Procedure For Construction of Topographic Profile:-

1) Select a line along which the profile is to be drawn.

It should be ensured that this line passes through the important features needed to be shown on

the profile.

2) Place the straight edge of a slip of paper along this line.

3) Mark the two ends of the line on the paper.

- Make a short mark on the paper for each of the contour lines and all the points of interest that

fall on the profile line. - Indicate the elevation of the contour lines as they are marked.

- Label other features that are marked, e.g. major roads, rivers, mountains, plateau, etc.

4) Layout a suitable vertical and horizontal scale. The horizontal scale used for the profile is

usually the same as the scale of the map. At times, the scale along the vertical direction could be

changed, i.e. the scale may be enlarged or exaggerated along the vertical.

Vertical Exaggeration = Horizontal Scale

Vertical Scale

However, from experience, it is strongly recommended here that the scale of the map should

always be used along the vertical axis. Any exaggeration is not necessary for geological studies.

5) Project each contour line up to its proper elevation along the vertical scale and mark that point

6) Connect the points.

7) Label the diagram.

- Give a title, show the scales that have been used along the horizontal and vertical axes.

- Indicate directions of the end points of the profile, i.e. whether it is North or South, etc
 -10-

EXERCISE:

The topographical map below has two lines of section. Cross-section from A to B is drawn at the

bottom of the map. Draw the cross-section from C to D.

 -11-

GEOLOGICAL MAPS

A geological map is a graphic picture of the sum total of data accumulated on the field. It is a

representation on a plane surface, at an established scale, of the physical features of a part or the

whole of the earth's surface from any desired surface or subsurface data, by means of signs and

symbols.

A solid geologic map shows the distribution of the various rock units as they occur at the bedrock

surface. The map shows the bedrock surface irrespective of whether the surface is covered with

unconsolidated surface deposits or not.

FEATURES OF THE GEOLOGIC MAP

Geologic maps usually illustrate geological features such as rock units (folded, horizontal, etc)

and bedding, faults, folds, intrusions, unconformities, river traces, etc. Geologic map can be

super-imposed on topographic contour map.

Formation:- The fundamental unit of the geologic map is the formation. A formation is a

sequence of rocks sufficiently homogeneous in composition to be regarded as constituting a rock

unit. A formation may consist of one rock type e.g. sandstone, or a mixture of two e.g. sandy

shale, sandy limestone, etc.

On a geologic map, a formation is designated by a distinctive colour and symbol. The symbol

may be a number or letter. The boundary between any two geologic formations is called

geological boundary (or contact line or geological interface).

Outcrop:- The term outcrop refers to a point on the ground surface where bedrock is exposed

while still remaining in place, e.g. surface quarry, etc.

Legend:- The legend of a geologic map is a listing of the formations which occur within the

mapped area. For each formation, the legend indicates the distinctive colour and symbol, the

nature and the type of rock. For sedimentary rocks, the legend is arranged in orderly sequence

with the oldest formation at the bottom, the younger ones above and the youngest at the top.
 -12-

If igneous and metamorphic rocks occur within the mapped area, they are often arranged in a

separate legend. Some conventional signs and symbols used on geological maps are:

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS' SYMBOLS:-

Limestone Sandy Shale

Fine Sandstone Coarse Sandstone

Conglomerate Clay

Sandy Shale Laminated Shale

Marl Coal

IGNEOUS ROCKS' SYMBOLS:-

Volcanics Porphyries
(Basalt, Andesite, etc) (Pegmatite, etc)

Granite Breccia

Dyke rocks
(Dolerite dyke, etc)

METAMORPHIC ROCKS' SYMBOLS:-

Quartzite Slate

Schist, Gneiss, etc

SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS' SYMBOLS:-

Alluvium Boulder clay

 -13-

Other symbols used:-

Gr = Granite D = Dolerite Q = Quartz vein π = Pegmatite

g = Garnet t = Tourmaline Qt = Quartz-tourmaline vein

STRUCTURAL SYMBOLS:- include:


Alluvium Fossil locality Borehole

050
Attitude:- dip & strike
18 ` ` dip trend

32

Major anticlines:-

22

or 5
25

horizontal plunging

Major synclines:-

or 8

horizontal plunging
 -14-

Minor folds:-

15

horizontal plunging

Lineations or trends:-

10
horizontal plunging

Fault:-
Normal Reverse

Geological boundary:-

inferred or approximate observed

Rock exposure or outcrop:-

Vertical Strata Horizontal Strata

 -15-

GEOMETRY OF OUTCROPS

The determination of geometric forms of outcrops enables the definition of the overall shape and

orientation of a rock body or formation. The outcrop surface is considered in terms of a plane and

the parameters measurable on the plane are used to characterise the whole formation.

The Plane:- A plane is a general term for a 2-dimensional geologic form that is without

curvature. Ideally, it is a flat or level surface. Examples of geologic planes are bedding planes,

joint planes, fault planes, erosional surfaces, etc.

Natural rock surfaces are supposed to be planar. In the determination of the orientation of rocks,

only the natural planar surfaces are searched for, and it is only on them that measurements are

made. The planar structure most frequently encountered in sedimentary outcrops is the bedding

plane. Other planar structures usually encountered in crystalline rocks are cleavage, foliation,

schistosity and joint planes.

Some of the terms employed in defining the orientation of planes of outcrops in space are

attitude, dip, strike, apparent dip, inclination, etc.

ATTITUDE:- The attitude of a plane in space is determined by the values of its dip and strike.

The terms dip and strike apply to any planar structure.

DIP:- is the angle at which any plane is inclined away from the horizontal. It is at right angle to

the strike and is measured in a vertical plane. The true dip is the direction of maximum

inclination of bedrock to the horizontal.

B

A.D. = Direction of apparent dip

T.D. = Direction of true dip

C
A.D. T.D.
angle of true dip
 -16-

The diagram above shows a rock bed inclined at an angle BÂC to the horizontal AC. The angle

BÂC, which is the maximum inclination to the horizontal, is the angle of full or true dip. With

the exception of the direction at right angle to the direction of true dip, which is called the strike

of the bed, every other direction across the bed has some dip.

The dip in any direction other than the true dip is called an apparent dip. Apparent dips are

always smaller than the true dip. There is no dip along the strike of beds. The closer the direction

of apparent dip approaches the direction of true dip, the nearer will the angle of apparent dip

approach the angle of true dip. Also, the nearer the direction of apparent dip approaches the

direction of strike, the smaller will be the angle of apparent dip.

Whether apparent or true, dip ranges between 00o and 90o. It is measured on the field with a

clinometer.

STRIKE:- is the direction of a horizontal line on an inclined plane. Dip and strike directions are

perpendicular to each other. Strike ranges from 000o to 180o. It is measured on the field with a

compass.

INCLINATION:- is a general term for the vertical angle between the horizontal and an inclined

plane or line.

METHODS OF DETERMINING DIP AND STRIKE FROM GEOLOGICAL MAPS

1. BY DRAWING STRIKE LINES:

Strike is determined by joining 2 points of equal elevation on a plane.

- If the boundary of a rock bed or outcrop crosses a contour line at two different points, such

points can be joined by a straight line and the straight line is a strike line or stratum contour on

the bed surface.

- Where the same rock boundary cuts another contour line at two different points, another strike

line can also be drawn through those points.

- As many strike lines as possible can be drawn in this way using the same rock boundary. Such
 -17-

strike lines are supposed to be parallel to each other.

- The direction of strike can then be measured using the base direction of the map.

- With at least two strike lines drawn, the dip or gradient of the beds can be calculated. The dip or

gradient is the change in value of the vertical distance with respect to the horizontal distance, i.e.

a ratio of the vertical to the horizontal, but expressed in degrees.

- The dip is calculated by measuring the perpendicular distance and the elevation difference

between two chosen strike lines on the same bedding surface using the following equation:

tan (dip angle in radians) = difference in elevation

horizontal distance

- The difference in elevation is the contour interval between the two strike lines being used, while

the horizontal distance is the distance measured on the map between the two strike lines

appropriately multiplied by the scale of the map.

- The dip direction is the direction towards which the surface elevation falls, and should be

perpendicular to the strike direction.

400 300 200 100

 -18-

In the geological map shown above, six beds numbered P, Q, R, S, T, & U are shown. Strike

lines 200 & 300 are drawn for boundary between formations Q & R. The dip direction for this

plane is also shown in between the strike lines. Read the strike direction and calculate the dip

amount for this plane. Draw the strike lines for other boundaries, read their strike directions and

calculate their dips.

2. FROM A PARTIAL OUTCROP CUTTING THREE OR MORE CONTOURS

 -19-

- In the figure above, the sandstone bed boundary cuts the contours each at a point on the map.

- To determine dip and strike, first join A-B.

- The boundary of the rock bed is assumed to be a plane surface, hence there is an even gradient

between A and B. Between these two points, the surface falls 300 metres.

- As the contour interval is 100 metres, we divide line A-B into three equal parts. Points C' and

D' will then have elevations 400m and 500m O.D. respectively.

- If D is joined to D' and extended while C is joined to C' and also extended, two strike lines will

be obtained.

- Other strike lines parallel to these two may be drawn across the map to complete the stratum

contours.

- The strike direction, dip value and dip direction can then be got as in the first method.

3. FROM BOREHOLE RECORDS OR USING SUBSURFACE DATA

Problems involving the use of information from borehole are called 'three-point problems'.

Further treatment of this is done in subsequent sections.

 -20-

- In the figure above, let the boreholes be at A, B, C, and at topographic heights of 500m, 675m

and 520m O.D. respectively.

- Suppose a sandstone bed lies at the surface at A and at depths of 675m and 320m in boreholes

B and C, respectively.

- The elevation of the sandstone relative to the sea level will then occur as follows:-

at 500m O.D. at A; at zero elevation at B; & at 200m O.D. at C.

- This means that the surface of the rock bed falls 300m from A to C, 500m from A to B and

200m from C to B.

- If we divide line A-B into 5 equal parts; - points A', A'', A''', and B' will have elevation 400m,

300m, 200m and 100m O.D. respectively.

- If line A-C is divided into 3 equal parts, points C' and C'' will have elevation 300m and 400m

O.D. respectively.

- From similar reason, it can be seen that B'' lies at elevation 100m on line B-C.

- Considering the above, points on same elevation can be joined to obtain strike lines on the

surface of the sandstone bed.

A' will join to C'', A'' to C', A''' to C and B' to B''.
 -21-

EXERCISES:

Map A:-

Draw in the strike lines. Determine the dip and strike directions. Determine the amount of dip.

Map B:-

Draw in the strike lines. Determine the dip and strike directions. Determine the amount of dip.

Later, you will draw a section from X to Y.

 -22-

GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS

A geological cross section is an aid of visualizing the structures portrayed on the 2-dimensional

geologic map in their 3-dimensional setting.

Construction of geologic sections involves 2 major steps:-

(i) drawing the topographic profile.

(ii) filling in the structural data. These are added to the topography and extrapolated into the

underground.

- The line of section is chosen to show the required structural features to best advantage.

- In general, the line should cut across the strike direction, as close to the perpendicular as

possible. This is the section that provides the greatest structural details. It is also the direction

that one should try to follow on the field during geological field mapping exercises.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE SECTION

(i) Draw the topographic profile as discussed earlier.

(ii) Add the structural data to the profile constructed.

This is as follows:

- Mark accurately, the various contacts and attitudes of planes, layers, etc, on the profile paper.

- These data are then projected onto the section using the values of dip angles and dip directions.

Mathematical instruments are required here.

- It should be noted that where the geological boundaries on maps are almost parallel to the

contour lines, the beds are horizontal or almost so, i.e. with little or no dip.

- Accurate extrapolation of these data downward into the underground where observed data are

lacking is a complex process. The understanding of this can only come with thorough

understanding of various tectonic processes, long-standing experience, all in combination with a

vigorous use of imagination. In extrapolating, questionable areas should be so indicated or left

blank.
 -23-

(iii) The section should always be accompanied by a legend explaining any symbol or colour

carried on it.

(iv) In its final form,

- the section should be labelled, indicating the geographical co-ordinates and a title of the area.

- the section line should be drawn on the geologic map to assist the reader.

- prominent topographic features on the section should be labelled.

- the scale should always be shown at the bottom of the section.

A simple geologic map is drawn below, with its section shown from X to Y. Study the section

and look for another good line of section to draw.

 -24-

Below is a simple geologic map. Draw the section from C to D, and also from X to Y.
 -25-

DRAWING GEOLOGIC BOUNDARIES ON PROFILES USING STRIKE LINES

Instead of using the mathematical instruments to project the rock boundaries using the angles of

dip, the strike lines can be plotted directly. However, this does not give accurate boundaries as in

the projection method but it is nonetheless a quick method of viewing the general orientation of

the beds.

The procedure is as follows:-

- For every boundary, plot out the elevation of all the strike lines that cut it along the line of

section.

- Connect the marked points, producing the line down below the drawn profile.

INFORMATION EXTRACTABLE FROM GEOLOGICAL CROSS SECTIONS

1) The mode of succession of the rock units can be determined from the dips of the beds as

shown in the section. Generally, older beds dip towards younger ones.

Normally, sedimentary deposits are approximately horizontal at the time of deposition in quiet

water, with the youngest bed at topmost and oldest at bottommost parts. However, in most

localities, earth movements during and after deposition of rocks cause inclination of strata so

that they outcrop at the surface in succession, one after another, with the older beds dipping

towards the younger ones.

2) Thickness of the rock units can be calculated from the section.

DETERMINATION OF THE THICKNESS OF A BED OF ROCK

1) Mathematical Method:-

This involves the application of simple rules of trigonometry to determine the true thickness of

the rock bed. There are three possible approaches based on the relationship between the

orientation of the bed and the slope of the land surface. Three different maps, each having bed

with unique relationship to the topography, will be used for this exercise.
 -26-

ON MAP 1:

The map here shows a bed of rock which dips in the opposite direction to the slope of the land

surface. Draw the section accurately and label it.

The orientation of the bed in the section can be shown as:

DA = direction along the dip between the bottom and top of the rock bed.

DE = projection on the section of DA on the map, i.e. horizontal distance.

AB = apparent or vertical thickness of the bed.

CB = true thickness of the bed.

AE = difference in elevation between D and A; i.e. the contour interval between D and A.

θ = angle of true dip of the bed.

AB = AE + DEtanθ {NOTE: EDB = CBA = θ}

 -27-

CB = ABcosθ

AE, DE and θ can be determined from the map to get AB.

These are then used to determine the true thickness CB.

ON MAP 2:

The beds here dip in the same direction as the slope of the ground surface.

Draw the profile and label it.

The orientation of the bed will be found to be:

AD = direction along the dip between the bottom and top of the rock bed.

BD = projection on the section of AD on the map, i.e. horizontal distance.

AC = apparent or vertical thickness of the bed.

 -28-

AE = true thickness of the bed.

AB = difference in elevation between D and A; i.e. the contour interval between D and A.

θ = angle of true dip.

AC = AB - BDtanθ {since BDC = EAC = θ}

AE = ACcosθ

AB, BD and θ can be obtained from the map.

ON MAP 3:

The rock bed here dips in the same direction as the slope of the ground surface. Slope of the

ground surface is gentle here. The orientation of the bed is as presented below:

Draw and label the cross section.

AB = direction along the dip between the bottom and top of bed.

AD = projection in the section of AB on the map, i.e. horizontal distance.

CB = apparent or vertical thickness of the bed.

CE = true thickness of the bed.

 -29-

DB = difference in elevation between A and B; i.e. the contour interval between A and B.

θ = angle of true dip of the bed, i.e. maximum inclination of bed from the horizontal.

BC = DC - DB = ADtanθ - DB {since DAC = ECB = θ}

EC = CBcosθ

Possible Orientations of Beds Relative to Ground Surface:

With respect to the techniques discussed above, there are eight possible orientations of beds

relative to ground surface, viz:

 -30-

2) Graphical Construction Method:-

In all the three cases treated above, it can be seen that the thickness could be obtained graphically

by measuring directly from the section. It is a very quick method.

- This direct measurement is possible when the section is accurately drawn.

- No exaggeration of any axis should be made, i.e. only the scale of map should be used on both

x and y axes to avoid confusion.

There is a big danger in this method when the scale of the map is such that 1mm on the map may

mean several metres on the ground. For example, if a map has a scale 1/50,000 i.e. 1mm on the

map to 50 metres on the ground and the thickness of a coal seam (which may not be more than 1

to 8 metres on the ground) is to be calculated. A pencil trace may be up to 2mm thick, and an

error of this magnitude on the paper when taking ruler measurements may not be uncommon.

This level of error will give you an error margin of up to 100 metres on the ground !. Therefore,

your coal seam which is far less than 10 metres thick in reality may be measured as being 100 or

more metres thick. This will amount to a serious blunder which any serious-minded investor will

never forgive. It will be the case of a cockroach for a horse and can cost you your job.

In this class, only the mathematical method will be accepted.

TO COMPLETE AN OUTCROP OF BED FROM ITS PARTIAL OUTCROP

i. e. USING SURFACE DATA

In mapping an area, it is usual to observe or encounter only a few outcrops of rock boundaries.

Positions of the complete boundaries are calculated from these when plotted on map.

This method for completion of outcrop is only possible where the series of beds are conformable

so that the strike and dip are uniform and the same for all the beds.

Procedure:- Look for any of the outcrop boundaries that cuts a contour line at 2 points. If there is

any, join those 2 points with a strike line. Look for any other contour line where you can draw

another strike line on the same outcrop boundary.

 -31-

In the map provided above, the sandstone/sandy shale boundary can be used for this.

- The strike lines establish the strike as east to west and the dip due South.

- Since the beds are conformable, i.e. with uniform strike and dip, the strike lines will be evenly

spaced over the whole map.

- Other strike lines of equal intervals can be drawn parallel to the 2 strike lines already drawn.

- The beds are assumed to be whole number multiples of one hundred metres in thickness, so the

strike lines for the sandstone/sandy shale contact will also be strike line (though of different

value) for each of the other contacts.

- For example, the strike line (at the topmost) for the conglomerate/sandstone contact is 500m but

it is the 900m strike line for the top of the sandstone.

- The outcrops of the various contacts between the beds can be drawn where the strike lines, with

their values appropriate to the particular surface, intersect contours of like value.
 -32-

SOLVING THREE-POINT PROBLEMS

i.e. COMPLETION OF OUTCROP USING SUBSURFACE OR BOREHOLE DATA

- Problems involving the use of information from boreholes, or from the subsurface generally, are

often described as 'three-point problems'.

- If the height of a bed is known at 3 or more points, it is possible to find the direction of strike

and to calculate the dip of the bed, provided dip is uniform.

- The principle has many applications to mining, opencast, and borehole problems encountered

by applied geologists and engineers.

- The height of a bed may be known at points where it outcrops or its height may be calculated

from its known depth in boreholes or mine shafts.

- If the height is known at three or more points, only one possible solution exists as to the

direction and amount of dip, and this can be simply calculated.

EXERCISE 1:-

The map below shows part of the outcrop of a coal seam. Calculate the dip and strike. Complete

the outcrop. At what depth would the seam be encountered in a borehole sunk at point M ?.

Procedure:

- The height of the seam is known at 3 points, A, B, C, where it crosses the 700m, 800m and

900m contours respectively.

- Join A to C and bisect at D. Point D will lie on the seam at a height of 800m.

- Since B is a point in the seam at the same height as D, D is joined to B to form the 800m strike

line.

- Draw the 700m and 900m strike lines parallel to D-B through A and C, respectively. If these

lines are carefully drawn, the spacing between them should be equal.
 -33-

- Draw further strike lines of equal intervals parallel to the three strike lines already drawn.

The strike and dip can be calculated at this stage.

- Draw enough strike lines to cover the whole map. All lines should extend through the whole

width of the page.

- Now, trace out the position of outcrop of the coal seam;: the guiding principle is: where ever the

strike line of the seam crosses or intersects a contour line of equal value, the seam will outcrop at

that point. We can therefore find a number of outcrop positions or intersections on the map, and

the seam trace must pass through all these points.

CAUTION: An outcrop trace must not touch any strike line or contour line except at appropriate

intersection only.
 -34-

- Use smooth curves, not straight lines, to join the points.

Note:- The map portrays a coal seam and an average seam is of the order of 2 metres or less in

thickness. On the scale of 1cm = 1,000m, its thickness is such that it can be represented

satisfactorily by a single line trace on the map.

=> To determine the depth at which the seam will be encountered in a borehole sunk at point M,

a line that passes through point M and parallel to the seam’s strike lines should be drawn.

=> Using the average strike line interval and spacing, the value of this strike line M should be

calculated relative to the other strike lines. The value of this strike line M is the elevation (O.D)

of the coal seam bed at point M.

=> Looking at the map, the ground surface elevation at point M was about 575m O.D. The

difference between this surface elevation and the strike line M value obtained is equal to the

depth at which the seam will be encountered in the borehole at M.

EXERCISE 2:-

The map below shows 3 boreholes A, B & C. The geological log of each borehole is as follows:

A B C

MARL 50 - -

LIMESTONE 300 - -

SHALE 200 100 -

SANDSTONE 400 400 300

CONGLOMERATE ? ? ?

All the beds are conformable. Draw the strike lines.

Determine dip and strike of the beds. Draw the geological map and construct the section. At what

depth will a borehole at H encounter the sandstone bed?.

 -35-

DETAILED SOLUTION PROCEDURE:

Part I:-

- Looking at the 3 borehole logs supplied, five rock formations were encountered at borehole A.

Out of these five, the thicknesses of the first 4 formations were given. Thickness of the last

formation, i.e. conglomerate, was unknown because the borehole, probably, did not fully

penetrate it and the hole ended within this formation.

- The two uppermost units in A were absent in borehole B. Only the last 3 formations were

present in this borehole. Thickness of the last formation was unknown here, meaning that this

borehole too did not go beyond the conglomerate level.

 -36-

- Comparing the logs of A & B, the shale unit in A was 200m thick while it was 100m thick in B.

But this shale was encountered at deep depth in A while it was found on the surface in B. It can

then be reasoned that the shale must have been affected by surface erosion and transportation at

site B thereby reducing its natural thickness, while it must have been protected by marl and

limestone beds on top of it at site A. Therefore, the maximum thickness of the shale was as found

in A, i.e. 200m.

- Although the limestone in borehole A was absent in B and C, but it can be seen to be protected

by marl layer on top of it. So, the maximum thickness of the limestone must be 300m.

- The thickness of sandstone layer was 400m in A & B, but was recorded as 300m in C. As can

be seen, this sandstone was protected on top at both A & B, but it has no top protection cover at

C. So, erosion of some of the sandstone must have taken place at site C. Therefore, the maximum

thickness of the sandstone should be 400m.

- Borehole C, like A & B, ended inside the conglomerate. Maximum thickness of the

conglomerate, therefore, remained unknown.

- In borehole A, marl occurred at the topmost. The 50m indicated cannot be the natural maximum

thickness since the bed must have been affected by surface processes of erosion.

- In summary, the maximum thicknesses of the topmost and the bottommost beds were unknown

while the thicknesses of the layers in between are known. Total thicknesses of beds given in A =

950m, B = 500m and C = 300m. These are equal to the depths from the ground surface to the

sandstone/conglomerate boundary below the surface at each site.

Part II:-

- Our major assignment in the problem defined above is to trace out the boundaries between

Conglomerate & Sandstone; Sandstone & Shale; Shale & Limestone; and Limestone & Marl.

In 3-point problems like this, drawing of rock boundaries begins from the bottom, i.e. the

bottommost boundary is drawn first, then the next one above it, etc.
 -37-

- Starting with the Sandstone/Conglomerate boundary now, calculate the elevation of this

boundary relative to sea level in each of the 3 boreholes.

- On the map supplied, point A lies on surface elevation 750m O.D. Depth to the

conglomerate/sandstone boundary was 950m below the ground surface here. Therefore, elevation

of this boundary relative to sea level will be (750-950)m = -200m O.D. i.e. 200m below sea level

- On the map, point B lies on surface elevation 400m O.D. Depth to conglomerate/sandstone

boundary here was 500m below ground surface. Elevation of the boundary relative to sea level at

B will be (400-500)m = -100m O.D, i.e. 100m below the sea level.

- Point C lies on surface elevation 700m O.D. Depth to conglomerate/sandstone boundary here

was 300m. Elevation of the boundary relative to sea level at C will then be (700-300)m = 400m

O.D, i.e. 400m above sea level.

- Having obtained the sea level elevation of the bottommost rock boundary at the 3 sites

provided, join A to B, B to C and A to C. Put -200 on A, -100 on B and +400 on C.

- Going from A to B on the triangular plot, there is an increase of 100m in elevation. Since 100m

is the contour interval unit on the map, then line AB is made up of only one unit of contour

interval.

- Now, going from B to C on the plot, there is an increase of 500m in elevation. So, line BC is

made of 5 units of contour spacing as provided on the map. We then cut line BC into 5 equal

parts. The elevation points on the line from B to C will be -100, 0, +100, +200, +300, and +400.

The points should be so marked,

- Going from A to C on the plot, there will be an increase of 600m in elevation, i.e. line AC is

made of 6 units of contour spacing of the map. Therefore, line AC should be cut into 6 equal

parts. The elevation points on the line from A to C will be -200, -100, 0, +100, +200, +300, and

+400. These points should be so marked.

- Using a long ruler, join points of equal values occurring on line BC and AC. Extend each of the
 -38-

lines across the full page of the map. You should have 5 lines, to be marked -100, 0, +100, +200,

and +300.

Each of these lines is a strike line occurring on the planar surface of the conglomerate/sandstone

boundary at depth.

If the drawings and measurements were carefully made, the strike line intervals should be the

same.

The strike lines must be parallel.

You may determine strike and dip of beds at this stage.

- Use the strike line interval obtained to construct other strike lines above and below the triangle

to cover the full length of the map.

On the whole, there should be about 12 strike lines on this map, namely from top to bottom of

map: -400, -300, -200, -100, 0, +100, +200, +300, +400, +500, +600, and +700. The lines should

be so marked.

- Look at the strike lines one by one and mark out those that intersect contour lines of equal

values. These points of intersection define the orientation of the rock boundary.

Trace out the rock boundary with a smooth curve as appropriate using these points. Both ends of

the boundary traced must touch edges of the map.

CAUTION:- A rock boundary trace must not touch any contour or strike line, except at the

appropriate intersection points only.

- After getting the conglomerate unit delineated, use appropriate symbol to cover the area.

All the steps described in the last 4 pages (Parts I & II) are shown on the map below.

Follow the remaining procedures in Part III and complete the map.
 -39-

Part III:

Tracing out the Remaining Rock Boundaries:

Boundary between Sandstone & Shale: The is the next boundary in succession to be traced out.

- The maximum thickness of sandstone was 400m. The sandstone/shale boundary therefore

existed at 400m above the conglomerate/sandstone boundary.

- Therefore, add 400 to the value of each strike line earlier used. The new values will now be

(from top to bottom): 0, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000 & 1100. The lines

should be so marked.
 -40-

PLEASE! Don’t erase old values. Just cross them out neatly. You may re-use them for other

calculations again.

- As done earlier, mark out points of intersections between strike lines and contour lines of equal

values. Trace out the rock boundary as appropriate. In tracing the rock boundary from this stage,

the orientation of the boundary must be guided by that of the previous one already traced.

- Use the appropriate symbol to cover the sandstone area delineated.

Boundary between Shale & Limestone: The maximum thickness of shale was 200m. The

shale/limestone boundary, therefore, existed at 200m above the last sandstone/shale boundary, or

600m above the first conglomerate/sandstone boundary.

- Add 200 to the value of each strike line used last. The new values will now be (from top to

bottom): 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 1100, 1200 & 1300. The lines should be

so marked and the earlier values neatly crossed.

- As usual, mark out points of intersections between strike lines and contour lines of equal

values. Connect these points with a smooth line as appropriate.

REMEMBER! Boundary trace must not touch a contour or strike line except at the appropriate

point of intersection.

- Use appropriate symbol to cover the shale area delineated.

Boundary between Limestone & Marl: The maximum thickness of limestone was 300m. The

limestone/marl boundary therefore existed at 300m above the last shale/limestone boundary or

900m above the bottommost conglomerate/sandstone boundary.

- Add 300 to the value of each of the strike lines last used. The new values will now be (from top

to bottom of map): 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500 & 1600. The

lines should be so marked and earlier values neatly crossed out as usual.
 -41-

- As before, look for and mark out points of intersections between strike lines and contour lines

of equal values. Connect these points with a smooth line. Use appropriate symbols to cover the

limestone and marl areas simultaneously delineated.

= To obtain the depth at which a borehole sunk at point H will encounter the sandstone bed, we

will go back to the top of the sandstone, i.e. the shale/sandstone boundary. Re-list the strike line

values used in drawing this boundary.

= Draw a line passing through point H and parallel to the strike lines.

= Using the average strike line interval and spacing, the value of this strike line H should be

calculated relative to the other strike lines on the shale/sandstone boundary. The value of this

strike line H is the elevation (O.D) of the shale/sandstone boundary or the top of sandstone bed at

point H.

= Looking at the map, the ground surface elevation at point H was about 400m O.D. The

difference between this surface elevation and the strike line H value obtained is equal to the

depth at which the sandstone will be encountered in the borehole at H.

 -42-

FOLDS

Sedimentary rocks cover over 3/4 of the surface of the earth. Most of these were originally laid

down in almost horizontal layers. The sequence of deposition is normally conformable on the

depositional surface. The topmost bed will be the youngest and will lie on the next youngest bed.

The oldest bed will be at the bottom of the series.

Folded Strata:

Compressive forces developed within the earth's crust (i.e. tectonic forces) cause many of the

strata to tilt or be pushed into upfolds and downfolds of varying complexities.

By description, anticlines are upfolds and synclines are downfolds. The limbs are the sloping

sides of a fold.

The axis of a fold is a median line along the apex of a fold. The axis may coincide with the crest

(i.e. the highest part of an anticline) or the trough (i.e. lowest part of a syncline), though such is

not always the case.

The axial plane is the vertical plane about which the dip of the beds changes in direction and

often in amount.
 -43-

There are different styles of folding, viz:-

Symmetrical Fold: is a fold in which the axial plane divides the fold into exact reverse mirror

images of each other. In symmetrical folds, the axial plane coincides with the crest of the fold.

Asymmetrical Fold: is a fold where the two sides are not images of each other.

The simplest type of fold is shown in the diagram above where the bed is folded into an anticline

(or upfold) and a syncline (or downfold). The examples above are symmetrical folds, and they

hinge about a vertical plane with the limbs of the folds equally disposed on either side of it.

Overturned Fold (or Overfold): is a fold which has one or both limbs folded beyond the vertical

so that the apex or axis overhangs (in an anticline) one of the limbs. In the case of an overturned

syncline, the axis is said to underhang. The direction of the axis of the fold is the strike of the

fold. This always coincide with the strike of the beds involved in the fold.

Plunging (or Pitching) Fold: is one which has its axis inclined in reference to a horizontal line.

The inclination is measured in degrees. The fold has its axis tilted, hence the inclination

Isoclinal Fold: is one whose limbs are dipping in the same direction with the same angle of dip.

Recumbent Fold: is an overturned fold with the limbs approaching horizontal.

 -44-

RECOGNITION OF FOLD TYPES ON MAPS

Symmetrical Fold:-

The map shows two symmetrical anticlines and synclines. Strike lines drawn through the rock

boundaries show that there are both easterly and westerly dips.

Determine the value of each dip.

Caution: Don't extrapolate any strike line. They can all be visibly drawn by connecting points of

outcrops (i.e. similar pair of points of contact between a rock bed and a contour line). All the

strike lines are found to be equally spaced over the whole map. This shows that the folds are

symmetrical.

Draw the section from A to B to show this.

 -45-

Asymmetrical Fold:-

Draw the strike lines and determine the values of the easterly and westerly dips. Don't extrapolate

any strike line.

The geological section from point A to B is drawn below.

 -46-

Overfold:-

Along section X-Y on the map, the beds are repeated about the arcuate outcrop of the sandstone.

The dips for all the beds are generally westward, but vary in values. Determine these dip values.

This constancy in direction but variation in amount of dips is characteristic of overfold beds.

Draw the geological section along X-Y.

Recumbent Fold:-

In the map below, the conglomerate/limestone contact occurs at two elevations, 850m and

1050m, each follows the position of the contour of that value. This shows that both contacts are

horizontal, or at least, the conglomerate bed is horizontal.

Strike lines along the contact in the western part of the map indicate a westerly dip on the 1050m

line. Determine the amount of this dip.

 -47-

The continuation of this dip would bring the 1050m contact to intersect the 850m junction. The

interpretation of this disposition is shown as a typical recumbent fold in the geological cross

section from X to Y drawn below.

Symmetrical Plunging (or Isoclinal) Fold:-

The map below covers a series of isoclinal folds. The strike lines indicate that the beds have a

uniform westerly dip. Draw the geo-section from X to Y. In the section drawn, the axial planes

will be found to lie parallel to each other. Note that the crest of each fold is not coincident with

the trace of the axial plane in this type of folding.

 -48-

Asymmetrical Plunging Fold:-

The map shows a group of asymmetrical plunging folds. To indicate clearly the nature of these

folds the strike lines or stratum contours have been drawn for you.

Characteristically, the outcrops of the plunging series lie en echelon as shown in the map. The

outcrops open out in the direction of plunge in the synclines and close with the plunge in the

anticlines. In this and comparable situations, strike lines will no longer remain parallel across

large areas, but will converge in relation to the closure of folds. This is a major consideration in

the construction of strike lines here.

On the map, study both contacts of the marl (mudstone) with shale. Strike lines on the left

hand contact show that the beds dip in a south-easterly direction while the strike lines on the right

hand contact show a south-westerly dip. Those strike lines cross each other to the north and so

form chevron-shaped lines, running parallel to each other to produce an en echelon pattern in the

syncline. These two boundaries on either side of the mudstone therefore dip towards each other

while the axis between them dips southward. {ascertain this}. This structure is an asymmetrical

plunging syncline.
 -49-

Strike lines on both contacts of the conglomerate with the sandstone also form an en

echelon pattern, but with the dips away from the northerly trending axis of the fold. This is an

asymmetrical plunging anticline.

Draw a geological section through the folds.

Notice that the section drawn does not give any indication of their plunging character.

EFFECTS OF FOLDING:

The general effects of folding are changes in dip value and dip direction. These lead to variation

in the true thickness of the beds affected. Recumbent folding leads to repetition of beds in a

vertical column.
 -50-

FAULTS

A fault is a break or fracture of rock masses in the earth's crust along which an observable

displacement on either side of the surface of fracture has occurred. Faults occur in all types of

rocks, but they are best observed in sedimentary rocks where the displacement of strata may be

identified and measured. The strata on one side of a fault may be vertically or horizontally

displaced hundreds, or even thousands of metres, relative to the strata on the other side of the

fault. Horizontal displacement of several kilometres is not uncommon. The movement affects a

zone rather than a single surface, i.e. effect of faulting is more extensive than the traceable

fracture that is seen on the surface. Tensional, compressional and torsional forces operate in the

formation of faults. Faults may be recognized by

(i) topographic features, (ii) abrupt changes in strike of beds,

(iii) offset and displacement of normally adjacent parts of folds, dykes or other rock layers.

The surface along which the movement has taken place is referred to as the fault plane. Such

surfaces may be smooth, but are usually curved and irregular.

DESCRIPTIVE TERMINOLOGY DIFFERENT PARTS OF A FAULT

(i) Fault Plane:- is the fracture surface along which relative movement of a series of rocks has

taken place. In the diagram below, surface MNOP is the fault plane.
 -51-

(ii) Hanging Wall & Foot Wall:- The fault plane is usually inclined. The part of the rock mass

lying above the fault plane is the hanging wall, while that part below is the foot wall. In the

diagram, the MN block is the foot wall while the OP block is the hanging wall.

(iii) Upthrow & Downthrow Sides of the Fault:- These terms refer to the relative position of the

rock masses on either side of the fault plane. The side where the movement has been downwards

is the downthrow side and that in which the movement has been upwards is the upthrow side.

(iv) Dip of the Fault:- This is the angle between the fault plane and the horizontal. It is the

maximum angle of inclination of the fault plane away from the horizontal. It is shown in the

diagram by angle AĈB.

(v) Hade of a Fault:- is the angle between the fault plane and the vertical. Geometrically, it is the

complement of the dip angle. In the diagram, it is the angle BÂC.

(vi) Throw of a Fault:- The vertical throw of a fault is the vertical displacement of the severed

ends of a faulted bed. In the diagram, it is the line AB.

(vii) Heave of a Fault:- This is the horizontal displacement of the severed ends of a bed of rock.

In the diagram, it is line BC.

The heave is very important in mining where the separation of this kind indicates a barren

ground, i.e. loss of a seam or vein.

BASIS FOR CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS

1) The Relative Movement of the Hanging Wall & the Foot Wall:-
 -52-

Where the hanging wall has an apparent downward movement, the

fault is said to be a NORMAL fault.

But where the foot wall has an apparent downward movement, the fault is called a REVERSE

fault.

2) The Relation of the Dip & Strike of Fault Plane to That of the Beds Affected:- If the strike of

the fault plane is parallel to the direction of maximum dip of the bed, the fault is called a DIP

fault. If the strike of the fault plane is parallel to the strike of the beds, the fault is called a

STRIKE fault. If the strike of the fault plane is oblique to the strike and dip of the beds, the fault

is said to be an OBLIQUE fault.

3) Direction of Slip (or Movement) on the Fault Plane:- In faulting, movement may be wholly

horizontal and parallel to the strike of the fault plane. In this case, the fault is called a STRIKE

SLIP fault or a WRENCH fault or a TEAR fault.

There are two types of strike slip faults. These are the Dextral strike slip faults and Sinistral

strike slip faults. When a strike slip fault is viewed from the ground while standing on one of the

displaced blocks, if the adjacent block on the other side of the fault has been displaced to the
 -53-

right, the fault is called a dextral strike slip fault. But if the displacement is to the left, then the

fault is called a sinistral strike slip fault.

Alternatively, movement may be wholly along the direction of maximum dip of the fault. In that

case, the fault is called a DIP SLIP fault.

In some cases however, the movement may be a combination of the two, i.e. an oblique

movement and the fault is called OBLIQUE SLIP fault.

 -54-

4) Types of Movement:-

(a) Horst:- When the area between two parallel groups of normal faults is upthrown and

upstanding, the fault system is called a horst. The area may be plateau-like or ridge-like.

(b) Graben or Rift Valley:- This is a tectonic valley that

occurs when the area between two groups of parallel normal faults is downthrown. The system is

produced by trough faulting.

PRACTICAL EFFECT OF FAULTING:

Example A:
 -55-

Here, a seam of coal has undergone normal faulting and the severed edges of the seam have been

drawn away from each other as a result of the faulting. This results in creation of a zone in which

coal is absent, i.e. the barren ground. This barren ground is the heave of the fault. It is often a

region of much fragmented rocks. It causes difficulty in places where roadways and underground

mining tunnels have to pass through it.

Example B:

In this case, the coal seam is broken by a reverse fault. Here the severed ends of the seam have

ridden over each other so that a borehole sunk at A would pass through the same seam twice.

DETERMINATION OF THE VERTICAL THROW OF A FAULT

1. THROW OF A DIP FAULT:-

 -56-

In the map above, the sandstone bed is broken by a dip fault R-S which trends from North to

South. In order to find the throw of this fault, the first thing is to determine the dip and strike of

the sandstone by drawing strike lines on the same surface of the same bed.

Do this on your own map.

The strike is east to west, while it dips south, with a gradient of 1 in 2.

Procedure:- There are two approaches to the determination of vertical throw of a dip fault. These

are Equal Altitude Method and the Mathematical Method.

a) Equal Altitude Method:-

This is a graphical construction method. After determining the strike, dip and gradient, the next

steps to follow are:-

(i)- select two points, which are at the same elevation, on the same surface of the bed but on

opposite sides of the fault.

- Let these points be A & C, each at an elevation of 700m O.D.

- Join AC.

(ii)- Through A, draw a line in the direction of the dip. Produce this line close to edge of the map,

and mark its end as point A'.

(iii)- Through C, draw a strike line CD to cut line AA' at B.

(iv)- Use the scale of the map and measure line AB. This is the horizontal distance between the

two points, and it is 400m.

- Since the dip has already been determined as 1 in 2 to the south, elevation of the bed is

therefore expected to fall 200m over the 400m horizontal distance.

- A is at 700m O.D. so that a fall of 200m to B means that B will lie at 500m O.D.

- But B and C lie on the same strike line. Thus, before C could have been at 700m O.D., there

must have been either an upthrow of 200m to the East, or a downthrow of 200m to the West.

Therefore, the vertical throw here is 200m.

 -57-

b) Mathematical Method:-

After the determination of the strike and dip, a mathematical treatment can be used if it is found

out that

(i) there are odd distances to be measured;

(ii) the throw of the fault is not likely to be an even number of metres; or

(iii) throw is not as simple in construction as the one above.

The mathematical formula used is:

Throw = D x T

where D = Displacement of the bed surface along the dip;

T = tangent of the angle of dip.

In the present case, the throw = 400 x 0.5 = 200m.

2. THROW OF A STRIKE FAULT:-

The map below shows a sandstone bed broken by a reverse strike fault. In order to calculate the

effect of the fault, first determine the dip and strike of the two outcrops east and west of the fault.
 -58-

The eastern outcrop strikes north to south and dips west, with a gradient of 1 in 2. The western

outcrop has same strike and dip directions as that in the East.

Procedure for Determination of the Vertical Throw:

There are several approaches to this, viz:

(a) Visual Observation of Strike Lines:-

- Consider the boundary of the sandstone at A and A'.

- If the sandstone continued to dip from A' westward without the intervention of the fault, it

would have fallen to an elevation of 300m O.D. at A. This can be seen from a consideration of

the strike lines.

- However, the outcrop at A is at 800m O.D. There is therefore, a difference of 500m between the

actual elevation on map and the expected elevation if there had been no faulting.

- It is then deduceable that the fault has upthrown the sandstone 500m on the western side of the

fault.

(b) Using Equal Altitude Method:-

(i) - select two points of like elevation on the same surface of the bed that occurs east and west of

the fault.

- Let the two points be d and g. Join d and g.

(ii)- Through d, draw a line in the direction of dip to intersect at d' the strike line that comes

through g.

To get the vertical throw of the fault between d and g,

Throw = dd' x Tan of dip angle along dd'

= 1000 x 0.5 = 500 metres.

That is, the throw of the fault is 500m upthrow to the west of the fault.
 -59-

UNCONFORMITIES

There are three major view points to the concept of unconformity, i.e. the occurrence of an

unconformity can be explained using three major approaches. These are:

1) TIME: An unconformity develops during a period of time in which no sediment is deposited.

This concept equates deposition and time. Thus, an unconformity represents unrecorded time.

2) DEPOSITION: Any interruption of deposition, whether large or small in extent, is an

unconformity. Major breaks in sedimentation can usually be demonstrated easily, but minor

breaks may go unrecorded except highly detailed investigations are made.

3) STRUCTURE: Structurally, an unconformity may be regarded as the plane (or planar surface)

separating or truncating older series of rocks below from younger rock series above, representing

a missing time of deposition and a missing link in the sequence of deposition.

A plane of unconformity may be a surface of weathering, erosion, or a surface of non-

deposition, or possibly some combination of these factors. It may be parallel to the upper strata or

at an angle with the upper strata or be irregular. Subsequent earth movements may have folded or

faulted it.

Unconformity indicates a change, either temporal or permanent, in conditions. This may be due

to an orogenic period, a marine transgression or regression, a facies change, a climatic change or

even a faunal change.

TYPES OF UNCONFORMITIES

There are several types, but the most common ones are:

1. Angular Unconformity:- Here, the lower and older series of beds dip at a different angle to the

younger upper beds. This also includes the case where unfolded younger strata rest upon folded

older strata. The unconformity is easily recognized by change in dip of beds or truncation of

lower beds. A few types are shown below.

 -60-

The intrusions into the lower series occurred before deposition of the upper series. This is so

because these intrusions are truncated by the unconformity.

2. Parallel Unconformity:- In this case, the lower and upper series of beds have the same amount

of dip and in the same direction.

 -61-

3. Non-Depositional Unconformity:- A minor type of unconformity, representing a short, often

local, period of non-deposition of sediment.

4. Heterolithic Unconformity:- This type of unconformity arises when sediment is deposited on

top of intrusive igneous rocks or metamorphosed rocks which have been exposed at the surface

by weathering and erosion.

RECOGNITION OF UNCONFORMITY ON MAP

To establish the presence of an unconformity on a map, first

determine the dip and strike of the beds. Do this for every contact of the outcrops and compare.

A geological section needs to be drawn to establish or confirm the type of unconformity. In the

map drawn below, draw the section from X to Y.

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IGNEOUS INTRUSIONS

Igneous rocks are formed by solidification of hot mobile rock material called magma. In

Nigeria, both extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks occur. Igneous rocks do not occur with the

regular arrangement which is characteristic of sedimentary rocks. They occur in irregular masses

or in sheets intruded from the earth's interior into the pre-existing rocks above.

They are classified, on structural basis, into two groups namely - discordant and concordant

intrusions.

Concordant intrusions are sills, laccoliths, lopoliths, etc.

The discordant ones are dykes, cone sheets, batholiths, volcanic plugs, stocks, bosses, veins, etc.

A batholith is an irregularly-shaped large mass of plutonic igneous rock of deep seated origin. It

grows broader with depth and only appears at the surface as a result of erosion and denudation. It

is the deep-seated reservoir of magma from the earth's mantle and it gives rise to all other

intrusive bodies.

A sill is a sheet of igneous rock injected along the bedding planes of the rocks. The thickness is

approximately uniform, and usually relatively thin compared with its lateral extent.

A dyke is a vertical or near-vertical intrusion, cutting through the overlying sediments. Dykes are
 -63-

commonly dolerite or basaltic. However, ring dykes, which are granitic, occur in Nigeria within

the Younger Granite province of Jos plateau.

A volcanic plug is the solidified material filling a vent or pipe of a dead volcano.

If or when a volcanic plug has resisted weathering better than the surrounding rock-mass, it will

stand alone as a column of solidified igneous rock, e.g. the Wase rock in southern Plateau state.

It is possible, in certain cases, to date a dyke or an intrusion relative to the bed it cuts. The

intrusion must be younger in age than the youngest bed it intrudes.

Take a close look at the map drawn below and study its section provided below.

Draw your own section from A to B.

What type of unconformity is present on the map ?.

 -64-

MINOR FEATURES/STRUCTURES

These are features on rocks, so small that they cannot be represented on maps. However, they are

very good diagnostic features of the rocks exhibiting them. They can be used as clues to the past

geologic history of the rocks. They include:

1. Joints:- Joints may be localized. They are fractures along which there has been no

displacement. They occur in sets and have different origins. There are tensional, cross,

longitudinal types of joints.

When mapping, the orientation of each joint and its estimated length have to be determined on

the field for plot on Rose diagram and stereonet.

 -65-

2. Minor Folds & Faults:- These may result from local movement of material. The features are

common with gneisses and gneissic rocks. The most common localized faults are the strike-slip

faults - both the dextral and sinistral varieties. Drag folds are also common in rocks of the

crystalline basement complex.

When mapping, one needs to sketch their diagrams as they exist on the field, with the correct

orientation in the field note book. Photographs of these features may be better taken at times.

3. Veins:- These are small intrusions, usually of quartz, or pegmatite or tourmaline.

When mapping on the field, their widths and orientations must be noted where found. The nature

of the boundary between the vein and surrounding rock should also be noted, i.e. whether

boundary is sharp, or gradational or wavy, or otherwise. This tells about the event or conditions

for the emplacement of the vein.

4. Tension Gashes:- These are local fractures or openings in rocks due to tensile stresses. The

openings usually taper off at the edges. They may be a few centimetres long, but usually not more

than few metres in length. They may or may not be filled with minerals like quartz.
 -66-

When encountered during mapping, their orientations, lengths and thicknesses (at the middle

point) should be accurately determined on the field and recorded in field note book.

5. Boudinage Structure:- This is found in places where hard competent rocks are set in less

competent or incompetent rocks. The incompetent rocks would yield easily to forces that tend to

fold them while the hard rocks would be jointed and broken up into pillow-like segments called

boudins.

When encountered on the field during mapping, they should be properly sketched in the field

note book.

6. Bedding/Grading:- This may be exhibited locally by rocks.

 -67-

It tells about the palaeocurrent direction (i.e. the direction of movement of the fluid that

deposited the rock materials at the in the ancient times) as well as the mode of fluctuation of the

transporting energy. These should be sketched accurately in the field note book. Where possible,

photographs should be taken, especially when there are colour or textural changes.

7. Mylonitic Structures:- These are crushed zones of rocks. Rock materials along shear zones,

e.g. fault zones, are usually crushed into finer particles by effect of movement of the shear zone.

The resulting crushed materials are called mylonites.

When encountered during mapping, it should be well sketched in the field note book, noting the

orientation, thickness, extent, and the nature of the fabric.

8. Augen Structures:- These are eye-like features found commonly in feldspathic granites.

Feldspars occupy the centre of the feature. They can be found in the Older Granite rocks.

During mapping, they should be well-sketched where found, frequency noted, and the general

orientation also determined.

9. Rock Boundaries/Contacts:- These features are not commonly found exposed on the field

because of the processes of weathering which result in the covering of these contacts with

residual soils. As such, rock boundaries are most commonly inferred or extrapolated when

drawing the final geological map.

Where this contact is then found exposed on the field, it is a lucky find and should be carefully

studied and sketched, with correct orientations. Such find help in reducing the level of

uncertainty when inferring the rock boundaries. Photographs of exposed rock contacts are

preferred because of their special importance.

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OUTLIERS AND INLIERS

An outcrop of a bed that is completely surrounded by outcrops of younger beds is called an inlier.

Whereas, an outlier is an outcrop of a bed that is entirely surrounded by outcrops of older beds

,and so separated from the main outcrop. They can result from down-faulting.

By faulting:

Both the inliers and outliers may be products of erosion.

An outlier may also be a product of intrusive activities.

Structurally, an outlier depicts a structural syncline while an inlier depicts a structural anticline.

One can get synformal anticline or antiformal syncline. This may occur when beds have been

overturned during folding.

The map below is that of outliers. Draw the section.

 -69-

The map below contains an inlier. Study its section drawn underneath. Draw your own section

from L to M.
 -70-

GENERAL EXERCISES:

Draw the sections and identify the structures present in Maps 1-3. Calculate thicknesses of beds.

Where faults are present, determine their throws.

MAP 1:

MAP 2:
 -71-

MAP 3:

MAP 4: The vertical thickness of beds in 3 boreholes is given as

A B C
Shale 100 - -
Sandstone 400 - -
Sandy Shale 600 150 -
Limestone 500 500 100
Conglomerate ? ? ?
Assuming conformable beds, determine dip & strike of the beds. Complete the outcrops over the
whole map. At what depth will a borehole at P encounter the base of the limestone?