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From Text To Lived Resources - Mathematics Curriculum Materials and Teacher Development - PDF Room
From Text To Lived Resources - Mathematics Curriculum Materials and Teacher Development - PDF Room
SERIES EDITOR
EDITORIAL BOARD
SCOPE
The Mathematics Teacher Education book series presents relevant research and innovative
international developments with respect to the preparation and professional development of
mathematics teachers. A better understanding of teachers’ cognitions as well as knowledge
about effective models for preservice and inservice teacher education is fundamental for
mathematics education at the primary, secondary and tertiary level in the various contexts
and cultures across the world. Therefore, considerable research is needed to understand what
facilitates and impedes mathematics teachers’ professional learning. The series aims to pro-
vide a significant resource for teachers, teacher educators and graduate students by introduc-
ing and critically reflecting new ideas, concepts and findings of research in teacher education.
123
Editors
Ghislaine Gueudet Birgit Pepin
IUFM Bretagne site de Rennes Sør-Trøndelag University College
Rue Saint- Malo 153 7004 Trondheim
35043 Rennes CEDEX Norway
France birgit.pepin@hist.no
ghislaine.gueudet@bretagne.iufm.fr
Luc Trouche
Institut français de l’Education
École Normale Supérieure de Lyon
15 parvis René-Descartes, BP 7000
69342 Lyon cedex 07
France
Luc.Trouche@ens-lyon.fr
– ‘Curriculum material’ has definitely not been perceived in the restricted way it
had been discussed two or three decades ago. The fact that the authors use the
concept ‘curriculum resources’ highlights that beside the traditional curriculum
materials, like textbooks and other curricular documents, a whole range of texts
and other resources have been taken into account, including software, electronic
resources and the Internet. All these resources seem to become increasingly
important in expressing and sharing ideas not only on curriculum materials
themselves, but also in terms of curriculum development. They also help in
terms of teacher education and everyday practice. The inclusion of more mod-
ern resources does not deny the most important teacher resource – the textbook.
A main message of this book is to place the artefact ‘mathematics textbook’
in a wider, systematic perspective of material resources available for (mathe-
matics) teachers and students. The book also shows that this broadening of the
concept of teacher resources is helpful for understanding practices in various
contexts. In selected countries, and communities of mathematics teachers, it is
a fact that a wide range of ‘resources’, apart from textbooks and traditional cur-
riculum documents, is present and relevant for teachers’ daily practice. Teachers’
professional knowledge, practical constraints (like money and other classroom
arrangements) and cultural resources like language, collegiality, organisation
and time, amongst others, have to be analysed to comprehensively understand
the processes involved in teacher use of resources. In fact, this book opens a
perspective on resources, which is not necessarily material.
v
vi Foreword
– The book supports recent trends in research on teaching and learning math-
ematics with the help of artefacts: to fully understand the role of curriculum
material, it is not sufficient to simply analyse the artefact as such. A comprehen-
sive content analysis of an artefact used by teachers can help to develop deeper
knowledge of its functions in mathematics education. Nevertheless, it is only
by analysing the use of the artefact that one may be able to adequately judge
upon the affordances and constraints of a given artefact. For example ‘instrumen-
tal genesis’ (initiated and introduced to Didactics of Mathematics by Rabardel)
analyses how an artefact is turned into an ‘instrument’ via the genesis of individ-
ual or social utilisation schemes. The research literature claims that a curriculum
resource can only be judged by an analysis of its inherent features in addition to
an analysis of the ways in which the different agents of the educational process
use these resources. In an instrumental genesis approach, this is condensed in
the concept of ‘utilisation scheme’, which is also fundamental to the documen-
tation approach described in this book. As a consequence, the documentation
approach conveys the notion of an agent having created the ‘document’ for a
specific purpose.
– In the book the word artefact is used in a broad sense, leaning on Wartofsky’s
(1979) notion (XIII: ‘anything which human beings create by the transformation
of nature and of themselves’) which differs from the traditional understand-
ing of curriculum resources. The texts in this book are not only analysing
material resources, but pay due attention to immaterial sources available to
(mathematics) teachers. Beside material resources, a comprehensive analysis
of teachers’ resources must also take into account immaterial resources like
colleagues and communities of teaching practices. The book discusses ‘col-
laborative use’, and selected chapters explore the relations between teacher
communities of practice, the documents shared in these communities and the
consequences for the professional development of teachers from this collabora-
tion. Here, the individual use of resources is adequately complemented by using
resources in an environment shared by a community of teachers. Moreover, the
book shows under which conditions such collaboration can empower teachers to
become active instructional designers.
With the broadening of the view from material to immaterial resources, from
individual to collective use of resources, methodologies investigating documenta-
tion and professional interaction (sharing of knowledge) of teachers also have to
be extended beyond the ‘standard’ features of classroom and school research (often
done by video-taping and consecutive case study analysis) or large scale statistical
research using questionnaires (maybe complemented by interviews and the like). A
reader sensitive to research methodology will find a whole range of research meth-
ods to explore the diverse phenomena – with various foci according to the different
theoretical stances taken by the authors. As a consequence of the innovative charac-
ter of the book, no consensus on research methodology has been reached yet – and
this heterogeneity seems to be appropriate for a newly developed approach and the
explorative character of the investigation of resources used by mathematics teachers.
Foreword vii
Having stated this, one characteristic nevertheless stands out, and for the majority
of the book’s chapters: nearly all texts heavily rely on case studies. The empirical
results point to the necessity of a mix of research methods to better understand
teachers’ use of resources.
Although the last paragraph typically puts forward an argument, which shows
the value and importance of the book for researchers in Mathematics Education,
I would like to highlight that the texts in this book can also be very helpful for
practising teachers, who could learn about the wide range of resources available
for enhancing their teaching practice. Curriculum developers and policy makers
may benefit from the book’s reports of investigations, which show once again that
implementing change in education and educational reform is not a straightforward,
top-down process. Researchers are reminded that having the best available ideas
and concepts for change does not imply factual change of teaching. The book shows
that sharing artefacts and collectively developing utilisation schemes in collabora-
tive groups of teachers and researchers can be a more effective means to curriculum
change. Cooperation around appropriately designed resources – be they material
and/or conceptual – can be a way to develop teaching and learning mathematics.
Reference
Wartofsky, M. W. (1979). Models. Representation and the scientific understanding. Dordrecht:
Reidel Publishing Company.
Introduction
The teachers, in their professional activity, interact with a wide range of resources;
these interactions and their consequences hold a central place in teachers’ profes-
sional development. The purpose of this book is to develop this perspective and to
explore it in the field of mathematics education.
We consider on the one hand curriculum material. Traditionally, textbooks
remain central resources for the teaching of mathematics in most countries.
Nevertheless, other kinds of resources, in particular digital resources, and amongst
them resources accessible via the Internet, are increasingly used. Understanding the
evolutions brought by digital material is a central motivation of our work.
On the other hand, the reason for introducing the term ‘resource’ instead of
‘material’ is to broaden the perspective on the elements available for the teachers’
work, and to include in particular interactions with a variety of agents:
– Interactions between the teacher and her students constitute central resources
for this teacher. Digitisation creates new forms of students’ productions and new
modes of communication between students and teachers; but even an expression
on a student’s face in class can constitute a resource for the teacher.
– Interactions between the teacher and her colleagues seem to hold an increas-
ing place. Teachers can collectively design curriculum plans, lessons, and once
again the digital means convey new forms of communication, networking and
association.
Teachers collect resources, select, transform, share, implement and revise them.
Drawing from the French term ‘ingénierie documentaire’, we call these processes
‘documentation’. The literal English translation is ‘to work with documents’, but
the meaning it carries is richer. Documentation refers to the complex and interactive
G. Gueudet (B)
CREAD, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, IUFM Bretagne site de Rennes,
35043 Rennes Cedex, France
e-mail: ghislaine.gueudet@bretagne.iufm.fr
ix
x Introduction
ways that teachers work with resources; in-class and out-of-class, individually, but
also collectively.
We propose a new perspective, considering teachers not as passive users, but as
designers, creative ‘users’ and ‘sharers’ of their own resources, and viewing these
resources as ‘lived’ resources. Teachers’ professional knowledge influences this
design; at the same time, the documentation work extends existing-and generates
new-professional knowledge.
Working in 12 different countries, the authors develop a variety of perspec-
tives on teacher resources, on their use and on the associated teachers’ professional
development, with different foci and theoretical frameworks.
The book is organised in four parts. Each is complemented by a reaction,
presenting an expert’s view of the whole section.
The first part focuses on the different kinds, and nature of, curriculum resources
for mathematics teachers from a practical, methodological and theoretical point of
view. It examines what is, or is not, available for teachers’ professional activity.
It also introduces the question of what kinds of changes are afforded by digital
resources:
specific focus on sociocultural factors and how these influence the development of
curriculum materials.
– Carolyn Kieran, Denis Tanguay and Armando Solares study the ‘how’ and the
‘why’ of teachers adapting researcher-designed resources, and in the context of
integration of computer algebra system (CAS) technologies. They claim that
the whole adaptation process, from its beginning (how teacher engage with
a resource designed by researchers) to the changes made in class during the
implementation, rests on teacher knowledge and beliefs.
xii Introduction
– Using classroom videos, Dominique Forest and Alain Mercier analyse how
teachers can organise their pedagogic practice and student interventions draw-
ing on language and gestures. They show how classroom videos can become
resources for teacher professional development and research.
– Sebastian Rezat focuses on textbooks, considering teachers’ and students’ use of
textbooks. He establishes links between teacher’s use of mathematics textbooks
effecting students, and vice versa, and argues that students’ use of resources must
be considered as an important aspect within teachers’ documentation work.
– Maria Trigueros and Maria-Dolores Lozano study documentational geneses of
teachers working within Enciclomedia, a national project in Mexico that offers a
particular online resource. They identify developments in terms of teacher docu-
mentation systems and of teacher pedagogic practice, which includes the use of
the digital means offered and supported by traditional textbooks.
– Paul Drijvers uses and further develops the concept of orchestration. He argues
for a specific focus on what happens in class, the didactical performance, and
identifies types of orchestrations. Survey results suggest that teachers’ intentions
may differ from their actual teaching. He investigates factors leading teachers to
retain a given type, and conditions for evolutions and development.
xv
xvi Contents
xix
xx Contributors
Jill Adler
1.1 Introduction
This book, and the range of chapters within it, take as its starting point the role of
curriculum resources in mathematics teaching and its evolution. Teachers draw on a
wide range of resources as they do their work, using and adapting these in various
ways for the purposes of teaching and learning. At the same time, this documenta-
tion work (as it is referred to by Gueudet and Trouche, Chapter 2) acts back on the
teacher and his or her professional knowledge. Documentation work is a function of
the characteristics of the material resources, teaching activity, the teachers’ knowl-
edge and beliefs, and the curriculum context. The chapters that follow explore and
elaborate this complexity.
An underlying assumption across chapters is an increasing range of textual
resources for teaching and wide availability of digital resources. The empirical work
that informs this chapter took place in mathematics classrooms with limited textual
and digital resources, and it is this kind of context that gave rise to a broad con-
ceptualisation of resources in mathematics teaching that included the teacher and
her professional knowledge, together with material and cultural resources, like lan-
guage and time. In Adler (2000) I describe this broad conceptualisation, theorising
material and cultural resources in use in practice in mathematics teaching in South
Africa. The discourse used is of a teacher ‘re-sourcing’ her practice – a discourse
with strong resonances in documentation work.
This chapter builds on that work, foregrounding and conceptualising professional
knowledge as a resource in school mathematics teaching. I begin by locating our
concern with knowledge resources, a discussion that leads on to the methodology
J. Adler (B)
School of Education, University of the Witwatersrand, 2050 Johannesburg, South Africa
King’s College London, London, UK
e-mail: jill.adler@wits.ac.za
QUANTUM has its research roots in a study of teachers’ ‘take-up’ from an upgrad-
ing in-service teacher education programme in mathematics, science and English
language teaching in South Africa (Adler & Reed, 2002). By ‘take-up’ we mean
what and how teachers appropriated various aspects of the programme, using these
in and for their teaching. The notion of ‘take-up’ enabled us to describe the diverse
and unexpected ways teachers in the programme engaged with selections from the
courses offered and how these selections were recontextualised in their own teach-
ing. We were able to describe teachers’ agency in their selections and use, and
illuminate potential effects.
Amongst other aspects of teaching, we were interested in resources in use.
We problematised these specifically in school mathematics practice (Adler, 2000),
where I argued for a broader notion of resources in use that includes additional
human resources like teachers’ professional knowledge (as opposed to their mere
formal qualifications), additional material resources like geoboards which have been
specifically made for school mathematics, everyday resources like money as well as
social and cultural resources like language, collegiality and time. I also argued for
the verbalisation of resource as ‘re-source’. In line with ‘take-up’, I posited that this
discursive move shifts attention off resources per se and refocuses it on teachers
working with resources, on teachers re-sourcing their practice.
In focus were selected material (e.g. chalkboards) and cultural resources (lan-
guage, time). Theoretical resources were drawn from social practice theory, leading
to an elaborated categorisation of resources, supported by examples of their use in
practice in terms of their ‘transparency’ (Lave & Wenger, 1991). These combined
to illustrate that what matters for teaching and learning is not simply what resources
are available and what teachers recruit, but more significantly how various resources
can and need to be both visible (seen/available and so possible to use) and invisible
(seen through to the mathematical object intended in a particular material or verbal
representation), if their use is to enable access to mathematics.
Out of focus in this work were human resources: teachers themselves, their pro-
fessional knowledge base and knowledges in use. The teachers in our study were
studying courses in mathematics and mathematics education. We were thus inter-
ested in their ‘take-up’ from these courses. However, we had difficulty ‘grasping’2
teachers’ take-up with respect to mathematical content knowledge in particular. Our
analysis of interviews, together with observations in teachers’ classrooms over 3
years, suggested correlations between teachers’ articulation of the mathematical
purposes of their teaching and the ways in which they made substantive use of ‘new’
material and cultural resources (language in particular). These results are in line
with a range of research that has shown how curriculum materials are mediated by
the teacher (e.g. Cohen, Raudenbush & Ball, 2003). Remillard (2005) describes the
interaction between a teacher and the curriculum materials he or she uses as rela-
tional, and thus co-constitutive. A relational orientation to teachers and resources
serves as a starting point for a number of chapters in this volume (see Chapters 5
and 7). Our analysis, in addition, pointed to unintentional deepening of inequal-
ity. The ‘new’ curriculum texts selected by teachers from their coursework and
recontextualised in their classroom practice appeared most problematic when teach-
ers’ professional knowledge base was weak. Typically, this occurred in the poorest
schools (Adler, 2001).
These claims are necessarily tentative. Our methodology did not enable us to
probe teachers’ take-up with respect to mathematics content knowledge over time.
Moreover, as we attempted to explore professional knowledge in practice in the
study, we appreciated the non-trivial nature of the elaboration of the domains of
mathematical knowledge, knowledge about teaching and the didactics of math-
ematics in the construction of teacher education – a point emphasised recently
by Chevallard and Cirade (in Gueudet & Trouche, 2010). In a context where
contestation over selections from knowledge domains into mathematics teacher edu-
cation continues, the importance of pursuing knowledge in use in teaching through
systematic study was evident.
Mathematical knowledge for and in teaching, what it is and how it might be
‘grasped’ became the focus in the QUANTUM study that followed. The methodol-
ogy we have developed makes visible the criteria teachers transmit for what counts
as mathematics, and through these, the domains of knowledge teachers recruit to
ground mathematics in their classroom practice. It is this conceptualisation that has
enabled an elaboration of knowledge resources in use in mathematics teaching.
2 I use ‘grasp’ here in a technical sense to convey the message that knowledge in use in practice is
not unproblematically ‘visible’, but is made so through the deployment of specific methodological
tools and analytic resources.
6 J. Adler
equation, and in particular, the operation of adding additive inverses. In this latter
case, through responses learners provide, and further questioning, the teacher then
negates (even if only implicitly) the first description by legitimating mathematically
justified steps offered. In this interaction process, the criteria transmitted are that
steps for solving equations require mathematical justification. In QUANTUM we
describe these moments of judgements as appeals, arguing that teachers appeal to
varying domains of knowledge to legitimate what count as valid knowledge in their
classrooms.
What comes to count as valid is never neutral (Bernstein, 1996).3 Pedagogic
discourse necessarily delocates and relocates knowledges and discourses, and recon-
textualisation (transformation) creates a gap wherein ideology is always at play.
What teachers recruit is thus no simple reflection of what they know. An underly-
ing assumption here is that the demands of teaching in general, and the particular
demands following changes in the mathematics curriculum in South Africa, bring a
range of domains of knowledge outside of mathematics into use. A range of mathe-
matical orientations are discernable in the new South African National Curriculum,
including mathematics as a disciplinary practice, thus including activity such as
conjecturing, defining and proof; mathematics as relevant and practical, hence a
modelling and problem-solving tool; mathematics as an established body of knowl-
edge and skills, thus requiring mastery of conventions, skills and algorithms; and
mathematics as preparation for critical democratic citizenship, and hence a use of
mathematics in everyday activity (Graven, 2002; Parker, 2006). What mathematical
and other knowledge resources teachers select and use, and how these are shaped
in pedagogical discourse, are important to understand. In our case studies of school
mathematics teaching, we are studying what and how teachers recruit mathemati-
cal and other knowledge resources in their classroom practice so as to be able to
describe what comes to function as ground in their practice, how and why.
Five case studies of mathematics teaching in a secondary classroom have been
completed, each involving a different topic and unit of work.4 We pursued a range of
questions, the first of which was, from what domains of knowledge does the teacher
recruit knowledge resources in her teaching? I focus here on this question, and its
elaboration in two of the five case studies, cognisant that as knowledge in use come
into focus, so other resources, as well as details on other aspects of teaching, go out
of focus.
3 In this chapter I do not explore the ideological or political in the constitution of mathematics in
and for teaching. We have done this elsewhere, particularly in our reporting of the constitution of
mathematics for teaching in teacher education (see Adler & Davis, 2011).
4 Studies in school classrooms have been undertaken by master’s students and a postdoctoral fellow
at the University of the Witwatersrand, working in QUANTUM. I acknowledge here the significant
contribution of Mercy Kazima, Vasen Pillay, Talasi Tatolo, Shiela Naidoo and Sharon Govender
and their studies to the overall work in QUANTUM, and specifically to this chapter.
8 J. Adler
As is described in more detail elsewhere (Adler, 2009; Adler & Davis, 2006; Davis,
Adler, & Parker, 2007), our methodology is inspired by the theory of pedagogic
discourse developed by Basil Bernstein, and its illumination of the ‘inner logic
of pedagogic discourse and its practices’ (Bernstein, 1996, p. 18). Any pedagogic
practice, either implicitly or explicitly, ‘transmits criteria’; indeed this is its major
purpose. What is constituted as mathematics in any practice will be reflected through
evaluation, through what and how criteria come to work.5
How then are these criteria to be ‘seen’? The general methodology draws from
Davis (2005) and the proposition that in pedagogic practice, in order for something
to be learned, to become ‘known’, it has to be announced in some form. Initial orien-
tation to the object, then, is through some (re)presented form. Pedagogic interaction
then produces a field of possibilities for the object. Through related judgements
made on what is and is not the object, possibilities (potential meanings) are gen-
erated (or not) for/with learners. All judgement, hence all evaluation, necessarily
appeals to some or other locus of legitimation to ground itself, even if only implic-
itly. An examination of what is appealed to and how appeals are made (i.e. how
ground is functioning) delivers up insights into knowledge resources in use in a
particular pedagogic practice.6 Following the linear equation example above, if the
teacher probes for or indeed inserts the notion of additive inverses, then he or she is
appealing to mathematical discourse and recruiting resources from the mathemat-
ical domain. If, however, the teacher proceeds with everyday terms such as move,
take over or transpose, then the grounds functioning are non-mathematical. Where
appeals to the everyday dominate, and the sensible comes to overshadow the intelli-
gible, potential mathematical meanings for learners might well be constrained (see
Davis et al., 2007).
Of course, what teachers appeal to is an empirical question. Our analysis to date
has revealed four broad domains of knowledge to which the teachers across all cases
appealed (though in different ways and with different emphases) in their work:
mathematical knowledge, everyday knowledge, professional knowledge7 and cur-
riculum knowledge. Teachers, in interaction with learners, appealed to the domain of
mathematics itself, and more particularly school mathematics. We have described,
a posteriori, four categories of such mathematical knowledge and/or activity that,
in turn, are resonant of the multiple mathematical orientations in the current South
African curriculum as discussed above:
5 It is important to note this specific use of ‘evaluation’ in Bernstein’s work. It does not refer to
assessment nor to an everyday use of judgement. Rather it is a concept for capturing the workings
of criteria for legitimation of knowledge and knowing in pedagogical practice.
6 This set of propositions is elaborated in Davis et al. (2003), as these emerged through
collaborative work in QUANTUM.
7 In Adler (2009), everyday knowledge and professional knowledge are collapsed, both viewed as
knowledge from practical experience. The separation comes from the development of this chapter.
1 Knowledge Resources in and for School Mathematics Teaching 9
8 In our description of ground, we are not concerned with their mathematical correctness or
whether they are appropriate. Our task is to describe what teachers recruit, whatever this is.
10 J. Adler
Teachers’ appeals extended beyond the three domains discussed above to include
what we still rather loosely call curriculum knowledge. In all our cases, and in some
cases this was a significant resource for the teacher, the teacher appealed to the
official curriculum, recontexualised in, for example, a textbook or an examination
question. In other words, what counted as legitimate was based on exemplifica-
tion or description in a textbook or what would count for marks in an examination
(e.g. the definition of a polygon is that which is found in the textbook; the justi-
fication for why it is important to label axes and points on a graph is that these
attract marks in an examination). Of interest is whether and how this legitimation is
integrated with or isolated from any mathematical rationale.
In the remainder of this chapter, I present two of the five cases to illustrate
our methodology and to illuminate the knowledge resources in use in mathematics
teaching.
The five case studies noted above have been described in detail elsewhere (Adler &
Pillay, 2007; Kazima, Pillay, & Adler, 2008). The two selected for discussion here
are telling: they present different approaches to learning and teaching mathematics,
together with similar and different knowledge resources in use. In so doing, and akin
to material resources, they problematise notions of professional knowledge that are
divorced from practice and context, opening up questions for mathematics teacher
education.
9 For a detailed account of this study, see Pillay (2006) and Adler and Pillay (2007).
10 This is a pseudonym.
1 Knowledge Resources in and for School Mathematics Teaching 11
prepared. He did not use a textbook nor did he refer his learners to any textbook dur-
ing the lessons observed. A six-page handout containing notes (e.g. parallel lines
have equal gradients), methods (steps to follow in solving a problem) and ques-
tions (resembling that of a typical textbook) formed the support materials used.
This handout was developed by Nash in collaboration with his Grade 10 teaching
colleagues.11
In the eight lessons observed, Nash dealt with the notion of dependent and inde-
pendent variables, the gradient and y-intercept method for sketching a line, the dual
intercept method, parallel and perpendicular lines, determining equations of straight
lines when information about the line is given in words and also in the form of a
graph and solving simultaneous linear equations graphically. He completed the unit
with a class test. The overall pass rate was 94%, class average was 65% and 34%
obtained over 80%. Of course, success is relative to the nature of the test and the
pedagogy of which it forms part. The test questions were a replica of questions in
the handout given to learners and so a reproduction of what had been dealt with in
class.
In the first two lessons, Nash dealt with drawing the graph of a linear equation
first from a table of values, and then using the gradient and y-intercept method.
In Lesson 3, he moved on to demonstrate how to draw the graph of the function
3x – 2y = 6, using the dual intercept method. The extract below is from the dis-
cussion that followed. It illustrates an evaluative event, the operation of pedagogic
judgement in this practice and the kinds of knowledge resources Nash recruited to
ground, and as grounds for, the dual-intercept method for graphing a linear func-
tion. The beginning of the event – the (re)presentation of the equation 3x − 2y = 6 –
is not included here. Extract 1 picks up from where Nash is demonstrating what
to do. The appeals – moments of judgement – are underlined, and related grounds
described.
Judgments in this extract emerge in the interactions between Nash and four learn-
ers who ask questions of clarification, thus requiring Nash to recruit resources to
ground and legitimate what counts as mathematical activity and so mathematical
knowledge in this class. Learners’ questions were of clarification on what to do,
suggesting they too were working with procedural grounds. There were possibili-
ties for mathematical justification and engagement, for example why only two points
are needed to draw the graph and how the direction of the graph is determined.
However, these are not taken up and the grounds offered remain empirical – in what
can be ‘seen’. Here the dual-intercept method is the simplest because it is accurate.
It avoids errors that come with changing the equation into ‘standard form, that is
y = mx + c. To ‘do’ the dual-intercept method, you use the intercepts on the axes,
that is when x = 0 and when y = 0. You need only these two points. They determine
the shape of the graph.
11 This documentation practice, unfortunately in the light of this book, was not in focus in our
research.
12
Nash: . . . first make your x equal to zero . . . that gives me my Grounds: procedural. Steps to follow are described, and
y-intercept. Then the y equal to zero gives me my justified mathematically.
x-intercept. Put down the two points There is no justification for only needing two points. Nash
. . . we only need two points to draw the graph might understand the geometry theory here, but this is
simply asserted
Lr 1: You don’t need all the other parts? The assertion is questioned by L1, and the theory not
Nash: You don’t have to put down the other parts . . . its useless having followed. Rather, an empirical explanation is given
−6 on the top there (points to the y axis) what does the −6 tell us
about the graph? It doesn’t tell us much about the graph. What’s
important features of this graph . . . we can work out . . . from
here (points to the graph drawn) we can see what the gradient is . . . Grounds: empirical
is this graph a positive or a negative? Important features of a graph are what can be ‘seen’
Lrs: (chorus) positive.
Nash: it’s a positive gradient . . .we can see there’s our y-intercept, there’s Mathematical activity is procedural and properties justified
our x-intercept (points to the points (0;−3) and (2;0) respectively) empirically
(in the next minute, a learner asks about labelling of points, and Nash responds with Grounds: curriculum knowledge.
emphasis on the marks such labelling attracts in examinations Mathematical conventions are official – those expected in
the examination
J. Adler
1
In this event, Nash’s responses were about what to do. Legitimation was provided
by steps to follow or what could be ‘seen’. Appeals were to procedural knowledge,
to some empirical feature of the object being discussed or to curriculum knowledge
(what counts in the examination).
This event, and the operation of pedagogic judgement, is typical of how Nash
conducted his teaching of this particular set of lessons. Table 1.1 summarises the
full set of 65 events across the eight lessons, and the knowledge resources Nash
recruited. As indicated above and in the numbers in the table, more than one kind of
knowledge resource could be called on within one event. Nash’s appeals to everyday
knowledge and his professional experience were not evidenced in this event. Briefly,
his recruiting of everyday knowledge, which were to add meaning for learners, was
often problematic from a mathematical point of view. For example, he attempted
to explain independent and dependent variables by referring to a marriage, husband
and wife and expressed amusement and concern when discussing this in his post-
lesson interview!
Events 65
Appeals/knowledge resources
Mathematics Empirical 24 37
Procedures/conventions 43 66
Experience Professional 18 28
Everyday 14 22
Curriculum Examinations/tests 6 9
Text book 7 11
He also illuminated how his experience factors into his planning and teaching,
and his attention to error-free mathematics. Learners’ misconceptions and errors are
a teaching device – and in the context of the perspective of this book – a resource in
his teaching. They are not a feature of what it means to be mathematical.
1 Knowledge Resources in and for School Mathematics Teaching 15
You see in a classroom situation . . . you actually learn more from misconceptions and errors
. . . than by actually doing the right thing. If you put a sum on the board and everybody gets
it right, you realise after a while the sum itself doesn’t have any meaning to it, but once they
make errors and you make them aware of their errors or . . . misconceptions – you realise
that your lessons progress much more effectively . . . correcting these deficiencies . . . these
errors and misconceptions.
The class begins with Ken (standing in the front of the class), placing the following
problem onto the Overhead Projector: How many diagonals are there in a
700-sided polygon? The students are asked to work on it for 5 min. After 7 min,
Ken calls the class’ attention, and the interaction below follows:
Ken: Ok! Guys, time’s up. Five minutes is over. Who of you thinks they
solved the problem? . . . .
Lr 1: I just divided 700 by 2. L1s response is procedural.
Ken: You just divided 700 by 2. Following a challenge from the teacher, the grounds extend to
Lr 1: Sir, one of the side’s have, like a corner. Yes . . . (inaudible), because of include perceived properties of the mathematical object.
the diagonals. Therefore two of the sides makes like a corner. Again this is challenged by the teacher
So I just divided by two . . . (Inaudible).
Ken: So you just divide the 700 by 2. And what do you base that on?
So what do you base that on because there’s 700 sides. So how many
corners will there be if there’s, 700 sides?
[. . .] there is discussion about 700 sides and corners, whether there are 350 or 175
diagonals
Ken: Let’s hear somebody else opinion
Lr2: Sir what I’ve done sir is . . .First 700 is too many sides to draw. L2 grounds his conjecture empirically, pragmatically and
So if there is four sides how will I do that sir? Then I figure that the four procedurally
sides must be divided by two. Four divided by two equals two diagonals.
So take 700, divide by two will give you the answer. So that’s the answer . . .
Ken: So you say that, there’s too many sides to draw. If I can just hear you
clearly; . . . that 700 sides are too many sides, too big a polygon to draw.
Let me get it clear. So you took a smaller polygon of four sides and
drew the diagonals in there. So how many diagonals you get?
Lr2: In a four sided shape sir, I got two
J. Adler
1
Ken: Two. So you deduced from that one example that you should These grounds are again challenged by Ken
divide the 700 by two as well? So you only went as far as
a four sided shape? You didn’t test anything else?
Lr2: Yes, I don’t want to confuse myself
Ken: So you don’t want to confuse yourself. So you’re happy with that solution, Ken challenges the empirical ground and single case
having tested only one polygon?
Lr2: Inaudible response . . .
Ken: What about you Lr4? You said you agree.
Lr4: He makes sense. (referring to Lr1). . .He proved it. . . . He used a square. Learners ground responses in the empirical and sensible
Ken: He used a square? Are you convinced by using a square that he is right? Challenge to the empirical ground and single case
Lr5: But sir, here on my page I also did the same thing.
I made a six-sided shape and saw the same thing. Because a six Learners first confirm with an additional example – six sides,
thing has six corners and has three diagonals. then ask about five sides, and Ken picks up on this
additional empirical case and counterexample
Lr1: So what about a five-sided shape? Then sir
Knowledge Resources in and for School Mathematics Teaching
Ken: What about a five-sided shape? You think it would have five corners? How Grounds functioning in this interaction remain empirical and
many diagonals? include counterexamples
Interaction continues. Ken intervenes as he hears some confusion between polygon Mathematical activity involves reasoning; providing
and pentagon, and turns the class’ attention to definitions of various polygons examples and counterexamples
having learners look up meanings in their mathematics dictionaries Mathematical objects have properties and are defined
17
18 J. Adler
The discussion and clarification of different polygons continued for some time,
after which Ken brought the focus back on to the problem of finding the number of
diagonals in a 700-sided figure, and work on this continues through the rest of this
lesson and the next two lessons. It is interesting to note that in all the discussion
on the 700-sided figure, the empirical instances discussed, and the diagrams made
public, a polygon is assumed to be regular and convex. Properties discussed focus
on the number of sides and related number of angles in a polygon (again regular
and convex), and a diagonal is defined as a line connecting two non-consecutive
corners. One route to solving the problem – noticing a relationship between the
number of corners and the number of diagonals from each corner – and so the pos-
sibility of a general formula becomes dominant. It is interesting too that the term
‘vertex’ is not used, and the everyday word ‘corner’ persists in the discussion. Ken’s
focus throughout the two lessons is on conjecture, justification, counterexample and
proof as mathematical processes. A shared understanding of the mathematical object
itself – a polygon and its diagonals as defined geometrically – through which these
processes are to be learned is assumed.
Judgements in this extract flow in interaction between Learners 1, 2, 4, 5 and the
teacher. The knowledge resources called in fit within the broad category of math-
ematics. In particular, the ground for the teacher is reflected in his insistence on
mathematical justification. However, these grounds are distinctive. The first appeal
(Lr1) is to the empirical, a particular case that can be ‘seen’ (two of the sides makes
like a corner) and a related procedure (I just divided by 2), followed by Ken’s chal-
lenge through an appeal to properties of a 700-sided polygon. The appeal of Lr2 is
also to the empirical, to a special case (four sides), and this is supported by Lr4,
and then by Lr5 (who did ‘the same thing’ with six sides). It is interesting to reflect
here on what possible notion of diagonal is being used by Lr5. While there has
been discussion on diagonals as connecting non-consecutive corners, it is possible
Lr5 is considering only those that pass through the centre of the polygon. Ken does
not probe this response, rather picking up on Lr1’s suggestion of a counterexample
(what about a five-sided shape?), which is also an empirical case. The appeals by
the teacher, as he interacts with, revoices and responds to learner suggestions, are
to the meta-mathematical domain, and so providing the criterion that the justifica-
tions provided are not yet mathematically adequate – they do not go beyond specific
cases. The grounds that came to function over the five lessons are summarised in
Table 1.2.
In sum, a range of mathematical grounds (with empirical dominant, and including
appeals to mathematics as generalising activity) overshadowed curriculum knowl-
edge, with everyday knowledge barely present. In the pre-observation interview,
Ken explained that his intention with the lessons he had planned was to focus on
the understanding of proofs. He wanted them to see proof as ‘a way of doing maths,
getting a deeper understanding and communicating that maths to others’. In the post-
lessons interview, interestingly, Ken explained that these lessons were not part of his
normal teaching. He used the research project to do what he thought was important,
but otherwise did not have time for. He nevertheless justified this inclusion in terms
of the new curriculum, which had a strong emphasis on proof, on ‘how to prove and
1 Knowledge Resources in and for School Mathematics Teaching 19
Events 37
Appeals/knowledge resources
Mathematics Empirical 23 64
General 14 36
Procedures/conventions 8 23
Experience Professional 0 0
Everyday 2 5
Curriculum Examinations/tests 11 32
Text book 0 0
what makes a proof’. When probed as to why he did not do this kind of lesson in his
‘normal’ teaching, he explained that there was shared preparation for each grade,
and ‘because of time constraints and assessments, you follow the prep and do it,
even if you don’t agree’.
In the introductory sections of this chapter, I argued that the knowledge resources
teachers recruit in their practice are important. Earlier research has suggested
that teachers’ professional knowledge was a significant factor in the relationship
between teachers and curriculum materials, and particularly so in contexts of
poverty. Where curriculum resources are minimal, the insertion of new texts crit-
ically depends on what and how teachers are able to use mathematics and other
knowledge domains appropriately for their teaching. By implication, a study of
curriculum text as ‘lived’ needs to foreground knowledge resources in use. This
chapter has offered a methodology – structured by evaluative events and criteria in
use to ground objects of learning and teaching – for illuminating knowledges in
use. It contributes to the overall perspective offered in this book – a perspective that
problematises the interactions between teachers and the resources drawn on in their
professional activity.
The methodology was put to work in two classrooms, enabling a descrip-
tion of the knowledge resources two teachers who were teaching different topics
recruited to ground the mathematics they were teaching. Together with the math-
ematical domain, and particularly procedural mathematical knowledge, Nash drew
on extra-mathematical domains of knowledge, particularly curriculum knowledge
and everyday knowledge. Ken drew largely from the meta-mathematical domain.
The knowledge resources that sourced the work of these two teachers were substan-
tively different, and so too was the mathematics that came to be legitimated in these
classrooms.
20 J. Adler
In this chapter we have described two teachers’ practices in their mathematics class-
rooms. Nash and Ken teach in similarly resourced schools, and in a similar policy
context. They recruited different knowledge resources, and thus different opportuni-
ties for learning mathematics were opened up in their classrooms. The methodology
we have used enables us to understand and think about what might support expan-
sion of the potential meanings these two teachers open up in their classrooms.
Nash’s practice and his talk about this in his interview reveal the value he places on
the high status official curriculum. This suggests possibilities for productive work
and reflection with Nash on his privileging of the official curriculum, and how this
shapes the ground functioning in his classroom in his teaching reported here. Ken,
on the other hand, might benefit more from an investigation of the integration of
meta-mathematical knowledge into his teaching more generally.14
14This challenge for teacher education is explored more directly elsewhere (see Adler, 2010)
where I problematise the teaching of mathematical reasoning, and its implications for teacher
education.
1 Knowledge Resources in and for School Mathematics Teaching 21
In QUANTUM, our overall goal has been to ‘see’ across sites of practice (teacher
education and school). We have studied pedagogic discourse and the constitution of
mathematics for teaching in teacher education sites as well as the school classrooms
illuminated in this chapter. For, if we are to improve mathematics teacher education,
we need to understand what potential meanings are opened and closed in and across
these sites, and how those emerging in teacher education relate to those emerging as
dominant school practices. In the introductory section of this chapter, I asserted that
the methodology described would be useful for studying the evolution of knowledge
resources in use across contexts, and that this was particularly important in contexts
of limited material resources. It is certainly useful in our current work where we are
studying teachers’ practices over time, with an interest in whether and how profes-
sional development interventions focused on aspects of content knowledge in and
for teaching relate to knowledges and other resources in use in practice.
Acknowledgements This chapter emerges from the QUANTUM research project on
Mathematics for Teaching, directed by Jill Adler, at the University of the Witwatersrand (Wits)
with Dr Zain Davis, University of Cape Town, as co-investigator. The methodology described here
was developed through joint work in mathematics teacher education. The elaboration into class-
room teaching was enabled by the work of master’s students at Wits. This material is based upon
work supported by the National Research Foundation (NRF), Grant number FA2006031800003.
Any opinion, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed here are those of the author and
do not necessarily reflect the views of the NRF.
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Chapter 2
Teachers’ Work with Resources:
Documentational Geneses and Professional
Geneses
G. Gueudet (B)
CREAD, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, IUFM Bretagne site de Rennes, 35043 Rennes
Cedex, France
e-mail: ghislaine.gueudet@bretagne.iufm.fr
must be studied as a social activity, which leads us to pay attention to its context:
institution and different social groups.
We are interested in the evolution, and factors of evolution, of the teachers’
professional activity. The studies about practising mathematics teachers sometimes
separate their practice, their knowledge and their beliefs (Perrin-Glorian, DeBlois, &
Robert, 2008). We consider here teachers’ professional growth as a joint evolution
of these three aspects. Conceptualising the way the practice articulates with knowl-
edge and beliefs is one of the aims of the theory we expose here. We do not separate
knowledge and beliefs, because the boundary between both is often unclear; we use
the expression of professional knowledge to refer to both and focus particularly on
knowledge related to mathematical content.
The reference to activity theory is also directly connected with our interest in
mediation and mediating artefacts. However, we refer to resources rather than
artefacts and discuss the reasons for this choice in the next section.
they are ongoing processes: a document comprises resources, which can be associ-
ated with others and involved in the development of other documents. A scheme of
utilisation is an invariant organisation of the activity to achieve a type of task; how-
ever, it can evolve in the course of the documentation work. It can be adapted to take
into account new features of the context; several schemes can be associated, etc.
We illustrate our model with a first short example, drawing on a previous study.
Sarah has taught mathematics from grade 6 to grade 9, in France, for 10 years. An
important objective assigned by the official curriculum is to introduce students to
rigorous proofs in the context of geometry. For the class of situations ‘designing
and setting up the introduction to proof in geometry’, Sarah selects exercises in the
textbook where the figures are coded (equality of lengths and right angles). She uses
dynamic geometry software and with it elaborates coded figures. Her students write
in their workbook ‘a property of a figure cannot be claimed from mere observation,
if there is no coding symbolising this property’. She declares, in an interview, that
her long experience in grade 9 classes has led her to pay attention to the difficulties
raised by proof in geometry, especially difficulties linked with the use of figures.
In this case, we consider that the teacher, in the course of her work and over sev-
eral years, developed a document, comprising recombined resources: extract of the
textbook, dynamic geometry software, etc. This document also entails a scheme of
utilisation of these resources, with operational invariants like ‘the proof of a result
in geometry must be associated with a coded figure’ and ‘a coded figure helps to
identify the relevant properties for the proof’.
We share with other authors in this book [in particular Adler (Chapter 1),
Remillard (Chapter 6), and Pepin (Chapter 7)] a perspective considering that teach-
ers ‘learn’ when choosing, transforming resources, implementing them, revising
them, etc. The documentational approach proposes a specific conceptualisation of
this learning, in terms of genesis. Documentation being present in all aspects of the
teacher’s work, it yields a perspective on teachers’ professional growth as a complex
set of documentational geneses. Understanding this growth requires a holistic view
on these geneses, by considering all the documents developed by the teacher: her
documentation system.
2 Teachers’ Resources and Professional Geneses 27
The data collection we propose is planned to last several years; a teacher is followed
at least 3 weeks each year. We detail here the schedule and the tools used. Figure 2.2
presents the overall agenda of the yearly follow-up.
During the first year, the teacher fills in a logbook over at least 3 weeks, describ-
ing her activity relative to one of the classes she teaches. The researcher visits the
teacher three times at home for interviews and collection of resources. He/she asks
(during the first interview) the teacher to draw a schematic representation of the
structure of the resources she uses. We call it a schematic representation of the
resource system (SRRS). An example of an SRRS is displayed in Fig. 2.4.
During the following years, the teacher is still followed in a class of the same
level, for the same mathematical content. The overall structure remains the same
(Fig. 2.2), but the focus is much more on developments: the teacher is asked to
bring the necessary modifications, to explain the changes, compared to the previous
year about the questionnaire, the SRRS and during the first interview.
We focus in this book on two teachers whom we followed for 2 years: 2008–2009
and 2009–2010.
- Collection of
resources.
This data collection is followed by a data exploitation device, which comprises var-
ious aspects. We carry out a quantitative treatment of the logbook: length of the
out-of-class and in-class work, places for this work, number of occurrences of a
given activity, length, number of uses of a given resource, length, nature and num-
ber of collective work moments, list of implied participants, etc. For the interviews,
we note in the same way the occurrences of the types of activity, resources and
persons mentioned. The questionnaire provides us with concrete information about
the teacher’s career and her current working environment. We also gain access,
through the questionnaire, to elements of her professional and personal history, in
particular in terms of family environment and collective involvements. We com-
plement these first treatments with the SRRS to evidence elements of structure
of the teacher’s activity and of her resources, systematically identifying moreover
collective dimensions (Chapter 16).
We identify, in the logbook and the interviews, all the elements relating to the
lesson observed in class. We observe in the lesson’s transcript how the interac-
tions between teacher, students and knowledge lead to adaptations of resources,
during or after the lesson. We conduct a systematic comparison of the first-year and
second-year data, quantitatively and qualitatively. In the next section, we present a
case where we applied this data collection and analysis device.
In this section we study the case of Myriam and of her teaching about functions in
grade 9 to illustrate the concepts presented in Section 2.1.
The synthetic description of Myriam’s activity during the follow-up (Fig. 2.3)
corresponds to the year 2009–2010.
2 Teachers’ Resources and Professional Geneses 31
Myriam has one grade 9 class, with 20 students. The theme of functions was introduced into the grade 9
curriculum in 2008–2009. The official curriculum is divided between ‘core content of knowledge’, which every
student should learn, and other contents. Functions do not belong to the core content. The students must obtain a
diploma, ‘diplôme de brevet des collèges’, at the end of the year. This diploma comprises a computer
certification ‘brevet informatique et internet’ (shortened as B2i*); Myriam is responsible for ensuring some of
For the preparation of her lesson, Myriam uses several websites: Sésamath, and institutional websites. She also
uses the classroom textbook and her personal notebook from the previous year. She finds on an institutional
website an activity ‘the box’, where the students are asked to compute (with their calculator and then with a
spreadsheet) the volume of a rectangular box for several values of the side x of squares, withdrawn on each
She retains this activity and takes rough paper to propose to the students to build their own boxes.
She implements the ‘box’ problem in class and uses it to introduce the vocabulary and notations: function,
image, antecedent, f(1)= 8, f: 1 8. The whole activity, with the spreadsheet, and the course synthesis last 3 h
(H1–H3). Myriam has observed, in 2008–2009, that many students failed to place a point given by its
coordinates in a Cartesian coordinate system. Thus she presents during the fourth hour a mere placement
activity, before introducing the notion of the graph of a function, during the fifth hour (H5), and presenting
exercises about graphs (H6).
Fig. 2.3 Synthetic description of Myriam’s activity, introducing functions in grade 9, 2009–2010.
∗ http://www.educnet.education.fr/formation/certifications/b2i
32 G. Gueudet and L. Trouche
Work on exercises
After the introduction of the different notions, vocabulary and representations, she presents her students a sheet
with five exercises, coming from several sheets downloaded on the Sésamath website (H7). One exercise
concerns rectangle areas; all the others are situated within extra-mathematical contexts. The students are
organised in homogeneous groups. They have to write their solutions on a slide (this session is filmed and
observed). Myriam expects everybody to succeed the two first exercises, which actually happens; she observes
only some difficulties in the notation and vocabulary in the students’ productions, which are discussed and
corrected the following day (H8). Other exercises are presented in H9 with e-exercises video projected and
The eleventh hour of the lesson was planned for Wednesday, January 6. But the snow begins to fall, and
Myriam is blocked at home. On January 7, she comes to school, but only three students managed to reach it.
She starts an exercise with them of the textbook about graphs, which requires the use of a spreadsheet. She is
concerned about the following days, because school transport is cancelled. She decides to send the exercise by
email to the students and asks them to solve the exercise and to send back the graph, drawn with the
In February, Myriam gives a short test on functions. She is not very satisfied with the results: some students still
use incorrect notations or are unable to properly read a table of values. She presents them with additional work
with the spreadsheet that the students have to send to her by email.
In this description for the class of situations ‘designing and setting up the intro-
duction of functions’, we observe that Myriam uses many material resources of
various kinds; digital and non-digital resources are strongly intertwined. We give
below examples of geneses which occurred in the course of this activity.
We have selected, amongst all the geneses we can infer from our data, examples
involving knowledge and resources which seem to be of particular importance for
Myriam (mentioned on several occasions in the logbook, during the interviews,
etc.). We also retained the example of a genesis corresponding to a new class of
situations recently introduced in Myriam’s system of activity for material reasons.
2 Teachers’ Resources and Professional Geneses 33
3 http://www.education.gouv.fr/pid285/le-bulletin-officiel.html
4 In France every teacher can propose in-service training, on a given subject, usually for 1 or 2
days. The regional inspectors select some of the propositions to constitute the yearly ‘training
offer’.
34 G. Gueudet and L. Trouche
it was useless’. The starting activity of 2008–2009 was situated within the frame
of geometry (perimeter of a parallelogram inscribed in a right-angled triangle) and
required delicate modelling work to determine a rather simple formula. Moreover,
all the students conjectured the formula without calculation using a GeoGebra
dynamic figure, which contributed to their reluctance towards a formal proof. It
led Myriam to change her introductory activity; we consider that it also produced
an evolution of her operational invariants (instrumentation).
– On the left and in the middle, her work at home. This does not mean individ-
ual work: for example she is inscribed in mailing lists and receives at home
information from these lists. She also works at home with resources given by
colleagues.
– Up right, her work at school without students. Meeting with colleagues, entering
the students’ marks in the special software (Pronote5 ), which builds the school
report at the end of each term.
– In the middle of the right side, her work at school in the classroom with her
students. Myriam has her own classroom equipped with a computer, a video
projector and an overhead projector (which she intends to replace soon with a
webcam).
– Down right, in-service training collectives. Myriam is involved in two such
groups. One group gathers some mathematics teachers of nearby schools (five
teachers); they exchange exercises and discuss changes in the curriculum. They
meet once a month. This group is not officially recognised by the institution.
Myriam is also a member of an ‘official’ group, where a regional inspector
participates. This group works on problems and investigations in mathematics.
These articulated zones correspond to a structure of Myriam’s professional
activity. This confirms the relevance of our ‘global’ positioning: the teacher’s
resources are structured according to her activity. We emphasise here cen-
tral features of Myriam’s professional activity and related characteristics, and
evolutions of her documentation system:
– Myriam develops real agency in the elaboration of her courses linked with the
available digital means: she collects exercises from different downloaded files
Binder with the courses of previous Official curriculum Entering students’ marks (Pronote−
years Profnote)
Websites
Vade mecum
Problems basis
Evaluation Spreadsheet
Report sheet of grade 9 before each Class notebook Notebook written Reflection group
holiday (summarising the main as a student
notions to know)
Fig. 2.4 Schematic representation of the resource system in 2009–2010, Myriam. The origi-
nal SRRS was handmade and naturally in French. We translated this one and typed it. ∗ Online
exercises, http://matoumatheux.ac-rennes.fr/accueilniveaux/accueilFrance.htm
to build one exercise sheet; she integrates new software that she does not fully
master, etc. Her preparation work at home is represented on more than half of
the SRRS. This corresponds perhaps more to the importance of this work in her
opinion than to the time actually spent. She filled in the logbook for over 27 days
(about the work with her grade 9 class; this includes Saturdays and Sundays).
She mentions about 14 h of work in class with the students, 10 h at school for
other purposes (several kinds of meetings) and 12 h at home. She can certainly
be considered as an expert teacher. We consider that this characteristic acts as a
lens, evidencing phenomena that happen for all teachers.
– She is very concerned about official instructions. She follows them and even
anticipates further institutional requirements. Her involvement in the assess-
ment of the ‘B2i’ leads her to send work by email and to develop professional
knowledge linked with these email exchanges with the students.
2 Teachers’ Resources and Professional Geneses 37
that this script is mostly adapted to enlighten the decisions that the teacher takes in
class; the documentational approach aims at presenting a more holistic view of the
teachers’ activity. It can naturally be used to study technology integration phenom-
ena and more generally to understand the professional evolutions resulting from the
generalised availability of digital resources.
– The balance evolves between what is limited to the group formed by the profes-
sor and her students, and what is more largely accessible. In particular, Myriam
and Pierre use the Pronote software, which was retained by the administration in
each of their schools. It confers a public dimension to the marking, making the
marks immediately accessible to the other teachers from the same class and to
the administrative staff.
– The spatial organisation in class includes new forms of display. The two teachers
observed use a video projector; Pierre, moreover, has an interactive whiteboard
that he combines with his traditional whiteboard (Chapter 16). Myriam also uses
an overhead projector to exploit two forms of display as well. This leads to raise
the question of new forms of ostension (the teacher showing the content to be
learned, Salin, 1999) associated with these new displays, which would require a
complementary study.
– Using digital files allows an immediate modification of these files as soon as the
teacher observes a problem during the implementation in class. The impact of the
interactions with the pupils thus seems increasingly important for the teacher’s
resources.
– The email allows fast and flexible exchanges of files between the teachers and
permits out-of-class exchanges between students and teachers.
2.5 Conclusion
The stake of a documentational approach of didactics is not limited to the analysis, in
terms of professional genesis, of the consequences for teachers of their interactions
with resources (Cohen, Raudenbush, & Ball, 2003). It constitutes a change of
perspective and an invitation to see documentation work as central in the teachers’
activity and documentational geneses as the components of a complex profes-
sional genesis. The expression documentational approach of didactics aims at
emphasising that the objective is to not only propose a didactical analysis of the
teacher’s documents but also consider the documents as central within the didactic
phenomena, and in particular within teachers ongoing professional development.
This perspective has already been discussed in Gueudet and Trouche (2009),
where we introduced the resource/document dialectics and the concept of documen-
tational genesis. The specific methodology that we have implemented here enabled
2 Teachers’ Resources and Professional Geneses 39
Appendix
Myriam, Additional Data
Activity type (and Precise place Time Other persons Resources used Materials Archiving (what? Comments
math. theme, if involved produced where?)
relevant)
Lesson about Classroom 10.00–10.55 The class Method sheet Students sheet Ring binder grade 9
functions (A.M.) (grade 9) Online about reading
exercises images
(MatouMatheux) and antecedents
Videoprojector
Discussion Dining hall 12.45 The bursar She informs me
with the that my
bursar webcam has
been
delivered
Report of Home 5.00–5.15 Personal
the day’s (P.M.) notebook
lesson
References
Adler, J. (2000). Conceptualising resources as a theme for teacher education. Journal of
Mathematics Teacher Education, 3, 205–224.
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from http://ermeweb.free.fr/CERME5b/
Cohen, D. K., Raudenbush, S. W., & Ball, D. L. (2003). Resources, instruction and research.
Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 25(2), 119–142.
Gueudet, G., Soury-Lavergne, S., & Trouche, L. (2009). Soutenir l intégration des TICE: quels
assistants méthodologiques pour le développement de la documentation collective des pro-
fesseurs? Exemples du SFoDEM et du dispositif Pairform@nce. In C. Ouvrier-Buffet & M.-J.
Perrin-Glorian (Eds.), Approches plurielles en didactique des mathématiques (pp. 161–173).
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teachers? Educational Studies in Mathematics, 71, 199–218.
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calculators: Turning a computational device into a mathematical instrument. New York:
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Hoyles, C., & Lagrange, J.-B. (Eds.). (2010). Mathematics education and technology – Rethinking
the Terrain. The 17th ICMI Study. New York: Springer.
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of activity in Soviet psychology (pp. 37–71). New York: M.E. Sharpe.
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ers. Studies on their professional growth. In K. Krainer & T. Wood (Eds.), Participants in
mathematics teacher education (pp. 35–59). Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
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perspective. Interacting with Computers, 15(5), 665–691.
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Smith.
Trouche, L. (2004). Managing the complexity of human/machine interactions in computerized
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Chapter 3
Patterns of Didactic Intentions, Thought
Collective and Documentation Work
Gérard Sensevy
G. Sensevy (B)
Brittany Institute of Education, University of Western Brittany, France
e-mail: Gerard.Sensevy@bretagne.iufm.fr
teacher makes the students play the didactic game; (2) the preparation of this activ-
ity when the teacher builds the game he will implement. We argue that the teacher’s
intentions are shaped in his documentation work. The morphogenesis of intentions,
in the documentation work, is thus the link between the building of the game and
the actual play that the teacher institutes.
In this chapter, we rely on practical descriptions of teachers’ and students’ prac-
tices, but our first objective is theoretical. We propose conceptual elements with
a three-fold purpose. We try to achieve a better understanding of (1) the rela-
tions between intentions and didactical action; (2) the relations between classroom
preparation and the actual implementation; and (3) how these relations unfold in
a collective that can in some cases produce a specific thought style (Fleck, 1979,
p. 99), a system of categories shared in this collective, that ultimately produces
‘the readiness for directed perception and appropriate perception of what has been
perceived.’
We then propose a description of the elaboration process of the game, supported
by three related assertions we work out in this chapter. First, the resources system
that the teacher mobilizes (in the process conceptualized by Gueudet and Trouche,
Chapters 2 and 16) is a key source of his action. Second, the teacher’s prior didactic
intentions do not have to be found ‘in his head’ or ‘in the situation,’ but in the
dialectical relationship between resources or documents, and the way he anticipates
the progress of the game in situ. The didactic intentions in action stem from the
dialectical relationship between prior intentions and the game as it is enacted in
didactic transactions. Third, the process that connects documents, prior intentions,
and intentions in action is rooted in the inclusion of the action of individuals in a
collective structure.
In the first part of this chapter, elaborating on Baxandall’s Patterns of Intention
(1985), we develop a framework to understand intentions from a generic viewpoint.
We argue that prior intentions function as strategic rules that drive the teacher’s
game. The second part is devoted to the study of two empirical examples, which
may illustrate the above framework. In particular, we show how prior intentions,
as strategic rules (Hintikka and Sandhu, 2006), are drawn from the documenta-
tion work, and how the strategies they enact depend on the structure of the milieus
suitable for the didactic action in situ. In the third part of the chapter, we briefly
summarize our findings.
One can notice the importance of the so-called ‘triangle of re-enactment’: there
is a situation (first term), a problem arising from this situation (second term) and the
solution-object (third term).
Let us see how Baxandall summarizes his investigation into the Forth Bridge:
One came first to the general Charge that the agent, Benjamin Baker, would be responding
to, and noted that while it could be terse – ‘Bridge!’ – it was a rubric for performance that
contained within it various general terms of the problem – spanning, providing a way, not
falling down. From this one moved on to specific terms of the problem, which I called the
Brief, though the name does not matter . . . Together Charge and Brief seemed to constitute
a problem to which we might see the bridge as a solution (Baxandall, 1985, p. 35).
We can now put forth a first formal framework for the description of intentions
we will project on the description of didactic intentions.
for the use of people playing the appropriate social game. The concept of ‘affor-
dance’ enables us to understand how objects may be viewed as purveyors of
intentions: ‘what we perceive when we look at objects are their affordances, not
their qualities. We can discriminate the dimensions of difference if required to do
so in an experiment, but what the object affords is what we normally pay atten-
tion to’ (Gibson, 1979, p. 134). More broadly, it is the symbolic milieu (e.g., the
meanings associated to a specific genre), and therefore the identification of the
games that the agents are expected to play in specific situations that may give
access to the intentions. One of the fundamental aspects of this milieu is that
symbolism is not confined to action in situ and the here and now. Most of our
actions are prepared.
3. It is useful and relevant to consider these intentions at various levels of granu-
larity (specificity). In this respect, Baxandall distinguishes the ‘Charge’ that can
‘summarize’ the general intention specific to a particular action and the ‘Briefs’
that characterize these intentions locally.
It is interesting to notice that these scale levels call for a differential description
of the action. In this perspective, one may usefully appeal to Searle’s (1983)
distinction between ‘prior intentions’ and ‘intentions in action’ to figure out how
the prior intentions are redesigned as intentions in action in the current action at
stake.1
4. The intentions have to be thought about in a broader framework than that fixed by
the common epistemology. We saw in particular how Baxandall seeks to extend
the meaning of the word ‘intent’ to both institutional practices (including genres)
and skills. One can therefore read the intentions in the categories of percep-
tion and action that are provided by the institutions, and in skills inherent in the
‘handling’ of a particular object.
The four dimensions of the framework presented above can and should be spec-
ified in didactic action, and more specifically to the situation of the teacher who
‘prepares the classroom.’
We must be aware of the specificity of this situation. In the intentional part of the
documentation work, the teacher uses the resources of a given milieu to organize
them into a document. Following Gueudet and Trouche (Chapter 2), we can consider
such devices as artefacts monitored by a scheme of use. We have to acknowledge the
intentional structure specific to the documentation work. The teacher, related more
or less to a group, selects resources according to certain intentions. The arrangement
he produces from these resources in turn redefines the system of intentions, which
will be further reorganized in the effective course of action. As a ‘historical object’
(Baxandall, 1985, p. 42), a document embeds purposefulness. Intentional structure
and actional structure codetermine the other in the document. In some ways, this is
both the condition and the effect of this codetermination.
1 In this respect, Pacherie’s recent work (2008) may be also of some help.
3 Patterns of Didactic Intentions 47
The second part of this chapter will be devoted to the empirical study of some
elements of this process.
2 I would like to thank Florence Ligozat for sharing this text with me.
48 G. Sensevy
For Brousseau, the adoption of a list of written codes, even if it ‘causes teacher’s
anguish,’ is not really problematic. ‘Elements of solution appear and spread in the
classroom’ and ‘The method of making lists of drawings is quickly adopted.’
Schubauer-Leoni et al. (2010), in the ‘second generation’ of the implementation
of the Treasures Game, consider this issue as follows:
‘This is the trickiest moment and one should not expect the pupils to put in place
the relevant strategies straight away . . . The problem faced by the pupils is that
they must feel empowered to shift to a remembering process based on inscriptions.
T cannot suggest drawing as this would be too strong a command for the pupils and
3 Patterns of Didactic Intentions 49
it would prevent them from feeling the need for a list. It is in the discussion between
the pupils that this idea can come to light.’
We can acknowledge a similar conception of the way the teacher and the students
have to deal with the informational leap and the necessity to adopt a ‘remember-
ing process based on inscriptions.’ As ‘Brousseau’s teacher’ must stay ‘unruffled’
and trust the students’ invention, ‘Schubauer-Leoni and coworkers’ teacher’ ‘cannot
suggest drawing,’and the necessity of designing writing codes (the inscription pro-
cess) has to stem from ‘discussion between the pupils.’ In the same light, in the two
texts, one can find that the teacher’s role is to encourage the students, in particular
by assuring them there is a way to win the game.
If we now look at the way our collective dealt with this issue, we have to keep in
mind the following points: First, Brousseau’s and Schubauer-Leoni and coworkers’
conceptions were well-known by the collective, given that their papers have been
studied before implementing the teaching sequence, and discussed throughout the
implementation process. From this viewpoint, the collective documentational gene-
sis (Chapter 16) encompasses the elaboration of these texts, in relation to the actual
implementation. The collective was thus sure that the teacher had to stand to the
side, and leave the students to figure out how to solve the informational leap prob-
lem. One can notice that such a perspective is consistent with the roots of the theory
of didactic situations (Brousseau, 1997) as it is usually understood. According to this
theory, an essential purpose of the didactical process consists of enabling students
to build a first-hand relationship to a given piece of knowledge. To reach that goal,
the teacher has to monitor this process by making sure that the students experience
the mathematical necessity (in this case, the power of public representations).
Nevertheless, at the end of the Stage 2, when the informational leap had to be
realized in the classroom, a discussion unfolded in the collective about this issue,
initiated by the teacher who has the responsibility to carry out the lesson. Indeed,
the collective habit of this group was to anticipate as precisely as possible students’
actual participation and the range of didactic behaviors that students might pro-
duce in the didactical situations. In doing so, the collective tried to identify a link
between the milieu and the teacher’s action, and the students’ behaviors. When try-
ing to fulfil this a priori analysis pattern, in the case of the session in which the
informational leap was presented, the collective was not able to anticipate by what
concrete means students would be able to figure out the necessity of using inscrip-
tions. In this respect, it was the teacher’s responsibility to manage the situation by
improvising on the basis of the conceptual background that was at the root of the
collective’s work.
One can thus consider how the collective work on available resources (from
Brousseau’s team and Schubauer-Leoni’s team) provides a specific strategic sys-
tem that one can describe as follows: confronted with the inevitable failure of his
students, the teacher had to let the students know that the game can be played with
success (encourage the students by giving them the assurance they can win); she
had to stand to the side to allow the students to experience the necessity of the
inscription system (let them find they can make a list); she knew that she was going
50 G. Sensevy
to face uncertainty stemming from her ignorance of the students’ possible moves
to find a ‘solution’ (she is prepared to use any opportunity to guide the students’
learning trajectory).
Let us now consider the actual implementation of this part of the situation, which
means, according to our theoretical framework, how the system of these strategic
rules is enacted in actual strategies.
This part of the instructional sequence has been videotaped and transcribed.3 Several
months after the sequence was carried out, an auto-analysis interview was conducted
between the teacher and another member of the research team.
The studied episode took place at the end of Stage 2. This session occurred in a
workshop gathering five students. It was the first day of a two-day process, in three
phases (Day 1: morning; Day 1: afternoon; Day 2: morning). In the following, we
focus on one of the crucial moments of the Treasures Game, in describing how the
joint action of the teacher and the students fosters the emergence of ‘making a list.’
In fact, at this moment, Ima wanted the teacher to write down the list of the stu-
dents who played the game on that day. This is a generic classroom habit, specified
to the Treasures Game situations. In the classroom, it is important to write down
who has done the activity, to know who hasn’t.
3 This part of the chapter has been written on the basis of data collected by two members of the
collective, Dominique Forest and Anne Le Roux-Garrec. I would like to thank them. I am grateful
to Dominique Forest for the fruitful discussions we had about the interpretation of these data.
3 Patterns of Didactic Intentions 51
So the teacher takes the list from a table near the students and points to the
students’ names:
I know I’ll have trouble, finally I am afraid I find it hard to make them think about
the written record. Oh, I know that, I know that because we talked a lot about it in
the group, and I know that at a point the written record must appear, and I do not
see how it will appear. I do not know what I was thinking then, but when Ima said
‘write down,’ then I said to myself there is something, something that I must keep
under my sleeve, because the idea of writing record, if it does not emerge after, at
this moment there are traces, which emerge now, traces I will be able to rely on.
We can understand how the teacher was able to reenact her intentions in the
dialogue focused on her videotaped practice. It is possible to recognize the strate-
gic system we mentioned above. In particular, she knew she must let the students
‘find by themselves’ that they can make a list. This is one of the core constituents
of the strategic system elaborated within the collective (‘we talked a lot about in
the group’). One may say that this strategic rule stems from the ‘thought style’
(Fleck, 1979) inherent in the work of this collective.4 There are some fundamen-
tal relations and properties that are impossible to challenge in a thought style, a
kind of ‘bedrock’ (Wittgenstein, 1997), which turns ‘individual thought over to an
automatic pilot’ (Douglas, 1987, p. 63). We argue that the ‘let the students find
by themselves they can make a list’ strategic rule is such a core principle in the
collective thought style. Nevertheless, it is worth noticing that this strategic rule is
not easily converted to an actual strategy. As we put it above, it is in some ways
contradictory to the habit of thought, elaborated in the collective, which consists
of drawing a precise a priori analysis to anticipate the students’ learning behavior.
This uncertainty is obvious in the teacher’s comments (‘I know that at a point the
written record must appear, and I do not see how it will appear’), which seems
to mirror Brousseau’s and Schubauer-Leoni and coworkers’ statements we quoted
above. Thus, it is perfectly understandable that the teacher be tempted to use all the
4 We argue that one can consider the educational process as the slow elaboration of a thought style
(Sensevy et al., 2008).
52 G. Sensevy
opportunities she could find in the students’ utterances, even though there is a risk
of misunderstanding. The following part of the teacher’s auto-analysis sheds light
on this topic:
I think I try to bring out small things, because it can be reused, maybe there are
seeds that are sowed there.
On the excerpt in which the teacher shows students the list of children: This is
the list of children, but it’s true, I do not present it without purpose. This is a sample
of a list, which . . . So there is an emergence of something, I thought, if it is difficult
for them to achieve the written record, perhaps I will be able to build on it.
The interviewer asks: But you do not go any further at this time?
No, because it is not the right time, it’s not the game. And here it is about a
list, which describes the children who played the game, it is not at all the idea of a
written trace, which keeps a permanent memory for later. In the list of children Ima
refers to, we deal with a written trace, which allows us to validate: has each child
played? So it’s not at all the same approach.
In this excerpt, we can understand how the teacher’s action (the teacher’s game
on the student’s game, in the theoretical sense of the JATD) surrounding the ‘ques-
tion of the list’ consists of reducing uncertainty by ‘sowing seeds,’ that is, by paying
attention to the student’s mention of the list of children, to be able to reuse this mean-
ing later on. But it is interesting to note that this behavior does not entail a Jourdain
effect5 (Brousseau, 1997). Indeed, the teacher explains that the strong conceptual
difference between the two types of lists (the ‘list of children’ and the ‘Treasures
Game list’) prevents her from relying too firmly on the student’s designation of the
list of children. One can acknowledge from the teacher’s declaration how two fun-
damental aspects of the didactic game are at stake. First, the chronogenesis (the
genesis of time) constraint (No, because it is not the right time, it’s not the game)
that explains that the teacher has to wait for the right time, the kairos, as the ancient
Greeks said, to engage the classroom discussion on the issue of the list. Second,
the mesogenesis constraint, which is closely linked to the chronogenetic one. In this
episode, the mesogenesis (the genesis of milieu) necessity refers to the need, for the
teacher, to introduce some specific meanings to create common ground and upon
which she will be able to elaborate in order to help the students figure out how to
produce a remembering process.
5 A Jourdain Effect occurs when the teacher pretends to acknowledge a specific piece of knowledge
in an ordinary student’s behavior.
3 Patterns of Didactic Intentions 53
not win’. It is important to note how the teacher emphasizes the students’ failure, as
an impossibility to retrieve the ten objects. But one has to identify, in the teacher’s
speech, the use of the pronoun ‘we,’ which means the teacher includes herself in the
failure and the necessary subsequent research. For her, it is a way to deal with the
difficult uncertainty students could feel. In doing so, she tries to enact the two main
strategic rules in this part of the Treasures Game: (1) the students have to experience
the limits of internal memory; (2) this failure must not alter their commitment in the
enquiry. It is interesting to focus on a slight move, in the teacher’s game, which
occurred at the end of the session. Out of the blue, the teacher first intended to show
the ten objects to the students, then she changed her mind: ‘Well, I am going to
show you the objects [the teacher takes the bag]. I intended to let you see, but before
that, I would like us to succeed, cause we did not win.’ To understand this point, the
interviewer asks the teacher a question:
I: You said ‘I am going to show you the objects’ and you didn’t do
that . . .
T: No, because the problem is elsewhere, I would like to get it, I would like
it to emerge, and I am afraid that, I tell myself that, by showing them the
objects, they think ‘oh, it’s easy, I could have done it,’ they could be in
trouble. In fact, I want to leave them feeling the failure, I want to leave
them telling themselves ‘the hidden objects that I can’t see yet, what is the
representation I could give them.’ In my opinion, it’s the point.
The teacher gave a clear incentive, by focusing student’s attention on Ima’s word
about the possibility of writing, and the students acknowledge this reminder. It is
interesting to consider the teacher’s analysis of these moves.
Here I am cheating, I am cheating, because what Ima wanted to do in the morning
was keep a trace of the students’ participation in the game to be sure they have
participated. On my side, it meant keep a memory to remember . . .
54 G. Sensevy
The teacher critiques her own behavior, but after having emphasized again her
recognition of the difference between the student’s viewpoint and her own, she
reconsiders her previous analysis:
After all, it’s sure that the idea of a list, the idea of ticking the students’ partici-
pation to be sure all the students have played, this idea is in the same spirit to keep
a memory, it’s what I reactivate here. Even though they do not have this anticipatory
idea of keeping a trace as a representation to use it later on . . . So, it’s not really
cheating, it’s, umm, bridging the gap from my behavior to a behavior that they can
adopt in their personal approach.
One can see this latter assertion as witnessing the complexity of the didactical
practice. If one follows the teacher’s justification, one can say that to reach her goal
(enabling the students to refer to writing), the teacher admits a kind of minor misun-
derstanding of the nature of the remembering process. One can raise the hypothesis
that to the extent to which the failure of the internal memory has been acknowl-
edged by the students, the production of the ‘solution’ (writing) is not a major stake.
The crucial point is that the students commit themselves to the writing process,
given that the teacher’s monitoring of this process will enable them to understand
the very nature of the remembering process, and thus to correct the initial minor
misunderstanding that will have allowed the joint process to proceed.
T: And I, I still wanted 10 objects, even though it was a lot. So, this
evening, will it be easy to remember them?
S1: No!
T: No, so what could we do to remember this evening?
Ima: We write.
T: You, you would like to write, so you need a sheet of paper. So, go ahead
(the teacher gives Ima a sheet of paper and a pencil), for me, it’s alright.
T: But she does that for herself, OK. To remember on her own. You, if you
want to remember you have to do something too?
S2: Yes, me, I want to write, too (the teacher gives him a sheet of paper and
a pencil).
S3: Me too. It’s that, we all are going to write down (the teacher gives a
sheet of paper and a pencil to every student).
3.3 Conclusion
In this chapter, we first focused on the issue of intentions, on the basis of Baxandall’s
work. Within the framework of the JATD, we consider human practices as social
games. In this respect, we argue that to understand people’s actions, we have to
identify what we modelize as the game they play. Thus, people’s intentions are to be
drawn from these games, and we consider intentional systems as strategic systems.
In doing so, we highlighted a conception of intentions in which intentions are public,
found in the milieu of the action. In that sense, an intention is more or less always
collective, not necessarily in the sense that it stems from a collective, but in that it
has to be viewed as the expression of an institutional thought style that stems from
the social game at play. This thought style plays a prominent role in the orchestration
process (Chapter 14) that teachers enact.
In the empirical study we outlined in this chapter, the teacher’s intentions were
collective, in the first sense of the term that we acknowledge below. The teachers
work in a particular institution, broadly speaking, a didactic institution, which brings
them to a specific thought style. For example, a teacher has to enable the students to
establish more or less a first-hand relationship to a given piece of knowledge, and
one who wants to understand the dynamics of the teaching--learning process has to
take this general feature into account when identifying the teacher’s intentions. In
this chapter, the case study allows us to understand how the didactic intentions lie in
the documents designed by the teachers and in the relationship the teacher has built
with these documents.
The case at stake is interesting in that it shows the nature of the teacher’s inten-
tion, about the necessity, for the students, to experience the failure of internal
memory, and the consequent adoption of a writing strategy. This system of inten-
tions is not an individual’s system, but the result of a collective documentation work,
which is based on the study of the previous versions of the Treasures Game. But in
the texts presenting these previous versions, as we saw, not enough was said about
the way of dealing with the necessity of the list, even though the researchers present
this necessity as critical in the teaching process. In this respect, we have shown how
the teacher’s strategic system, as a system of prior intentions, is designed to achieve
her two-fold purpose (failure of internal memory, necessity of a writing strategy), by
standing to the side. We argue that it is impossible to understand the joint action of
the teacher and the students, in this classroom, without acknowledging this two-fold
purpose, which is purpose of the collective. But taking into account this collective
purpose is not sufficient. We try to show that it is necessary to document the way the
teacher, against this common ground, puts in place actual strategies that concretize
the strategic rules that monitor his behavior. To understand the concrete action of a
teacher, even though it has been designed in a collective documentation work, one
has to acknowledge the teacher’s ‘feel for the game’ (Bourdieu, 1990) that enables
her to rationally improvise, and to reach the collective goals beyond the collec-
tive preparation. In this respect, teachers could be seen as ‘instructional designers’
(Chapter 17) to the extent to the results of their improvisation modify the research
design.
56 G. Sensevy
In this perspective, a thought style, conceived of ‘the readiness for directed per-
ception and appropriate perception of what has been perceived’ is a precious support
for people’s practices, but it does not provide people with all the ‘solutions’ of the
practice. In this study, the classroom concretization of prior intentions, as a strategic
system, rests on the teacher’s capacities to enact a particular way of ‘standing to the
side’ within the joint action. In the Treasures Game situation, as it was implemented
here, we have to acknowledge that this enactment is not easy. It seems that a major
reason for this difficulty could be the ‘lack of intentiveness,’ to use Baxandall’s neol-
ogism, of the scientific texts the collective was using. The resources and documents
embed purposefulness, but in some cases, not enough.
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Brousseau, G. (1997). The theory of didactic situations in mathematics. Dordrecht, The
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Chapter 4
Resources for the Teacher from a Semiotic
Mediation Perspective
4.1 Introduction
The potentialities of ICT tools for learning have been extensively studied with a
main focus on the their possible use by the students and the consequent benefits
for them, but there has been the tendency to underestimate the complexity of the
teacher’s role in exploiting these potentialities. In this chapter, assuming a semiotic
mediation perspective (Bartolini Bussi & Mariotti, 2008), we will discuss different
kinds of artefacts that are offered to the teachers to enhance the teaching–learning
activity in the classroom. Thus, as Adler (Chapter 1) suggests, we shift “atten-
tion off resources per se, and refocus(es) it on teachers working with resources; on
teachers re-sourcing their practice. Teachers’ “re-sourcing practice” can be viewed
in at least two ways: firstly, it may be interpreted as exploiting resources and
developing professional activity (e.g. professional growth), as explained and dis-
cussed by Gueudet & Trouche in the theoretical frame of documentational approach
(Chapter 2). Secondly, it may be interpreted as exploiting resources in the classroom
to achieve a specific educational goal.
This latter sense opens the research direction that we followed in our study,
assuming the specific frame of the Theory of Semiotic Mediation (TSM) (Bartolini
Bussi & Mariotti, 2008). Such theoretical approach explicitly considers the role of
the teacher and describes how she can exploit the use of an artefact, managing differ-
ent didactical situations to make the expected semiotic process happen. Following
Bartolini Bussi (1998), we describe the teacher’s action making use of the metaphor
of orchestration. As argued in Mariotti & Maracci (2010), the term orchestration
here can be related to what is labelled the didactical performance component of
the instrumental orchestration within an instrumental approach (Chapter 14), but
the objectives are different. In fact, the objective of the teacher’s orchestration
within a semiotic mediation approach is not that of guiding students’ instrumental
Following Hoyles (1993), one can speak about the relationship between artefact
and knowledge as evoked knowledge. For experts the artefact may evoke specific
knowledge corresponding to what is mobilized to solve specific problems.
1 Assuming a semiotic mediation perspective, Mariotti and Maracci (2010) address the issue of
how an ICT tool can be a resource for the teacher.
4 Resources from a Semiotic Mediation Perspective 61
2 The distinction between personal meanings and mathematical meanings may remind of
Brousseau’s distinction between knowing (in French: connaissance) and knowledge (in French:
savoir) (Brousseau, 1997). Even if they are not in antithesis, the two perspectives cannot be reduced
to one another: the former stresses the semiotic dimension of the teaching--learning processes,
which is in the shadow for the latter.
62 M.A. Mariotti and M. Maracci
Teacher’s mediation
Activities Individual
with the production
artefact of signs
Collective
production
of signs
Though the ICT tool can be considered the key resource, the use of which is not
limited to the initial phase (Mariotti & Maracci, 2010), other resources may support
the teacher’s actions throughout all the didactical cycle. In this contribution we will
consider the specific resource provided by written texts.
According to their different potentials, the teachers may exploit different types
of texts – either internal or external to the mathematics class community: the texts
produced by the teacher to describe the task, those produced by students in the
different moments of the teaching–learning sequence, or the texts provided by a
historical source.
To show the potentialities of such texts as resources for the teacher, we will focus
on how the teacher can effectively use them in the classroom for triggering and
4 Resources from a Semiotic Mediation Perspective 63
sustaining semiotic mediation, and hence on the semiotic processes activated by the
students and prompted by the use of those texts.
We consider the term “text” in a broad sense including any kind of organized set
of signs, also belonging to different semiotic systems, although in the following we
will limit ourselves to considering mostly written verbal texts. A text provides a
number of signs organized in a stable structure that may become object of reflection
and discussion, and for this very reason the text has the potential of triggering the
production of new signs. To understand the specific types of resource we intend
to discuss, we can explicitly refer to Wartofsky’s (1979) classification of cultural
artefacts in primary, secondary and tertiary artefacts. As Wartofsky explains:
What constitutes a distinctively human form of action is the creation and use of artefacts,
as tools, in the production of the means of existence and in the reproduction of the species.
[. . .] Primary artefacts are those directly used in this production; secondary artefacts are
those used in the preservation and transmission of the acquired skills or modes of action or
praxis by which this production is carried out (1979, p. 202).
Examples of tertiary artefacts are the mathematical theories which organize the
mathematical models constructed as secondary artefacts. Assuming such a per-
spective, Bartolini Bussi, Mariotti, & Ferri (2005) discuss the semiotic potential
emerging from combining the use of a primary artefact, a perspectograph, and sec-
ondary artifacts, texts drawn from ancient treatises of painting, to form together the
base of the development of tertiary artefacts. The semiotic potential of such com-
bination of intertwined elements was based on the potential of different artefacts of
evoking each other.
The polysemy or multi-voicedness of cultural artefacts make them useful as
teacher resources to foster mathematical discussions in the classroom (Bartolini
Bussi, 1998): because of its evocative potential, a text may be used to fuel the evo-
lution of signs, objective of a semiotic mediation process. A condition for a text for
being potentially useful is that of being interpretable by the students in terms of their
experience with the primary artefact in play as well as with the mathematics.
In our teaching experiments, the teacher utilized texts of different types:
64 M.A. Mariotti and M. Maracci
Each type of text has different potentialities with respect to the semiotic
mediation process.
Consider the case (a). A text written by a classmate may assume the status
of the simulation of a pair interaction, where one of the interlocutors expresses
herself through a written text. In the other cases (b), an asymmetry appears imme-
diately between the reader and the voice expressed by the text whose authority may
come from the well-known reputation of the author or from official reference to
the community of mathematicians. Generally speaking, reading an original source
is a specific activity on the basis of an hermeneutic effort referring to the tension
between the meaning of the text in the perspective of the author and the meaning for
the reader in her personal perspective (Jahnke, Arcavi, Barbin, Bekken, Furinghetti,
Idrissi, da Silva, & Weeks, 2000).
In the following sections, we will show how all the resources described above
can be used in synergy by the teacher. We start by illustrating the key role of the text
that describes the task (the formulation of the task) in fostering the unfolding of the
semiotic potential; then we discuss examples concerning the teacher’s utilization of
written texts: texts produced by students and a text drawn from a historic source.
The examples are drawn from the same teaching experiment centred on the use of
Cabri (Laborde & Bellemain, 1995), which involved Italian and French 10th grade
classes (for details, see Falcade, 2006; Falcade, Laborde, & Mariotti, 2007).
The educational goal was to use Cabri for introducing students to the idea of func-
tion as co-variation. The design of the sequence of activities was consistent with
the structure of the didactic cycle. Students’ productions and audio-recordings of
classroom activities were collected and analysed.
The idea of function was introduced within a geometrical setting, as a relation
between points of the plane which are linked through a geometrical construction.
One can recognize the possibility of establishing a rich system of connections
between certain components of Cabri and their use – such as basic points and points
obtained through a construction, the dragging tool and its effect on the different
kinds of points, the trace tool and the macro tool – and the mathematical notion
of function and all the related notions – such as that of independent and dependent
variables, parameter, domain, image and graph.
The first activity proposed to the students concerned the exploration of the effect
of a macro-construction. They had to explore systematically the effect of dragging
a point, experiencing both the free and the conditioned movement. The aim was
to introduce the notion of variation and co-variation as a base for a definition of
function. The trace tool was extensively used, and the study of the trajectories of
the different points contributed to the appropriation of rich meanings embedding a
4 Resources from a Semiotic Mediation Perspective 65
Fig. 4.4 What appears on the screen activating the trace tool
dynamic component, for the notion of domain and image of a function (Fig. 4.4).
Collective discussions were orchestrated by the teacher with the aim of formu-
lating shared mathematical definitions of the notions of function, domain and
image.
Later on, after the introduction of numerical functions, the students were assigned
the problem of providing a geometric representation of a numerical function.
Once obtained the solutions to this problem, the students were asked to inter-
pret an excerpt of a text by Euler addressing the same question, and to compare
their own answer with the method described by Euler. The ensuing collective dis-
cussion had the aim of sharing the individual interpretations and promoting the
evolution of personal meanings towards the mathematical meaning of graph of a
function.
The design of the starting activity was intended to foster the students’ production of
personal signs related to the use of the dragging tool that could subsequently evolve
towards the desired mathematical signs. Specific attention is put in the formulation
of the task, specifically in the choice of the words referring to different aspects to be
focussed on.
Task. Displace all the points you can. Observe what moves and what does not.
Explore systematically, that is, displace one point at time and note which points
66 M.A. Mariotti and M. Maracci
move and which do not. Summarize the results of your exploration in the table
below.
Points which can be dragged Points which move Points which do not move
The expressions “displace”, “move” and “drag” are present, and are used with
different meanings. “Displace” and “drag” are used as nearly synonymous to refer
to the direct action made by the user upon the points. There is a slight difference
between the two words, as the first is a word of “natural language”, while the second
is a word of “Cabri language”: “move” is used to refer to the movement of a point
as a result of direct or indirect action upon it. This difference is not made explicit.
It is left to the pupils to make sense of this difference through their exploration in
Cabri.
The transcripts of students’ conversations show interchangeable use of the
expressions “move” and “displace”, until the students realize and express the dis-
tinction between what moves and what can be displaced. We can therefore say that
as an effect of working on the task, the students produced and shared two distinct
signs, “displace” and “move”. These two signs directly refer to the activity with
Cabri, but they have the potential of being related to the mathematical signs of inde-
pendent variable (point that can be moved) and dependent variable (points that move
but cannot be moved). The following exchange between two students is a good
example of what can be expected during the solution of this task.
30. Egi: I wanted to ask . . . points that can be displaced, in what sense . . . that every
time move.
31. Mar: Can be displaced . . . I told you its hard . . . all of them move but you can
displace only three of them. H moves under the action of A, B and P.
A semiotic perspective introduces a specific dimension in the design of the task:
the production of certain signs can be considered the effect of the specific task, but
what is crucial is not only what is requested to be done, but also how such request
is worded.
activity was not new for the students, who were accustomed to engaging in defining
processes.
The discussion developed over three lessons (approximately 5 h). The first phase
started when the teacher recalled the recent activities with Cabri: both the pupils
and the teacher referred to Cabri tools and phenomena experienced during those
activities. Different elements in play were highlighted by the students and explic-
itly related to the corresponding mathematical ideas of (independent and dependent)
variable, domain and image. Then a crucial point arose: the students realized that
characterizing a function implies determining common features and this corre-
sponds to determining when two functions can be said to be “equal”. Grasping the
opportunity, the teacher shifted the focus of the discussion and asked the students,
working in pairs, to try and formulate a “definition of equal functions”. Cabri was
available, and students were prompted to check different examples to test their con-
jectured definitions. Finally, students were asked to express through a written text a
“definition of equal function” that took into account the ideas from the activity in
Cabri. The following definitions were proposed.
And–Ale: “Two functions are equal if they have the same domain and the
same image for all the domains subsets of the original domain
which defines the functions.”
Gio–Fed: “Two functions are equal if they have the same number of
variables, the same domain, and the same procedure (in the
construction of the macro).”
Mar–Gab: “Two functions are equal when they have the same image and
(when) the same domain is fixed (for both).”
Tiz–Seb: “In our opinion two functions are equal if having the same domain
and the same definition procedure they have the same image. If
either the domain, or the definition procedure, or the image are
not equal, neither the functions are not equal.”
Almost all the definitions mentioned the main elements in play: the domain, the
procedure and the image. The first definition presents a characterization in which
the domain is conceived in terms of subsets and uses a quantifier (“for all”). This is
a static definition in terms of sets: no reference to variation is made. Though it may
appear quite strange, nevertheless this characterization originated from the pupils’
previous experience, specifically from the relation built between the idea of image
of a function and that of trajectory coming from the use of the trace tool. This will
emerge from the collective discussion.
decided to exploit the semiotic potential of these secondary artefacts and orga-
nized a collective discussion centred on the comparison between the four produced
texts.
She provided the students with a copy of the produced texts, left a few min-
utes for reading them, and opened the discussion clarifying the aim: to formulate
a shared definition of “equal functions” starting from the four given produced
texts. In the following, we report some excerpts from the transcript of the
discussion.
Excerpt 1
1. T (teacher): [. . .] we must find an agreement on a definition, which can be one
of these, or an improvement of one of these, or the fusion of these . . . We must
decide.
2. And: According to me, Gab’s and Mar’s definition is wrong.
3. T: So, And, according to you, Gab’s and Mar’s definition is wrong. Let’s read it
again (she reads again) “two functions are equal when they have the same image
and (when) the same domain is fixed for both”.
4. And: Because to get to the same image, someone could pass through . . . we
could have several journeys; in fact, if there were a subset of the domain . . . we
can’t say that the functions are. . .
5. T: . . . Tiz, could you try to explain it?
6. Tiz: Yesterday, we saw that we can, by doing the same domain, we can create
the same image and this, with different functions (procedures).
After declaring the main goals of the activity, the teacher moderated the
interventions focussing on one of the produced texts.
The intervention of And (4) made explicit the origin of his and Ale’s definition:
the equality of function is related to the coincidence of the trajectories for each sub-
set of the domain. Still, the reference to the use of the trace tool was not explicit;
rather it was introduced by the metaphor of journeys (4). Realizing that perhaps
some students could not share And’s way of reinvesting the experience with the
trace tool, the teacher prompted an explanation (5). Tiz intervenes referring to pre-
vious work in Cabri and raised the issue of considering explicitly the procedure that
realizes a function.
In the following, other interventions focussed on this same issue until the teacher
redirected the discussion to the comparison between the definitions and asked to go
back to And and Ale’s text. The re-formulation of this sentence in terms of procedure
was collectively achieved.
Excerpt 2
44. T: Let’s read the text. You say that if they have the same domain and the same
image for each subset of the domain. . .
45. Tiz: But, here it’s like to have the same procedure.
46. T: Hummm, and why it’s like to have the same procedure?
47. Several voices: . . . Because . . .
4 Resources from a Semiotic Mediation Perspective 69
48. Gab: . . . As we go further, the subsets of the domain and vice versa . . .
49. T: Do you agree, And?
50. Gio: The domain is the plane, then you have the straight line, then a segment . . .
51. T: What are these?
52. And: The domain can be whatever.
53. Gio: They are subsets.
54. T: And then, the procedure, what does it do? That is to say, I . . .. Where does it
start from?
55. And: The domain can be one point too . . . if we want!
56. T: The subset of the domain can be one point too. Oh!
57. And: For whatever point, we get the same point of the image.
58. T: And this gives the idea to say that . . .
59. Gio: I’m doing the same procedure.
60. And (together with Gio): I’m doing the same procedure.
61. T: I’m doing the same procedure. Therefore, for whatever point of what?
62. And: For each point of the domain we have the same . . . as the result of the
function, the same point of the image.
63. T: Do you agree? (referring to Tiz)
64. Perplexed silences.
65. The teacher writes on the blackboard and reads: “For each point of the domain,
we have as the result of the function, the same point as the image”.
At the beginning, students seemed to accept that “to have the same domain
and the same image for each subset of the domain” it’s like “to have the same
domain and the same procedure” (45, 48 and 50). The agreement with And was
based on previous experiences in Cabri, when students’ actions with the tools gen-
erated different phenomena according to which And and Ale’s definition appeared
sensible.
Nevertheless, when the teacher asked for an explicit agreed-upon statement, stu-
dents remained silent and perplexed (64). In fact, the conclusion that was written
on the blackboard by the teacher does not explicitly recognize the key role of the
procedure in the identification of a function. In addition, it requires a conceptual
move from an experience-based definition, tightly tied to Cabri activities, to a purely
mathematical definition, where any reference to moving points and procedures
disappears. Further discussion was needed to reach the acceptance of comparing
functions point by point.
In summary, relying on the potential of students’ produced texts for develop-
ing a relationship between experience-based meanings and mathematical meanings,
the teacher decided to exploit these produced texts launching a collective dis-
cussion based exactly on their comparison. During the discussion she guides the
semiotic process towards the inter-subjective construction of a specific mathemat-
ical meaning which may be quite different from the students’ personal meaning.
We claim that texts produced by the students provide a powerful resource for the
teacher.
70 M.A. Mariotti and M. Maracci
3. [. . .]
4. Since the indefinite straight line represents the variable x, we would like to see
how a function of x can be most conveniently represented.
Let y be any function of x, so that y takes on a determined value when a
determined value is assigned to x.
After having taken a straight line RAS to denote the values of x, for any deter-
mined value of x we take the corresponding interval AP and erect a perpendicular
interval PM corresponding to the value of y [. . .]
5. [. . .]
6. For all determined values x of the line RS, at the point P we erect the per-
pendicular PM corresponding to the value of y, with different M’s for different
P’s [. . .].
All the extremities, M, of the perpendiculars form a line that may be straight
or curved. Thus, any function of x is translated into geometry and determines
a line, either straight or curved, whose nature is dependent on the nature of the
function.
7. In this way, the curve which results from the function y is completely known,
since each of its points is determined by the function y. At each point P, the
perpendicular PM is determined, and the point M lies on the curve. [. . .]
Although Euler certainly had no idea of such a technical drawing device as Cabri,
the dynamic description of the graph that he provides is highly consistent with what
could be obtained using the Cabri tools.
The variation of the independent variable x is represented by the variation of the
segment AP (1 and 2), and the variation of the dependent variable PM is implied by
the variation of the independent variable. Co-variation is made explicit by the direct
link between the two segments. The reference to a point P, moving on a line in
Cabri is immediate: in its motion, P “drags” the segment PM, whose length changes
in function of the position of P. Thus, the metaphors used in the description of the
graph may be directly related to Cabri tools (line, point on a line, dragging . . .).
Finally, the potential reference to the trace tool is also very clear (all the extremities,
M, of the perpendiculars form a line which may be straight or curved).
linked through a given function. This is the same problem that is at stake in the text
by Euler that shortly after the students were asked to interpret.
In the following session, the students were asked to read and try to make sense of
Euler’s text. Though the activity took place in the computer lab, the students were
not explicitly asked to use Cabri. As homework, the students had to explain what
they had understood about the method proposed by Euler and to compare it with the
method they elaborated for representing a numerical function geometrically through
Cabri.
A final discussion aimed at sharing a definition of graph of a function – as a
geometric representation of a numerical function – and a method for realizing such
representation.
The analysis of the students’ written texts reveals that almost all of them accom-
plished the interpretation task by providing a paraphrase of the text. The paraphrases
are characterized by the use of the mathematical terms previously introduced, such
as function, independent or dependent variable. It seems that, the use of these terms
fostered the interpretation of the text, that is using these terms helped the students
to penetrate the text.
Egi: [. . .] the values that are enclosed by AP represent the independent variable
x, called abscissa. Thus, to represent a function of x [Euler] decided to take a line
perpendicular to x, let’s call it y. To represent any value of the line RS, so that
according to the variation of AP (independent variable) the numbers of PM vary too.
Besides the use of the specific terminology, many students referred, more or less
directly, to the possible use of Cabri.
Fed: “Euler describes the function y with independent variable x, whose domain
is an unlimited straight line. [. . .] The magnitude of AP, which varies on the
straight line according to the movement of P, is called abscissa.”
Mar: “The distance of P from A varies as x varies, that [P], as a consequence drags
with itself the line MP, perpendicular to RS. This line has been called y; in
this way one can say that when x varies y varies, so that a function is created.”
The use of Cabri is evoked through metaphors linked to the idea of movement
as variation, which is at the core of any DGE. Below is an example where the trace
tool is explicitly referred to:
Fil: “[. . .] Let us consider the function y(x), the dependent variable will change
according to the variation of the values given to x; this function can be rep-
resented geometrically, drawing a straight line RAS which represents the
4 Resources from a Semiotic Mediation Perspective 73
values of x, for each value of the variable x assigned to AP, one will draw
a perpendicular PM to RAS, such that PM is equal to y.
Now if we apply the trace tool at the point M, we find all the points of the
function of x [. . .]”
Because of its evocative power, Euler’s text works as a secondary artefact related
to the primary artefact Cabri: the dynamic description of variables, function and
graph provided is consistent with what could be experienced in Cabri. At the same
time, realizing Euler’s construction within Cabri may help making sense of the text
itself. Hence, the two artefacts have the potential of evoking each other. The artic-
ulation of the world of Cabri and the mathematical world evoked by the text can
offer the teacher a resource to be exploited in the collective discussion: a multiple
perspective relating the activities in Cabri to the mathematical meanings of graph.
Indeed, all this happened in the subsequent classroom discussion that was orches-
trated by the teacher, with the aim of sharing a definition of graph of a function and
a method for producing it. In that discussion, after a first phase in which the students
shared their understanding about the method described in Euler’s text, the teacher
decided to ask for a drawing illustrating Euler’s method with the temporarily-not-
declared aim of soliciting the reference to Cabri (40. T: “Would anybody be able
to make a drawing [. . .] there was not even a drawing [in Euler’s text] [. . .]”). The
need of a direct experience of executing the operations to understand the text was
also recognized by students: at first the students and the teacher alternated at the
blackboard, trying to produce together a suitable drawing, then the class agreed to
use Cabri to illustrate Euler’s method: “now we have Cabri which can help us a little.
As a matter of fact, what we are going to do is to try to construct all this stuff within
Cabri” (182). Thus, Cabri is given the role of contributing to clarify the text. The
intertwinement between the text (secondary artefact) and Cabri (primary artefact) is
evident.
4.9 Conclusions
Within the frame offered by the TSM the use of an artefact has a twofold nature:
on the one hand, it is directly used by the students as a means to accomplish a task;
on the other hand, it is indirectly used by the teacher as a means to achieve specific
educational goals. In this sense, a specific ICT tool can be considered a fundamental
resource for the teacher. Nevertheless, according to the model of the teaching action
74 M.A. Mariotti and M. Maracci
provided by the TSM, other types of resources meant to foster and enhance the
semiotic mediation process, can be outlined.
Asking students to work in pairs at the computer is expected to foster social
exchange, accompanied by production of signs related to the use of the artefact,
words, sketches, gestures and the like. In this respect not only the specificity of the
task but also in particular its formulation constitutes basic resources to trigger the
unfolding of the semiotic potential provided by the artefact.
Moreover, students may be involved individually in different semiotic activities
concerning written productions. All these activities are centred on semiotic pro-
cesses leading to the production and elaboration of signs, related to the previous
activities with tools. Wartofsky’s (1979) classification into primary and secondary
artefacts helped us make explicit the synergy between Cabri (primary artefact) and
different kinds of written texts related to it (secondary artefacts). Such synergy made
these artefacts resources for the teacher to exploit according to her didactic goals. In
summary, the realization of the evocative potential of the primary and the secondary
artefacts may feed the semiotic mediation process and, thus, foster the evolution
towards the mathematical meanings at stake (that is the “tertiary artefacts” which
can frame and organize what has been constructed in relation to the use of – primary
and secondary – artefacts).
As a final remark it seems important to stress a particular contribution offered
by this study with respect to teachers’ education. Beside the theoretical contribution
given by this study for the development of the TSM, there are interesting implica-
tions concerning teachers’ classroom practice and teacher education in general. The
awareness of the semiotic potential of written texts and the capacity of selecting
and exploiting them in the classroom could become an educational aim for teacher
education.
The functioning of a text as a resource for developing a semiotic mediation pro-
cess depends on the possibility of triggering an interpretative process. This may
happen either through an explicit or through an implicit request, such as a request of
comparison or elaboration. Interpreting concerns both meaning making and express-
ing, and consequently producing and elaborating signs. In exploiting the polysemy
of a text the teacher intentionally articulates meanings coming from the experience
with a primary artefact and meanings emerging from a secondary artefact.
References
Arzarello, F. (2006). Semiosis as a multimodal process. Relime V1, Especial, 267–299.
Bartolini Bussi, M. G. (1998). Verbal interaction in mathematics classroom: A Vygotskian
analysis. In H. Steinbring, M. G. Bartolini Bussi, & A. Sierpinska (Eds.), Language and
communication in mathematics classroom (pp. 65–84). Reston, VA: NCTM.
Bartolini Bussi, M. G., & Mariotti, M. A. (2008). Semiotic mediation in the mathematics class-
room: Artifacts and signs after a Vygotskian perspective. In L. D. English (Ed.), Handbook of
international research in mathematics education (pp. 750–787). Mahwah, NJ: LEA.
Bartolini Bussi, M. G., Mariotti, M. A., & Ferri, F. (2005). Semiotic mediation in the primary
school: Dürer glass. In M. H. G. Hoffmann, J. Lenhard, & F. Seeger (Eds.), Activity and
4 Resources from a Semiotic Mediation Perspective 75
sign – Grounding mathematics education. Festschrift for Michael Otte (pp. 77–90). New York:
Springer.
Brousseau, G. (1997). Theory of didactical, situations in mathematics. Dordrecht, The
Netherlands: Kluwer.
Falcade, R. (2006). Théorie des Situations, médiation sémiotique et discussions collective, dans des
séquences d’enseignement avec Cabri-Géomètre pour la construction des notions de fonction
et graphe de fonction. Grenoble: Université J. Fourier, unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Falcade, R., Laborde, C., & Mariotti, M. A. (2007). Approaching functions: Cabri tools as
instruments of semiotic mediation. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 66(3), 317–333.
Hoyles, C. (1993). Microworlds/schoolworlds: The transformation of an innovation. In C.
Keitel & K. Ruthven (Eds.), Learning from computers: Mathematics education and technology
(pp. 1–17). NATO ASI Series. Berlin: Springer.
Jahnke, H. N., Arcavi, A., Barbin, E., Bekken, O., Furinghetti, F., Idrissi, A., et al. (2000). The use
of original sources in mathematics classroom. In J. Fauvel & J. van Maanen (Eds.), History in
mathematics education. The ICMI study (pp. 291–328). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.
Kozulin, A. (2003). Psychological tools and mediated learning. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S.
Ageyev, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Vygotsky’s educational theory in cultural context (pp. 15–38).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Laborde J.-M., & Bellemain, F. (1995). Cabri-géomètre II and Cabri-géomètre II plus [computer
program]. Dallas, TX: Texas Instruments and Grenoble/France: Cabrilog.
Mariotti, M. A., & Maracci, M. (2010). Un artefact comme outil de médiation sémiotique: une
ressource pour le professeur. In G. Gueudet & L. Trouche (Eds.), Ressources vives. Le tra-
vail documentaire des professeurs en mathématiques (pp. 91–107). Rennes, France: Presses
Universitaires de Rennes et INRP.
Radford, L. (2003). Gestures, speech, and the sprouting of signs: A semiotic-cultural approach to
students’ types of generalization. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 5(1), 37–70.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. The development of higher psychological processes.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Wartofsky, M. (1979). Perception, representation, and the forms of action: Towards an historical
epistemology. In M. Wartofsky (Ed.), Models, representation and the scientific understanding
(pp. 188–209). Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company.
Reaction to Part I
Resources Can Be the User’s Core
Bill Barton
How does a resource become “lived”? If we may play on the etymology for a
moment, becoming “lived” means enlivened, to get full of life, to become, to be
born. The four chapters of this part tell us how a resource enters the world “mewl-
ing and puking in the nurse’s arms” (Shakespeare, As You Like It, Act II, Scene 7).
The bard gets it right, again. The carer of the resource is responsible for nurturing
and shaping its potential, helping it to grow, ignoring the unseemly squeaking, and
clearing up the spilt milk.
On the one hand, Adler shows us how the nurse invests herself into the new
life: how does teacher knowledge emerge during events in the classroom? Gueudet
and Trouche want us to focus on the nurse’s actions in caring for the baby: how do
resources become transformed in a particular teacher’s hands? Sensevy, on the other
hand, wants us to look at the nurse’s aims: how are the teacher’s actions driven by
developing intentions? Mariotti and Maracci ask us to watch the baby itself as it
interacts with the nurse and others in the world: how can resources change the way
people think and act?
The common stance is one of mediation, the transformation of resources by
teachers as they are reborn from a prior, relatively fixed state to a new dynamic
existence in action in the classroom. I am tempted to play with etymology yet again.
Mediation does not derive from media, but in this section we are being asked to
pay attention to media. Famously, “the medium is the message” (McLuhan, 1964),
or, more appropriately for this context, The Medium is the Massage (McLuhan and
Fiore, 1967). Not only the resource but also the form of the resource alter the way it
can be used and transformed by a teacher.
We are presented with four different ways to conceive of resource mediation. The
authors draw heavily on established theory, modifying it for their purpose, and we
are left with a strongly grounded feeling. What do the four perspectives offer us?
Adler draws on social practice theory to present us with an integrated view.
Teacher’s knowledge, their access to texts, the classroom environment, the language
B. Barton (B)
Department of Mathematics, University of Auckland, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
e-mail: b.barton@auckland.ac.nz
77
78 B. Barton
resources available, and the pre-defined curriculum merge through the act of teach-
ing to legitimise a particular view of mathematics. Teachers, whether they like it or
not, whether they are prepared for it or not, are central in this process and bear its
responsibility. I understand immediately the research-based wisdom that teachers
are the most important factor in learning. As mathematics educators we are asked
to pay attention to how we, in teacher education, open or close opportunities for
particular mathematical perceptions.
Gueudet and Trouche introduce documentational genesis, the evolution of teach-
ing materials in the hands of a teacher drawing on several resources for a particular
classroom outcome. On the basis of activity theory and an instrumental approach,
the focus on documents changes the way we look at teaching. Tracing documen-
tary evolution enables us to see, physically, the teacher’s moves in the game of
instruction, and also the development of a teacher’s ideas, intentions and pedagogic
orientation over a long time. For me, the importance of this perspective is the way it
highlights continual change. I believe that many teachers would regard their practice
as relatively stable – and many developers and education researchers comment on
teachers’ resistance to change. A documentational genesis is likely to prove the lie
to such statements, and thereby challenges us all to think again about the way devel-
opment can be influenced. For example, it will reveal constant but gradual change –
the antithesis of many programmes of teacher development.
Sensevy also relies on documentation, and follows Bourdieu’s idea of a social
game and Brousseau’s didactic contract. He asks us to pay attention to the way
a teacher sets up the game (or contract), embedding explicit pedagogic intentions
in both the resources and the elaboration of the game. The research data forces
me to consider the ways the process goes wrong: during classroom interaction the
response to the resources can diverge from the intention. This creates a didactic
moment, a decision point, a phenomenon investigated by many researchers. Mason
(1999, 2010) also focuses on teaching moments, and Schoenfeld (1987, 2008) per-
sists in his analysis of classroom decisions. Schoenfeld’s KOG analysis (knowledge,
orientations and goals) of teacher behaviour resonates with Sensevy’s work. My
response to this perspective is to wonder anew how to prepare for such moments.
The very act of Sensevy’s research sensitised his teachers to their predicament. They
knew that they would be questioned on their actions at the critical moments, and it
was almost as if that knowledge altered the decision they made. Can heightened
awareness be a mode of professional development? How could we bring this about?
Mariotti and Maracci turn our attention to the learner to learn about the teacher’s
mediation of resources. Semiotic mediation of artefacts require us to investigate the
meaning given to a resource, and how that meaning changes (or can be changed)
with teacher action. A key word I take from the chapter is “invoking”. Meaning is
invoked; learning does not reside in the resource, it is invoked by it. My reaction,
then, is to think about the invoking power of a resource. This gives us, for example,
a way of investigating technology: does modern technology have a greater power
to invoke, perhaps because it is interactive and dynamic compared to texts. Are
recorded lessons to be seen in the same way? Mariotti and Maracci note in their last
paragraph that written texts have the advantage (over spoken words and gestures)
Reaction to Part I 79
References
Artigue, M. (2002). Learning mathematics in a CAS environment: The genesis of a reflection
about instrumentation and the dialectics between technical and conceptual work. International
Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning, 7(3), 245–274.
Mason, J. (1998). Enabling teachers to be real teachers: Necessary levels of awareness and structure
of attention. Journal of Mathematics Teachers Education, I, 243–267.
Mason, J. (2010). Attention and intention in learning about teaching through teaching. In
R. Leikin & R. Zazkis (Eds.), Learning through teaching mathematics: Development of
teachers’ knowledge and expertise in practice (pp. 23–47). New York: Springer.
McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media: The extensions of man. New York: Mentor.
McLuhan, M., & Fiore, Q. (1967). The medium is the massage. New York: Random House.
Schoenfeld, A. (1987). What’s all the fuss about metacognition. In A. Schoenfeld (Ed.), Cognitive
science and mathematics education (pp. 189–215). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum.
Schoenfeld, A. (2008). On modelling teachers’ in-the-moment decision-making. In A. Schoenfeld
(Ed.), A study of teaching: Multiple lenses, multiple views (pp. 45–96). Reston, VA: National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Part II
Text and Curriculum Resources
Chapter 5
Constituting Digital Tools and Materials
as Classroom Resources: The Example
of Dynamic Geometry
Kenneth Ruthven
5.1 Introduction
This chapter examines the often unrecognised challenges that teachers face in seek-
ing to make effective use of new mathematical tools and representational media in
the classroom, highlighting several key facets of professional learning associated
with overcoming these challenges.
It focuses on the appropriation of digital tools and media as resources for the
mainstream practice of secondary-school mathematics teaching, taking the par-
ticular example of dynamic geometry to illustrate this process. First, the chapter
demonstrates the interpretative flexibility surrounding a resource and the way in
which wider educational orientations influence conceptions of its use. It does
so by showing how pedagogical conceptions of dynamic geometry have shifted
between pioneering advocates and mainstream adopters; and how such conceptions
vary across adopters according to their wider approaches to teaching mathematics.
Second, the chapter outlines a conceptual framework intended to make visible and
analysable the way in which certain structuring features shape the incorporation of
new technologies into classroom practice. This conceptual framework is then used
to examine the case of a teacher leading what – for him – is an innovative les-
son involving dynamic geometry, and specifically to identify how his professional
knowledge is being adapted and extended. This shows how the effective integration
of new technologies into everyday teaching depends on a more fundamental and
wide-ranging adaptation and extension of teachers’ professional knowledge than
has generally been appreciated.
K. Ruthven (B)
Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 8PQ, UK
e-mail: kr18@cam.ac.uk
A recent English study has thrown further light on the use of dynamic geometry in
mainstream practice (Ruthven, Hennessy, & Deaney, 2008). Much of the pioneering
development of dynamic geometry systems has taken place in countries – notably
France and the United States – which comparative studies show to have retained
a strongly Euclidean spirit within their school geometry curriculum, resulting in
greater attention to formalisation and systematisation, including an emphasis on
proof (Hoyles, Foxman, & Küchemann, 2001). The Euclidean lineage of dynamic
geometry might be expected to fit poorly with a national curriculum which refers –
as does the English one framing the practice studied – not to ‘geometry’ but to
‘shape, space and measures’. However, the scope to employ the software as a means
of supporting observation, measurement and calculation resonates with the empir-
ical style of English school mathematics, and such modalities of reasoning were
found to be prevalent when dynamic geometry was used.
The study found echoes of the exploratory rhetoric of the software’s advocates
in teachers’ suggestions that dynamic figures helped students to ‘find out how it
works without us telling them’, or ‘tell you the rule instead of you having to tell
them’, so that students were ‘more or less discovering for themselves’ and could
‘feel that they’ve got ownership of what’s going on’, even if teachers might have
to ‘structure’, ‘hint’, ‘guide’ or ‘steer’ students towards the intended mathematical
conclusion. Case studies identified a range of practical expressions of this idea. One
case involved a strongly teacher-led, whole-class approach, in which dynamic pre-
sentation by the teacher was used to make it easier for students to ‘spot the rule’
so that ‘you’re not just telling them a fact, you’re allowing them to sort of deduce
it and interact with what’s going on’. In the other cases, the classroom approaches
involved more devolution to students, through investigations structured towards sim-
ilarly preconceived mathematical results, with the teacher ‘drawing attention to’,
‘flagging up’ and ‘prompting’ them.
On the issue of students themselves making use of the software, classroom
approaches were found to be based variously on avoiding, minimising or capitalising
on the demands of using dynamic geometry. In the first case referred to above, the
software was used only for teacher presentation on the grounds that ‘it would take
a long time. . . for [students] to master the package’ and ‘the return from the time
investment. . . would be fairly small’, so that ‘the cost benefit doesn’t pay’. In two
further cases, the normal pattern was ‘to structure the work so [students] just have
to move points [on a prepared figure]’, so that ‘they don’t have to be complicated
by that, they really can just focus on what’s happening mathematically’. In the final
86 K. Ruthven
case, getting students to construct their own dynamic figures was seen as a vehicle
for developing and disciplining their geometrical thinking; using dynamic geome-
try was introduced to them in terms of: ‘It’s not just drawing, it’s drawing using
mathematical rules’. Thus, the degree to which students were expected to make use
of dynamic geometry was influenced by the extent to which this was conceived as
promoting mathematically productive activity.
A related issue concerned handling the apparent mathematical anomalies which
arise when dynamic figures are dragged to positions where an angle becomes reflex
(with the associated problem of measurement), or where rounded values obscure
an arithmetical relationship between measures (as featured in Fig. 5.1). The poten-
tial for such situations to arise was considerable in the type of topic most widely
reported as suited to dynamic geometry: the study of angle properties. For exam-
ple two of the case studies included a lesson on the angle sum of polygons (both
employing a figure of the type shown in Fig. 5.1). In the first case, the teacher took
great care to avoid exposing students to apparent anomalies of these types, through
vigilant dragging to avoid ‘possibilities where students may become confused, or
things that might cloud the issue’. In the other case, the teacher actively wanted stu-
dents to encounter such difficulties so as to learn ‘that you can’t assume that what
you’ve got in front of you is actually what you want, and you have to look at it . . . and
question it’; equally, resolving such situations was seen as serving ‘to draw atten-
tion to . . . how the software measures the smaller angle, thus reinforcing that there
are two angles at a point and [that students] needed to work out the other’. Thus,
approaches to handling these apparent mathematical anomalies were influenced by
whether they were seen as providing opportunities to develop students’ mathemati-
cal understanding, in line with a more fundamental pedagogical orientation that saw
analysis of discrepancies as supporting learning.
This study, then, highlights several noteworthy aspects of the interpretative flex-
ibility of dynamic geometry. First it shows that the forms of guided discovery that
dynamic geometry is typically used to support in English classroom practice, as
well as the empirical and arithmetical modes of reasoning associated with them, are
very different from the types of mathematical enquiry and modes of mathematical
reasoning envisaged by the original proponents of the software. Equally, it shows
72.0° 79.0°
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how differing approaches to staging guided discovery, and organising the associ-
ated software use, reflect varied interpretations of the functionality for students of
dynamic geometry, shaped by contrasting conceptions of what it means for students
to learn mathematics.
These case studies were carried out in mathematics departments that were
professionally well regarded for their use of digital technologies. Even in these
departments, the exposure of any one class to dynamic geometry was of the order of
a handful of lessons each year. Moreover, when the software was used, teachers
largely sought to minimise disruption to customary patterns of classroom activ-
ity. Indeed, research on how teachers make use of the interactive whiteboards now
widely available in English classrooms reports that software such as dynamic geom-
etry is generally rejected as over-complex or used only in limited ways (Miller &
Glover, 2006). Such observations suggest that it is not just the way in which teach-
ers conceptualise dynamic geometry as a teaching resource that influences their
response to it, but more basic concerns about how to realise its incorporation within
a viable classroom practice.
Such concerns are often overlooked in educational reform, and with them the
craft knowledge that underpins everyday classroom practice (Brown & McIntyre,
1993; Leinhardt, 1988). In particular, much proposed innovation entails modifica-
tion of the largely reflex system of powerful schemes, routines and heuristics that
teachers bring to their classroom work, often tailored to their particular circum-
stances. The conceptual framework that I will now develop focuses, then, on the
functional organisation of a system of (often tacit) pedagogical craft knowledge
required to accomplish concrete professional tasks (consequently this framework
does not directly consider the subject disciplinary knowledge required of the teacher,
although this too plays a part).
This section will introduce five key structuring features of classroom practice and
show how they relate to the constitution of digital tools and materials as classroom
resources: working environment, resource system, activity format, curriculum script
and time economy.
and makes additional organisational demands on the teacher (Jenson & Rose, 2006;
Ruthven, Hennessy, & Deaney, 2005). Well-established routines which help lessons
to start, proceed and close in a timely and purposeful manner in the regular class-
room (Leinhardt, Weidman, & Hammond, 1987) have to be adapted to the computer
suite. The alternative of providing sets of handheld devices or laptop computers in
the ordinary classroom raises similar organisational issues. For example teachers
report having to develop classroom layouts that assist them to monitor students’
computer screens, as well as classroom routines to forestall distraction, such as
having students push down the screens of their laptops during whole-class lesson
segments (Zucker & McGhee, 2005).
More recently, there has been a trend towards provision of digital projection facil-
ities or interactive whiteboards in ordinary classrooms. Their attraction to many
teachers is that they require fewer modifications to the customary working envi-
ronment of lessons (Jewitt, Moss, & Cardini, 2007; Miller & Glover, 2006). Such
facilities can be treated as a convenient enhancement of a range of earlier display
and projection devices, and allow a single classroom computer to be managed by
teachers on behalf of the whole class.
New technologies have broadened the types of subject- and topic-specific resources
available to support school mathematics. Educational suppliers now market text-
book schemes alongside exercise and revision courseware, concrete apparatus
alongside computer micro-worlds and environments, manual instruments along-
side digital tools. The collection of mathematical tools and materials in classroom
use constitutes a resource system which depends for its successful functioning on
their being used in a co-ordinated way aligned with educational goals (Amarel,
1983).
Studies of the classroom use of computer-assisted instructional packages have
attributed strong take-up of particular materials to their close fit with the regular
curriculum and their flexibility of usage (Morgan, 1990). Equally, teachers report
that they would be much more likely to use technology if ready-to-use resources
were readily available to them and clearly mapped to their scheme of work (Crisan,
Lerman, & Winbourne, 2007). An important factor here is the limited scope that
many digital materials offer for the teacher customisation characteristic of the use
of other resources, and recognition of this has encouraged developers to offer greater
flexibility to teachers. However, whatever the medium employed, teachers need to
acquire knowledge in depth of materials so as to make effective use of them and
to integrate them successfully with other classroom activity (Abboud-Blanchard,
Cazes, & Vandebrouck, 2007; Bueno-Ravel & Gueudet, 2007).
Something close to the textbook – even if taking a digitised form – remains at the
heart of the resource system in many classrooms, valued for establishing a complete
and coherent framework within which material is introduced in an organised and
controlled way, appropriate to the intended audience. Indeed, one common use of
5 Constituting Digital Tools and Materials as Classroom Resources 89
The processes of classroom teaching and learning are played out within recurring
patterns of teacher and student activity. Classroom lessons can be segmented accord-
ing to recognisable activity formats: generic templates for action and interaction
which frame the contributions of teacher and students to particular types of lesson
segment (Burns & Anderson, 1987; Burns & Lash, 1986). The crafting of lessons
around a succession of familiar activity formats and their supporting classroom rou-
tines helps to make them flow smoothly in a focused, predictable and fluid way
(Leinhardt, Weidman, & Hammond, 1987), permitting the creation of prototypical
activity structures or activity cycles for lessons as a whole.
Monaghan (2004) studied secondary teachers who had made a commitment to
move from making little use of ICT in their mathematics classes to making signif-
icant use. For each participating teacher, a ‘non-technology’ lesson was observed
at the start of the project, and further ‘technology’ lessons over the course of the
year. Monaghan found that technology lessons tended to have a quite different
activity structure. In all the observed non-technology lessons, teacher-led exposi-
tion including the working-through of examples was followed by student work on
related textbook exercises. Of the observed technology lessons, only those which
took place in the regular classroom using graphic calculators displayed this type of
structure. Most of the technology lessons focused on more open tasks, often in the
form of investigations. These featured an activity structure consisting typically of a
short introduction to the task by the teacher, followed by student work at computers
90 K. Ruthven
over most of the session. Both types of technology lesson observed by Monaghan
appear, then, to have adapted an existing form of activity structure: less commonly
that of the exposition-and-practice lesson; more commonly that of the investigation
lesson.
Other studies describe classroom uses of new technologies that involve more
radical change in activity formats, and call for new classroom routines. For example
to provide an efficient mechanism through which the teacher can shape and regulate
methods of tool use, Trouche (2005) introduces the role of ‘sherpa student’, taken
on by a different student in each lesson. The sherpa student becomes responsible for
managing the calculator or computer that is being publicly projected during whole-
class activity; what is distinctive about this activity format is the way in which it is
organised around the teacher guiding the actions of the sherpa student, or opening
them up for comment and discussion by the remainder of the class; the particular
function it serves is in providing a mechanism by which the teacher can manage the
collective development of techniques for using the tool. A new activity format of
this type calls, then, for the establishment of new classroom norms for participation
and the adaptation of existing classroom routines to support its smooth functioning.
In planning to teach a particular topic, and in conducting lessons on it, teachers draw
on (evolving) knowledge gained in the course of their own experience of learning
and teaching that topic, or gleaned from available curriculum materials. Such knowl-
edge is organised as a curriculum script, where ‘script’ is used in the psychological
sense of a form of event-structured organisation: a loosely ordered model of relevant
goals and actions that guides teachers’ handling of the topic, and includes variant
expectancies of a situation and alternative courses of action (Leinhardt, Putnam,
Stein, & Baxter, 1991). A curriculum script interweaves ideas to be developed, tasks
to be undertaken, representations to be employed and difficulties to be anticipated
in the course of teaching that topic, and links these to relevant aspects of working
environment, resource system and activity structure.
Teachers frequently talk about the use of new technologies in terms which appear
to involve the adaptation and extension of established curriculum scripts (Ruthven &
Hennessy, 2002). For example they talk about a new technology as a means of
improving existing approaches to a topic, suggesting that it serves as a more
convenient and efficient tool for supporting specific mathematical processes, or pro-
vides a more vivid and dynamic presentation of particular mathematical properties.
Nevertheless, it is easy to underestimate the host of small but nuanced refinements
which existing curriculum scripts require so as even to assimilate a new technol-
ogy, let alone adapt the approach taken to a mathematical topic in the light of fresh
insights gained from using the technology to mediate it.
When teachers participate in development projects, they experience pressure
(often self-administered) to use technology more innovatively. Monaghan (2004)
reports, for example, that teachers had difficulty in finding resources to help them
5 Constituting Digital Tools and Materials as Classroom Resources 91
The concept of time economy (Assude, 2005) focuses on how teachers seek to man-
age the ‘rate’ at which the physical time available for classroom activity is converted
into a ‘didactic time’ measured in terms of the advance of knowledge. Although
new tools and materials are sometimes represented as displacing old to generate a
time bonus, it is more common to find a double instrumentation in operation, in
which old technologies remain in use alongside new. In particular, old technologies
may make an epistemic, knowledge-building contribution as much as a pragmatic,
task-effecting one (Artigue, 2002). This double instrumentation means that new
technologies often give rise to cost additions rather than to cost substitutions with
respect to time. Thus, a critical concern of teachers is to fine-tune resource systems,
activity structures and curriculum scripts to optimise the rate of didactic return on
the time investment (Bauer & Kenton, 2005; Crisan et al., 2007; Smerdon, Cronen,
Lanahan, Anderson, Iannotti, Angeles, & Greene, 2000). A critical issue is what
teachers perceive as the mathematical learning that results from students using new
tools. As noted in the earlier discussion of dynamic geometry, teachers are cautious
about new tools which require substantial investment, and alert for modes of use
which reduce such investment or increase rates of return.
These concerns to maximise the time explicitly devoted to recognised mathemat-
ical learning are further evidenced in the trend to equip classrooms with interactive
whiteboards, popularised as a technology for increasing the pace and efficiency of
lesson delivery, as well as harnessing multimodal resources and enhancing class-
room interaction (Jewitt et al., 2007). Evaluating the developing use of interactive
whiteboards in secondary mathematics classrooms, Miller & Glover (2006) found
that teachers progressed from initial teaching approaches in which the board was
used only as a visual support for the lesson, to approaches where it was used more
deliberately to demonstrate concepts and stimulate responses from pupils. In the
course of this development, there was a marked shift away from pupils copying
down material from the board towards use ‘at a lively pace to support stimulat-
ing lessons which minimise pupil behaviour problems’ (p. 4). However, in terms
of the type of mathematical resource used with the board, there was little progres-
sion beyond textbook type sources and prepared presentation files; more generic
92 K. Ruthven
this success, the teacher noted how the software supported exploration of different
cases, and overcame the manipulative difficulties which students encountered in
using classical tools to attempt such an investigation by hand. But the teacher saw
the contribution of the software as going beyond ease and accuracy; using it required
properties to be formulated precisely in geometrical terms.
These, then, were the terms in which this earlier lesson was nominated as an
example of successful practice. We followed up this nomination by studying a les-
son along similar lines, conducted over two 45-minute sessions on consecutive
days with a Year 7 class of students (aged 11–12) in their first year of secondary
education.
Each session of the observed lesson started in the normal classroom and then moved
to a nearby computer suite where it was possible for students to work individu-
ally at a machine. This movement between rooms allowed the teacher to follow an
activity cycle in which working environment was shifted to match changing activ-
ity format. Even though the computer suite was, like the teacher’s own classroom,
equipped with a projectable computer, starting sessions in the classroom was expe-
dient as doing so avoided disruption to the established routines underpinning the
smooth launch of lessons. Moreover, the classroom provided an environment more
conducive to sustaining effective communication during whole-class activity and to
maintaining the attention of students. Whereas in the computer suite each student
was seated behind a sizeable monitor, blocking lines of sight and placing diversion at
students’ fingertips, in the classroom the teacher could introduce the lesson ‘without
the distraction of computers in front of each of them’.
It was only recently that the classroom had been refurbished and equipped, and
a neighbouring computer suite established for the exclusive use of the mathematics
department. The teacher contrasted this new arrangement favourably in terms of the
easier and more regular access to technology that it afforded, and the consequent
94 K. Ruthven
increase in the fluency of students’ use. New routines were being established for
students opening a workstation, logging on to the school network, using shortcuts
to access resources and maximising the document window. Likewise, routines were
being developed for closing computer sessions. Towards the end of each session,
the teacher prompted students to plan to save their files and print out their work,
advising them that he’d ‘rather have a small amount that you understand well than
loads and loads of pages printed out that you haven’t even read’. He asked students
to avoid rushing to print their work at the end of the lesson, and explained how
they could adjust their output to try to fit it onto a single page; he reminded them
to give their file a name that indicated its contents, and to put their name on their
document to make it easy to identify amongst all the output from the single shared
printer.
The observed lesson followed on from earlier ones in which the class had undertaken
simple classical constructions with manual tools: in particular, using compasses
to construct the perpendicular bisector of a line segment. Further evidence that
the teacher’s curriculum script for this topic originated prior to the availability of
dynamic geometry was his reference to the practical difficulties which students
encountered in working by hand to accurately construct the perpendicular bisectors
of a triangle. His evolving script now included not only the knowledge of ‘unusual’
and ‘awkward’ aspects of software operation liable to ‘cause[] a bit of confusion’
amongst students, but also of how such difficulties might be turned to advantage
in reinforcing the mathematical focus of the task so that ‘sometimes the mistakes
actually helped’.
Equally, the teacher’s curriculum script anticipated that students might not appre-
ciate the geometrical significance of the concurrence of perpendicular bisectors, and
incorporated strategies for addressing this, such as trying ‘to get them to see that
96 K. Ruthven
. . . three random lines, what was the chance of them all meeting at a point’. This
initial line of argument was one already applicable in a pencil and paper environ-
ment. Later in the interview, however, the teacher made reference to another strategy
which brought the distinctive affordances of dragging the dynamic figure to bear
on this issue: ‘When I talked about meeting at a point, they were able to move it
around’. Likewise, his extended curriculum script depended on exploiting the dis-
tinctive affordance of the dynamic tool to explore how dragging the triangle affected
the position of this ‘centre’.
This suggests that the teacher’s curriculum script was evolving through experi-
ence of teaching the lesson with dynamic geometry, incorporating new mathematical
knowledge specifically linked to mediation by the software. Indeed, he drew atten-
tion to a striking example of this which had arisen from his question to the class
about the position of the ‘centre’ when the triangle was dragged to become right
angled. The lesson transcript recorded:
Teacher: What’s happening to the [centre] point as I drag
towards 90 degrees? What do you think is going to
happen to the point when it’s at 90?. . .
Student: The centre’s going to be on the same point as the
midpoint of the line.
Teacher [with surprise]: Does it always have to be at the mid-
point?
[Dragging the figure] Yes, it is! Look at that! It’s always going to
be on the midpoint of that side. . . . Brilliant!
Reviewing the lesson, the teacher commented that this property hadn’t occurred
to him; he ‘was just expecting them to say it was on the line’. Reacting to the stu-
dent response he reported that he looked at the figure and ‘saw it was exactly on
that centre point’, and then ‘moved it and thought . . . of course it is!’. What we
witness here, then, is an episode of reflection-in-action through which the teacher’s
curriculum script for this topic has been elaborated.
In respect of the time economy, a very basic consideration of physical time for
the teacher in this study was related to the proximity of the new computer suite to
his normal classroom. However, a more fundamental feature of this case was the
degree to which the teacher measured didactic time in terms of progression towards
securing student learning rather than pace in covering a curriculum. At the end of
the first session, he linked his management of time to what he considered to be key
stages of the investigation: ‘the process of exploring something, then discussing it
in a quite focused way as a group, and then writing it up’, in which students moved
from being ‘vaguely aware of different properties’ to being able to ‘actually write
down what they think they’ve learned’.
5 Constituting Digital Tools and Materials as Classroom Resources 97
5.6 Discussion
Although only employing a dataset conveniently available from earlier research,
the case study presented in this chapter starts to illuminate the professional adapta-
tion on which the constitution of digital tools and materials as classroom resources
depends. While the status of the conceptual framework that has been used to iden-
tify structuring features of classroom practice must remain tentative, it prioritises
and organises previously disparate constructs developed in earlier research, and has
proved a useful tool for analysis of already available case-records. It has the poten-
tial to be employed not just in relation to secondary mathematics teaching, but also
to other school phases and curricular areas, and to other types of resource; indeed,
much of the earlier research from which the various central concepts have been
drawn has such a range.
At the same time, however, the differing provenance of the five central constructs
raises some issues of coherence. The original construct of curriculum script, for
example, is very clearly psychologically based, focusing on individual knowledge
schemes. One might also add that the term ‘script’ (originating in a psychological
metaphor for memory structures) risks failing to convey the sense intended here of
an organised repertoire of potential actions and interactions for teaching a topic as
opposed to a specific sequence. By contrast, the construct of working environment
may appear to refer to a material situation independent of the teacher. However (as
suggested by Adler in Chapter 1), a more adequate theorisation takes a structuring
feature as being constituted not just by an existing system of contextual constraints
but by teachers’ interpretation of these and adaptation to them. Moreover, this
co-constitution takes place on the social plane as well as the individual; indeed,
98 K. Ruthven
of the working environment as well as some more generic aspects of the functioning
of the resource system; exploitation mode relates to more topic-specific aspects of
the functioning of the resource system as well as to the tool mediation of processes
within the curriculum script; and didactical performance relates to the way in which
the curriculum script guides interactive teaching.
Drijvers notes that the conceptual framework presented in this chapter is a more
generic one, not specifically tied to the integration of technological resources in the
way that the orchestration framework is. Arguably, these qualities are complemen-
tary. Indeed, an important conceptual weakness, both of advocacy for technology
integration and research into it, has been lack of attention to the broader situation
in which ordinary teachers find themselves (Lagrange, 2008; Ruthven & Hennessy,
2002). It is in this spirit that the conceptual framework used in this chapter has
been developed by synthesising observations from recent studies of technology
use, particularly in school mathematics, in the light of earlier conceptualisations
of classroom teaching and situated teacher expertise.
Turning to future development of the conceptual framework presented in this
chapter, other insights have already been gained through a parallel analysis of
mathematics teachers’ appropriation of graphing software (Ruthven, Deaney, &
Hennessy, 2009). However, further studies are now required in which both data
collection and analysis are guided by the conceptual framework, so that it can be
subjected to fuller testing and corresponding elaboration and refinement. If they are
to adequately address issues of professional learning, such studies need to be lon-
gitudinal as well as cross-sectional, and to focus on teachers’ work outside as well
as inside the classroom. Likewise, the current reach of this conceptual framework is
deliberately modest; it simply seeks to make visible and analysable certain crucial
aspects of the incorporation of new technologies into classroom practice which other
conceptual frameworks largely overlook. By providing a system of constructs closer
to the lived world of teacher experience and classroom practice, it may prove able
to fulfil an important mediating function, allowing insights from more decontextu-
alised theories to be translated into classroom action, and serving to draw attention
to practical issues neglected in such theories.
Acknowledgements Particular thanks are due to the teacher colleague featured in the case study;
to Rosemary Deaney who carried out the fieldwork for it; and to the UK Economic and Social
Research Council which funded the associated research project. This chapter draws on and devel-
ops ideas and material from two earlier publications (Ruthven, 2009, 2010). These publications
drew, in turn, on papers discussed at the CERME conferences in 2007 and 2009, in the RME and
TACTL SIGs at the AERA conference in 2009, and at the CAL conference in 2009.
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Chapter 6
Modes of Engagement: Understanding
Teachers’ Transactions with Mathematics
Curriculum Resources
Janine T. Remillard
6.1 Introduction
The last decade has seen considerable progress in theory building related to
teachers’ use of mathematics curriculum resources (Adler, 2000; Brown, 2009;
Gueudet & Trouche, 2009; Remillard, 2005). Scholars agree that the process of
using a curriculum resource is not one of straightforward implementation; rather
curriculum use involves an interaction between the teacher and the resource. A
number of studies, including many in this volume, have documented a variety of
personal, professional, and classroom-based results from teachers using curriculum
resources as tools (Chapters 7, 10, and 14; Gueudet & Trouche, 2010; Remillard,
Herbel-Eisenmann, & Lloyd, 2009). In this chapter, I explore and theorize the rela-
tionships that teachers develop with curriculum resources as they use them. I focus,
in particular, on mathematics curriculum texts produced to guide teachers in the
design of daily instruction. In the United States, these resources tend to be published
in print format most commonly by commercial companies.
The chapter is informed by research on elementary and middle school teach-
ers in the United States, where the nature of mathematics curriculum resources have
undergone substantial change since the publication of the NCTM Standards in 1989.
Traditionally, the primary focus of mathematics textbooks was student exercises and
practice problems with minimal attention paid to pedagogy. Because the Standards
targeted both the kinds of mathematical tasks students are asked to do and the nature
of instruction around these tasks, new curriculum materials place a great deal of
emphasis on pedagogical guidance for the teacher. As a result, teacher’s guides now
provide teachers with new kinds of information to read and suggest different kinds
of teaching practices to enact. Researchers are finding that using these changed
resources, often referred to as Standards-based curriculum materials, presents chal-
lenges for many teachers and requires considerable reorientation (Drake & Sherin,
2009; Lloyd, 1999; Remillard, 2000); moreover, many teachers use them in ways
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 105
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_6,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
106 J.T. Remillard
not intended by the designers (Collopy, 2003; Remillard & Bryans, 2004). My aim
in this chapter is to examine these teacher–curriculum interactions from a concep-
tual perspective and offer a framework for characterizing them. I argue that teachers
are positioned by and through their encounters with curriculum materials as partic-
ular kinds of users of them. I explore how this positioning happens, including how
teachers participate in it, as well as its implications for teachers and for the prospect
of reform in mathematics teaching and learning.
In her book, entitled Teaching Positions, Ellsworth (1997) draws on film studies
to argue that whenever two or more people engage in an interaction, be it spoken,
textual, in film, or pedagogical, the speaker always makes assumptions about the
audience. “Films, like letters, books, or television commercials are for someone . . .
Most decisions about a film’s narrative structure, ‘look’, and packaging are in light
of conscious and unconscious assumptions about ‘who’ its audience ‘is’, what they
want, how they read films” (p. 23, emphasis in original). This concept, known in
film studies as mode of address, Ellsworth argues, involves positioning the audience
in particular ways that are the necessary starting place for interaction. This starting
place is where the viewer (or hearer, or reader) enters a relationship with the story or
ideas in the text. However, this positioning is also problematic in its shaping of the
relationship around power and authority in the interaction. Using Ellsworth’s per-
spective as an analytical lens, I examine the relationships teachers enter into when
they use curriculum resources, how they are positioned by the materials, and how
they position themselves as readers and users of texts. In doing so, I build on the
idea of mode of address and Rosenblatt’s (1980, 1982) theory of transactions with
text to offer a model of how these interactions are shaped and how they shape the
role of curriculum materials in teaching. I argue that, in addition to having a mode
of address, curriculum materials have forms of address, particular “looks” or for-
mats that reflect and reinforce the mode of address. Moreover, teachers interact with
curriculum resources through an identifiable stance or mode of engagement. Like
the modes of address, modes of engagement have particular forms. To interrogate
current patterns in how teachers use curriculum resources or to imagine alternatives,
it is necessary to understand these constructs and their interrelationships.
In film studies, a mode of address captures who the film’s designers think the audi-
ence is, what they want, and how they read. All films (or texts) have an intended
audience and are written to capture and appeal to, to speak to that audience.
Ellsworth uses the metaphor of seats in a theater to explain. There is one seat or
“position” from which the film does its best work or looks its best. Building on this
idea of position, she argues:
There is a “position” within power relations and interests, within gender and
racial constructions, within knowledge, to which the film’s story and visual pleasure
is addressed. It’s from that “subject position” that the film’s assumptions about who
the audience is work with the least effort, contractions, or slippage (p. 24).
6 Teachers’ Transactions with Mathematics Curriculum Resources 107
In other words, to work as imagined, films, and I would add texts, need the
intended audience to be who the mode of address assumes they are. Thus, part of
the work of a mode of address is to affirm that position, to keep them wanting what
they should want, to enlist the viewer in reinforcing her positioning or epistemo-
logical stance. It is in this way that modes of address do not merely speak to an
intended audience, but actually seek to assert control over that audience or to enlist
a particular kind of participation.
Modes of address are not neutral. Moreover, the drive behind the mode of address
is not merely literary or artistic in nature (i.e., like the relationship between author
and reader); it is commercial. Films and texts need the intended audience to be who
they (the designers) think they (the audience) are to sell. In systems with strong com-
mercial publishing industries, the need for a text to sell is particularly important, but
even in school systems that use a single, state sponsored textbook, the need for it
to appeal to and be usable by teachers remains present. The same is true for mate-
rials developed noncommercially. Even though the designers may not be interested
in “selling” the curriculum, per se, they need the teacher to “buy in” to the orienta-
tion set out in the materials. Curriculum materials, then, are written with particular
teachers (readers) in mind – teachers who exist in the minds of the writers. They
are written to both appeal to those readers’ needs and desires and to affirm them to
keep the text–teacher relationship intact. Later, I discuss how this affirmation occurs
through the specific forms of address used most frequently in curriculum materials
in the United States.
Naturally, texts have multiple modes of address or, as Ellsworth (1997) suggests,
multiple entry points. A film might use different characters to draw in audience
members outside of the primary intended audience. A film written with white, ado-
lescent, males as the primary audience, Ellsworth explains, uses other characters,
such as a strong, intelligent woman, to capture other audience members. The con-
cept of multiple entry points applies to curriculum materials as well. For example,
many curriculum designers assume their audience desires or needs day-by-day guid-
ance for teaching mathematics lessons and they design their materials attentive to
this desire. However, they may be cognizant that some teachers seek challenging
activities that they can pick up and use without making a substantial investment in
the structure of the curriculum. These designers make such activities accessible and
visible while addressing the needs of their primary audience.
The concept of multiple entry points as it applies to mathematics texts and their
use is illustrated in findings from a qualitative study I undertook in the early 1990s
(Remillard, 1996). The study included a document analysis of a commercially devel-
oped elementary mathematics textbook published in the wake of the Standards and
a concurrent year-long study of two fourth-grade teachers using this text for the
first time. Through regular classroom observations (18 distributed across the year),
I wrote field notes that described the classroom interactions and use of the textbook
for each teacher and then used audiotaped interviews to triangulate observations and
uncover the teachers’ approach to textbook use. My analysis of the text revealed
two distinct entry points in the text. The basic, core program consisted of 13 tra-
ditionally titled chapters that emphasized the mastery of computational procedures.
108 J.T. Remillard
At the same time, the text included language and work practices associated with
the NCTM Standards, such as exploration, group work, and manipulatives, along
with a number of highly visible but auxiliary options, including a daily problem
to solve and exploratory activities. From this presentation, one might infer that the
intended audience was the typical elementary teacher at the time, someone seeking
a mainstream, procedurally focused mathematics curriculum, but who was open to
intermittently incorporating problem solving, manipulative work, and partner activ-
ities into lessons. These Standards-aligned activities themselves, however, did offer
a second entry point.
The possibility of these two entry points is further illustrated by the two teachers
in the study. One of the teachers, Ms. McKeen, fits this description of the intended
audience. Her use of the textbook focused on the routine practice problems it pro-
vided for students to complete. She also used some of the optional, reform-oriented
activities available in the text when time permitted. The other teacher in the study,
Ms. Yarnell, was attracted by another entry point into the text. She focused on the
supplemental exploration activities found in the teacher’s guide (but not the student
text), the manipulative-based instruction described in the margins of the teacher’s
guide that surrounded the picture of the student’s page, and the pages of daily prob-
lems available at the back of the teacher’s guide. In her use of the textbook, Yarnell
drew primarily from these resources and used the student practice pages infrequently
(see Remillard, 1999, for more details.) I return to this example when discussing
teachers’ modes of engagement.
1 Even though they were not designed by commercial publishers, the Standards-based curriculum
programs are published and marketed by commercial publishers.
110 J.T. Remillard
matte paper and contained descriptions of the teacher’s role in setting up and direct-
ing the lesson in addition to a good bit of blank space. Small pictures of the students’
work page, if applicable, were placed off to the side. The periodic pictures were pen
and ink sketches of children engaged in the activities described in the lesson.2
These brief descriptions illustrate some of the various forms of address that
print curriculum resources take. There are unlimited possibilities and variations.
Increasingly, designers are making curriculum resources available in the form of
webpages with links to different kinds of support and guidance that do not stop
at mathematical and pedagogical suggestions. Some resources include video clips
of classrooms using suggested activities and live discussion forums where teachers
may seek insights from others. (See Chapters 2 and 5 for examples of discussions
of how electronic curriculum resources influence teachers’ use of them.)
In my examinations of mathematics curriculum resources and my studies of
teachers using them, I have found that the large number of characteristics that
make-up the form of address can be loosely classified into five interrelated cate-
gories: structure, look, voice, medium, and genre. Some of these characteristics tend
to be given more attention in discussions of curriculum resources than others. I
contend that each category is relevant to how teachers engage and utilize resources.
Moreover, each category represents a set of design considerations and decisions that
are not always made explicitly.
6.3.1 Structure
2 It is worth noting that the second edition of the Investigations (TERC, 2008) has a physical
appearance more in line with conventional mathematics teacher’s guides than the first edition,
although it continues to be organized in modules.
6 Teachers’ Transactions with Mathematics Curriculum Resources 111
used by students. Often, the materials represent these and other objects pictorially
(like a picture of a bridge in which triangles are used). As I discuss later, these rep-
resentations makingup the structure of the curriculum are then read and interpreted
by teachers.
Analyses of the structure of curriculum resources tend to consider how the
various components are organized, the mathematics content included or excluded
through the representations, and the valence or emphasis of the content, includ-
ing how the content is represented. Organization refers to how the features in the
curriculum resource are packaged. Earlier, I described some structural elements
of the typical commercial textbook published in the United States before the mid
1990s. These curriculum resources generally contained work pages for the student,
answers to the student problems, guidance or even scripts to use during instruction,
auxiliary activities, orienting resources (such as the table of contents, scope and
sequence chart, and other resources that might help teacher structure the curricu-
lum). In my analysis of Standards-based curriculum resources, I have found that
many of these organizational elements are present, however, they may be packaged
differently. For example, when it was first published, Investigations in Numbers,
Data, and Space (TERC, 1998) consists of individual lessons or multi-lesson ses-
sions (grouped according to a larger idea or investigation), but each session is not
organized around the students’ work pages. Rather, the sessions are typically orga-
nized around a number of activities that are intended to occur in the class, some of
which have associated student pages.3
6.3.2 Look
Look refers to the purely visual appearance of the resource – what teachers see
when they look at it. In the United States, cultural and institutional traditions exist,
which influence the designed look of curriculum resources, even those designed
by different publishers. Many of the commercially designed curriculum resources,
for example, have a decidedly commercial look. They are printed on glossy pages,
contain colorful photographs of smiling children, and include pages that read like
advertisements for the materials. Colors and fonts are used in such a way that par-
ticular words seem to jump out at the reader. A number of the noncommercially
published materials I have reviewed have a look that appears subdued when com-
pared to those just described. Look is the result of a number of design choices, and
is also influenced by the structure of the program. For example, a resource that rep-
resents reasoning and problem solving as central components of mathematics will
have a different look than a resource that places primary emphasis on mastery of
discrete skills.
6.3.3 Voice
Voice refers to how the authors or designers are represented and how they communi-
cate with the teacher (Love & Pimm, 1996). In the case of most curriculum resources
I have examined, the authors are invisible and little information is provided about
who they are or what their experience is. The invisibility of the author may be a
device to depersonalize the text and increase its authority. It may well be a tradi-
tion that has evolved over time. Despite the invisibility of the authors, curriculum
resources have a voice that is manifested through the way they communicate with
the teacher. Most curriculum resources place primary emphasis on what the teacher
should do. I think of this as talking through teachers (Remillard, 2000). That is, the
authors communicate their intent through the actions they suggest the teacher takes.
Few resources speak to the teacher by communicating with teachers about the cen-
tral ideas in the curriculum. Some researchers have argued, however, that speaking
to teachers is one way that curriculum resources can be designed to be educative for
teachers (Davis & Krajcik, 2005; Schneider & Krajcik, 2002). Davis and Krajcik
identified a set of design heuristics that curriculum designers might follow to make
their resources explicit for teacher learning. Offering transparent and direct guidance
related to reasons and purposes underlying task selections or anticipating students’
responses to tasks are two such examples.
In their analysis of two elementary mathematics programs, Stein and Kim (2009)
found differences in how designers communicated with teachers. The teacher’s
guide of one program spoke primarily through the teacher. It offered pedagogical
guidance, but few explanations. The other program included a number of efforts to
speak to the teacher, including elaborations of reasons underlying pedagogical rec-
ommendations, notes to the teacher about common student errors or developmental
learning trajectories, and example student dialogue. Another curriculum resource
I examined, which was designed for teacher educators, included a journal writ-
ten by a fictitious facilitator of the program. The journal was intended to provide
facilitators using the resource with insights into the decision-making processes a
facilitator might go through when using it with a group of teachers. In this sense,
voice is related to structure because it is the inclusion or exclusion and placement of
particular structural elements that shape the resource’s voice.
The voice of curriculum resources is also evident in the language used. Herbel-
Eisenmann used discourse analysis tools drawn from Morgan (1996) to analyze the
voice of the student text of a Standards-based middle school curriculum, focusing
on how the authoritative structures in the writing constructed the author, the reader,
and mathematical reasoning. She noted an absence of first person pronouns-a com-
mon approach taken in student texts–and suggested that this tendency concealed
the presence of human beings in the design of the text. She also suggested that
the authors’ frequent use of second person pronouns in conjunction with objects in
statements such as “the graph shows you,” obscures the authority of the authors and
gives inanimate objects power to perform animate activities.
6 Teachers’ Transactions with Mathematics Curriculum Resources 113
6.3.4 Medium
Medium refers to the form of delivery of the resource and has particular relevance
with the increased availability of electronic instructional resources. Currently, the
majority of curriculum resources are print based, a medium familiar to most teach-
ers. However, as the use of electronic media and access to computer and networking
technologies are becoming common, more teachers are using electronic and web-
based resources (Gueudet & Trouche, 2009; Chapters 2 and 5). This evolution brings
to the fore the need to consider medium in the examination of teachers’ interac-
tions with these resources. Unlike those that are text-based, electronic resources
allow for and often assume a nonlinear path through their offerings, giving the
user a degree of navigational decision-making control not as apparent with print
medium. On the other hand, as Gueudet and Trouche (2010) argue that the notion
of author and authorship is often less transparent in online sources than in printed
texts.
6.3.5 Genre
The final category of form is genre. Unlike the other four categories, which
reflect authors’ or publishers’ decisions, genre reflects what a curriculum guide
is within a larger classification of written material for teachers. The curriculum
guide is designed to offer a package that will aid in the construction of cur-
riculum. In essence, it is meant to guide action and in this sense, it is more
like a cookbook or manual than a novel. For this reason, there are elements of
form that curriculum resources cannot completely transcend, despite designers’
efforts. The notion that a curriculum resource is a particular kind of artifact con-
nects to Otte’s (1986) suggestion that texts have both objectively given structures
(what can be seen) and subjective schemes (ways of being understood or expecta-
tions upheld about them). The curriculum-text genre signals particular subjective
schemes among teachers who are familiar with them. Genre is important because
it has implications for the expectations teachers bring to a curriculum resource
that influence the way they engage it. I take this discussion up in the section that
follows.
The role of genre in meaning making is elaborated by Ongstad (2006) in his
semiotic analysis of communication in mathematics and mathematics education.
“Genre,” Ongstad explains, “precisely presupposes much of what can be expected
in the kind of communication in question” (p. 262). Its familiarity conjures a “zone
of expectation” and aids in how one makes sense of any form of communication,
textual, or discursive. Naturally, any form of communication is likely to contain
unfamiliar elements as well. Ongstad uses the term “rheme” to identify the unfamil-
iar or new. Learning or making meaning necessarily involves an interaction between
the familiar (the theme) and the new (the rheme) in which the theme contextualizes
and aids in the interpretation of the rheme. “Particular genres such as textbooks,
114 J.T. Remillard
definitions, explanations, and proofs for instance, will often have an implicit regime
for balancing theme-rheme (or given and new) that we learn to use and recognise”
(p. 263).
An examination of the recent expansion in the development of curriculum
resources, in response to both curriculum reform efforts and new digital technolo-
gies, raises questions about whether there exists a single curriculum-text genre. Even
though all curriculum resources share a purpose or theme that distinguishes them
from other forms of text, categories of resources have emerged within this genre.
Standards-based curriculum materials, for example, which are researcher-developed
as opposed to commercially developed, for many teachers, have become a genre
within this broader class of resources. In other words, they provoke a particular
theme that is distinct from conventional resources. That said, the examples described
in Section 6.5, suggest that the broad curriculum-text genre can be powerful in the
interpretive process for many teachers.
Just as the mode of address of a resource can be seen in its forms, a teacher’s mode
of engagement can be understood through the forms that engagement takes up. In
my research, I have found that a teacher’s mode of engaging a curriculum resource
includes four primary forms or kinds of reading: what she reads for; which parts
she reads; when she reads; and who she is as a reader. These forms of engagement
overlap with several kinds of readings described by Sherin and Drake (2009) in
their research. Earlier, I contrasted two teachers, Ms. McKeen and Ms. Yarnell, who
read the same textbook in different ways. Specifically, they read different parts of
the teacher’s guide and they read looking for different kinds of guidance. McKeen
tended to read the routine lessons and focused on what the text had designed for stu-
dents to do. Yarnell, in contrast, tended to read the auxiliary exploratory components
of the text and read for the big mathematical understandings students were intended
to develop (see Remillard, 1999, for details). These examples illustrate the first two
116 J.T. Remillard
forms of engagement. Sherin and Drake referred to distinction in what teachers read
for as reading for activities or reading for big ideas. Few researchers have examined
the different parts of the textbook read by teachers. This form of engagement seems
particularly important in the United States where curriculum programs at all levels
are becoming increasingly more laden with supplementary and alternative offerings,
increasing the number of entry points, to invoke Ellsworth’s term.
A third form of engagement is when a teacher reads the text. In their study of
10 elementary teachers’ curriculum strategies, Sherin and Drake (2009) found that
teachers read their curriculum guides differently and at different times relative to
instruction – before, during, and after. When teachers’ read is related to what they
are reading for and their particular stance toward curriculum materials in teaching,
discussed below.
The fourth primary form of engagement is who a teacher is as a reader. In other
work (Remillard, 2005; Remillard & Bryans, 2004), I refer to this positioning as
stance or orientation. Teachers generally have a stance toward curriculum materi-
als that is influenced by their views about mathematics, teaching, and the role that
curriculum resources can and should play in the process of teaching mathematics.
It is also influenced by their view of the particular resource. In my research, I have
found teachers’ orientation toward curriculum materials in general to be strikingly
influential in what they read, what they read for, and when they read their particular
teacher’s guide. Rosenblatt (1982) used the term “reader’s stance” in a similar way:
The reader may be seeking information, as in a textbook; he may want direction for action,
as in a driver’s manual . . . In all such readings he will narrow his attention to building up
the meanings, the ideas, the directions, to be retained; attention focuses on accumulating
what is to be carried away at the end of the reading (1982, p. 269).
I believe that the genre of a curriculum guide – what it is and what it represents –
provokes a mode of engagement that is particular to the teacher and, consequently,
shapes the teacher–curriculum transaction. Thus, despite other elements of form, the
6 Teachers’ Transactions with Mathematics Curriculum Resources 117
genre, for many teachers, seems to trigger a “zone of expectation” (Ongstad, 2006)
and assumptions early in the encounter.
Ms. Hatcher, a second grade teacher, had been teaching for 20 years when her school
started using Investigations. Like Mr. Jackson, she had a long history using curricu-
lum resources faithfully, but she avoided commercially published textbooks, opting
for alternative resources that focused on problem solving and conceptual under-
standing. She was a careful reader of these curriculum guides and tried to follow
them as best she could. For her, following the Investigations curriculum meant doing
exactly what the authors suggested. Sometimes, this presented a challenge for her
because, the teacher’s guide did not always tell her exactly what to do. As this quote
suggests, Ms. Hatcher used the curriculum to create a script for herself. When asked
how she used the curriculum to plan, she said:
I reread the curriculum, reread whatever it is in the Investigations book we’re using . . . I am
really following the teacher’s guide. If I’m having trouble understanding it, I will sometimes
script it out; otherwise I highlight or maybe mark what I want to make sure I touch on.
When reading the teacher’s guide she focused on the lesson description, making
careful notes in the margins. She also consulted the book frequently during each
6 Teachers’ Transactions with Mathematics Curriculum Resources 119
lesson. Indeed, we observed that Ms. Hatcher had her class follow each step of the
lesson provided in the guide. She too tried to fulfill her role in the script by ask-
ing students to explain their answers and interacting with and challenging students
during small group work.
Ms. Hatcher’s stance on curriculum resources was that they provided the teacher
with a script. When reading curriculum materials, which she did with great care, she
read as much as she could, looking for a script. Even though she did not always find
as much detail as she would have liked, she used what was available to create her
own script.
Ms. Jordan taught third grade and had been teaching for 4 years when she began
using Investigations. She had limited experience with curriculum resources and
clear ideas about the kind of mathematical understanding she wanted to foster in her
teaching. She was attracted to Investigations because of its structure – the mathemat-
ical ideas it offered. She engaged the resource through these ideas. When reading the
text, rather than wanting to know what to do, she wanted to find the important math-
ematical ideas. She then used them to shape her use of the lesson descriptions. When
she first looked at the book, she went to the section that described the mathematical
emphasis. She described her planning this way:
I look at the mathematical emphasis first to see, first of all, what it is that I’m trying to get
from them by the end. I’ll look at the teacher notes as they come up within the actual script
of the lesson. I read the lessons a lot of times over because there are certain components I
want to say, but I don’t want it to be scripted. . . . It requires rereading to make sure I have
the mathematical emphasis down and I know what I’m trying to get. So even if the lesson
leads a different way, I know the math aim I’m going for that day and I try to stick to that
even if we have to veer off somewhere.
Ms. Jordan was the only teacher we studied who talked about using the math-
ematical emphasis and she was one of two who read the support pages at the
beginning of each unit.
We observed many instances of Ms. Jordan veering off her plans during a lesson.
This happened most often when she felt her students were not getting the important
ideas. When this happened, she often inserted an improvized review session of what
she saw as the important ideas or made explicit connection to the previous day’s
activity.
We identified Ms. Jordan as reading for ideas, because it was the mathematical
idea that most guided her decisions when using the curriculum. Like the others, her
mode of engagement illustrates Rosenblatt’s (1980) assertion that when entering
into a transaction with a text, readers adopt a predominant attitude or stance. Ms.
Jordan’s stance was shaped by her goals in teaching mathematics and her view of
how a curriculum guide could support those goals.
Ms. Jordan was one of two teachers in the study (n = 14) who engaged the
Investigations materials in ways that aligned with their dominant mode of address.
120 J.T. Remillard
They were the only teachers focused on the mathematical goals and emphases and
who read the additional information for the teacher, using it to inform their teaching
decisions and understanding of student learning.
Acknowledgements The author is grateful to the insightful and substantive feedback provided
by Carolyn Kieran and the three editors of this volume. This chapter develops concepts and
analyzes presented in several earlier publications (Remillard, 1999, 2010; Remillard & Bryans,
2004). This research described within was funded by the National Science Foundation (Grant nos.
REC-9875739; ESI-9153834) and the Pew Charitable Trust (Grant no. 91-0434-000). The views
expressed within are those of the authors and are not necessarily shared by the grantors.
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Chapter 7
Task Analysis as “Catalytic Tool” for Feedback
and Teacher Learning: Working with Teachers
on Mathematics Curriculum Materials
Birgit Pepin
7.1 Background
B. Pepin (B)
Faculty of Teacher and Interpreter Education, Sør-Trøndelag University College,
7004 Trondheim, Norway
e-mail: birgit.pepin@hist.no
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 123
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_7,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
124 B. Pepin
Furthermore, and innovatively, Gueudet and Trouche (2009) coined the term
“documentation work” indicating teachers’ work with materials: “looking for
resources, selecting/designing mathematical tasks, planning their succession, man-
aging artefacts, etc.” (p. 199). This paved the way for a “new” and creative thinking
about mathematics curriculum material in connection with teacher “use” of those
materials. This also provides a new perspective, viewing teachers not as passive
users, but as designers of their own resources, and there are interesting and inter-
relational dependencies between teachers’ professional knowledge and curriculum
design, each influencing each other in the process (Chapter 3). Interestingly, and
somewhat in contrast, Ruthven (Chapter 5) developed a conceptual framework on
the basis of five constructs, and amongst them the “curriculum script”, as compared
to Gueudet & Trouche’s “document” (Chapters 2 and 16).
Thus, it is evident that in mathematics education there is a growing body of schol-
arship and research that places teachers at the centre of the “teaching enterprise”
raising questions about the effects of curriculum materials on classroom instruc-
tion and pupil learning. What happens when teachers use particular curriculum
programmes (e.g. reform programmes), and why? An underlying assumption is that
teachers are central players in the process of transforming curriculum ideals, captured in
the form of mathematical tasks, lesson plans and pedagogical recommendations, into real
classroom events. What they do with curriculum resources matters (Lloyd, Remillard, &
Herbel-Eisenmann, 2009).
Thus, what teachers do with mathematics curriculum materials, how they “medi-
ate” them (Chapter 4) and why, how they choose particular mathematical tasks,
and how this complex net of choices influences classroom activity, is crucial for
understanding not only the “implementation” of curricular programmes, but also
for informing the work on the development of new programmes. Moreover, it is
important for understanding how students interact and work with the curriculum
materials (Chapter 12), and how they may learn in turn (Chapter 8).
In line with researchers working in this field (e.g. Davis & Krajcik, 2005;
Remillard, 2005), I use the term “curriculum materials”, and sometimes “textbook”
materials, to refer to printed and often published materials designed to be used by
mathematics teachers and pupils during classroom instruction.
Underpinning the study reported in this chapter is the assumption that teacher
learning involves teacher autonomy and agency when analysing, choosing, chang-
ing and transforming materials, devising alternatives, and “enacting” the materials
(Ben-Peretz, 1984). Paris (1993) emphasises that teacher agency in curriculum mat-
ters involves “the creation or critique of curriculum, an awareness of alternatives to
establish curriculum practices, the autonomy to make informed curriculum choices,
an investment in self, and ongoing interaction with others.” (p. 16)
7 Task Analysis as “Catalytic Tool” for Feedback and Teacher Learning 125
Moreover, seminal work by Ball and Cohen (1999) discusses the role of curricu-
lum materials, in particular textbooks, with respect to teacher learning. They assert
that
Curriculum materials could only become central to teacher learning, if the traditional
boundaries between texts’ presentation of content and teachers’ teaching were redrawn to
make central the work of enacting curriculum. (p. 7)
In terms of improving instruction, materials are often seen to offer resources for
teachers’ work with their students, and not designed to encourage teachers’ inves-
tigations of and work with the material. Sadly, it is claimed, teachers must often
learn alone “with few resources to assist them”. Thus, they call for the creation of
curricula
that would help teachers to better enact curriculum in practice. If the boundaries of curricu-
lum design and development were reconsidered and redrawn, curriculum materials could
offer teachers more opportunities to learn in and from their work. (p. 8)
agree that making “learning mathematics with understanding” has become a shared
objective, teachers seldom have opportunities, and time, to develop mathematical
tasks and teaching sequences, where “richness of tasks” and “learning mathemat-
ics with understanding” are emphasised. With these two hypotheses in mind, I
embarked on a professional development programme to include opportunities for
teachers to deepen their own understanding of selected key concepts of curriculum
they were likely to teach, to improve their knowledge of ways students may under-
stand the content, and learn about analyzing, selecting and enriching mathematical
activities, and subsequently learn about how to teach these in their classrooms.
The approach to teacher learning centres around the analysis and enrich-
ment/amendment of mathematical tasks, that is curriculum materials (work sheets,
textbooks, etc.) that teachers typically use for their teaching. Teaching is seen as a
dynamic process that goes beyond what happens in the classroom to include analysis
and selection of curriculum materials as part of planning and reflection (Chapter 2).
The literature claims that improvements in planning and reflection have great poten-
tial for improving teaching (Ball & Cohen, 1999; Fernandez, 2002; Hiebert et al.,
2003). Moreover, it is in agreement with research on teacher learning which claims
that effective professional development must provide opportunities for teachers to
work together, analyse and discuss curriculum materials in connection with class-
room practice (e.g. Whitehurst, 2002; Chapters 15–17). Teacher learning is seen
here in the widest sense, as teachers work together or on their own and with materials
that help them to develop their knowledge in and for teaching.
In this study, I explore the role and nature of feedback resulting from the develop-
ment and use of a tool designed to help teachers develop further understandings of
characteristics of mathematical tasks, their selection, amendment, enrichment and
potential use with their students. This fits largely within the studies on feedback
in professional learning (e.g. Hargreaves, 2000) and that teachers can learn from
feedback (student feedback in the case of Hargreaves, 2000). There is also a large
body of research of teachers’ experiences of learning through enquiry and collabora-
tive projects (e.g. Fennema, Carpenter, & Franke, 1996; Greeno & Goldman, 1998;
Chapters 15 and 17), amongst them those that highlight the importance of tools (e.g.
Baumfield, Hall, Higgins, & Wall, 2009; Chapter 16).
A “tool” can be viewed in different ways. Boydston (1986) claimed
A tool is a mode of language, for it says something to those that understand it, about the
operations of use and their consequences . . . in the present cultural settings, these objects
are so intimately bound up with intentions, occupations and purposes that they have an
eloquent voice. (p. 98)
Thus, whilst a tool may have different forms, using a tool in the context
of pedagogic practice, it is likely to re-frame teachers’ experiences (this is also
7 Task Analysis as “Catalytic Tool” for Feedback and Teacher Learning 127
The study built on previous work with teachers, textbooks and other curriculum
materials (e.g. Haggarty & Pepin, 2002; Pepin, 2008, 2009). Supported by a grant
from the National Centre for Excellence in the Teaching of Mathematics (NCETM1 )
1 https://www.ncetm.org.uk/
128 B. Pepin
and whilst based in the United Kingdom, I worked with teachers over a period of 9
months. The work with teachers consisted of two phases:
Literature review Reading, discussing and presenting Reflective (focussed on Develop insights beyond the
literature on “learning mathematics knowledge/learning) immediate context.
with understanding” View mathematics/learning
mathematics in different ways
Development of task Development/amendment/ Diagnostic, reflective How to analyze mathematical tasks.
analysis schedule re-shaping of mathematical task Clarify ideas on the purpose of tasks
analysis tool for task analysis (on and on what mathematical tasks
the basis of Pepin, 2008). may inherently possess.
Analysis of “different” mathematical
tasks (e.g. LEMA).
Task analysis Auditing/collection of resources Diagnostic (focused on Creative questioning with respect to
available in the school’s learning and skills). the purpose and value of
mathematics department. mathematical tasks.
Use of “tool” to analyse/amend/ Alternative strategies of devising a
enrich mathematical tasks. mathematical task.
Selection of appropriate tasks for
instruction.
Assessment, task analysis Use of “tool” for analysis of Diagnostic Confidence in amending and
& National Curriculum assessment tasks/test questions. enriching materials for particular
Linking assessment, mathematical purposes.
tasks and National Curriculum. Linking context (assessment and
Task Analysis as “Catalytic Tool” for Feedback and Teacher Learning
7.4 Findings
In this section I discuss the different types of activities undertaken with respect to
information gained by and feedback provided to teachers, and in turn its potential
for teacher learning. During the 9 months research and development period different
kinds of “activities” were undertaken which can be categories under five different
“phases” (see Table 7.1):
Phase 1: reading, discussion and presentation of the literature on “learning
mathematics with understanding”
Phase 2: development/amendment/re-shaping of mathematical task analysis tool
for task analysis;
Phase 3: use of “tool” to analyse/amend/enrich selected mathematical tasks;
Phase 4: preparation of tasks for classroom instruction;
Phase 5: “learning walks”.
During these phases, and in the different activities, the “task analysis sched-
ule (the ‘tool’)” was developed and used, inside and outside class and in very
7 Task Analysis as “Catalytic Tool” for Feedback and Teacher Learning 131
different ways, which in turn influenced its nature. This is the focus of discussion,
and illustrated in the following.
(1) In the first phase reading, discussion and presentation of the literature on
“learning mathematics with understanding” helped teachers to view mathematics in
a different way. Lively discussions centred around the issue of what it may mean to
learn mathematics with understanding, and one of the key issues identified here was
related to “making connections”, and in different ways (e.g. to familiar situations,
or to previously taught mathematics).
Understanding in general is linked to “something”, . . . experiences perhaps. To understand
mathematics we must “connect” it to something relevant or “of meaning” to an individual
[pupil]. . . . In my experience too many people are concerned with “how to get the answer”.
My perception of learning maths with understanding looks at “why” the answer works.
(John, Session 1 evaluation)
The emerging discussion on the literature was also seen as a valuable activity to
enhance teacher learning in terms of bringing together theory and practice.
. . . the discussions have promoted the deep links between the literature and those aspects
[identified earlier as individual aspects of teaching mathematics] . . . the overall process of
creating a dialectical fusion between theory and practice has become clearer. I feel more
able to “read”. (Paul, Session 1 evaluation)
Thus, this activity appeared to help teachers to develop insights beyond the
immediate context and “next-day-lesson” and view mathematics learning in dif-
ferent ways (e.g. “to link something to something else”, connecting theory and
practice). The type of feedback likely to be “produced” by the activity was reflective
and focussed on knowledge and learning.
(2) In the subsequent phase, and in subsequent sessions, these notions helped
to identify what kinds of characteristics a mathematical task may/should have so
that learning with understanding is more likely to happen. On the basis of a “skele-
ton” task analysis schedule (e.g. Pepin, 2008) teachers developed, amended and
re-shaped this for their own analysis of activities and according to their own under-
standings. This meant that teachers added or changed categories according to what
they regarded important in mathematical tasks. For example, and linking to the task
analysis schedule (see Appendix), the category of “connections through mathemat-
ics” was further re-defined, to differentiate between and include “connections within
mathematics” as well as “connections across other subjects”. As another example,
several categories under “processes” were further developed, in particular the cate-
gory of “analysing” in order to differentiate between “reasoning” and “procedural”.
As a third example, the whole category of “familiarity” was introduced, and it was
apparent that teachers drew on their repertoire of practical experiences here, in order
to identify what was important for them and their teaching (evidence: observation
reports).
One of my reasons for participation on this project was to extend pupils’ knowledge
and experience of mathematics beyond the procedural and technical. I believe that the
tasks/activities carried out by students play a major part in this experience. The analysis tool
which we are developing exposes aspects of the mathematical process, language demands
132 B. Pepin
and symbolism held within the structure of a task. This exposure has formalised, for me,
necessary parameters which I can address individually within my teaching. (Paul, Session
1 evaluation)
• “the need for the task to have a purpose – what are we hoping to develop with the
task”;
• “tasks that incorporate a range of concepts and cognitive demands [are] ‘richer,
and therefore of more benefit”;
• “communicating mathematically in a range of ways is very important in cement-
ing a pupil’s understanding”;
In the light of the discussions and re-designing the task analysis tool, teachers saw
the need to re-think their pedagogic practice, and they also realised the difficulties
and efforts connected with this.
I would like to increase pupils’ exposure to mathematical language and symbolism to allow
the possibility of rich dialogue. I would like to use this opportunity to improve the connec-
tions within mathematics and between mathematics and (1) other subjects, (2) “real world”.
I would like to raise the level of thinking required by pupils. (Paul, Session 1 evaluation)
amend appropriate tasks with respect to their developing ideas and intended instruc-
tion, and use creative questioning with respect to the purpose and value of tasks.
There is evidence from the data that the type of feedback likely to be “produced” by
the activity was diagnostic and focussed on learning and skills for their classroom
instruction.
(4) In the fourth phase teachers identified the need to look at assessment (and
tests) in connection with task analysis, and with respect to the National Curriculum
(in England). Thus, as a first step the group decided to use the previously analysed
“House & Garden” tasks for “assessing pupils working on tasks”. Sensitized by
the previous sessions in terms of “what we may assess”, that is considering the
categories relating to task features (e.g. content; connections; contexts; familiarity;
representations; etc.), these were mapped against how these could be assessed by
a teacher (e.g. what kinds of questions may a teacher ask him/herself?), and the
different levels and sublevels of the National Curriculum. As a second step, and in
terms of linking assessment and tests to task analysis, departmental grade 8 tests
(on number, three different achievement levels) were analyzed. Interestingly, some
supposedly “lower level” questions were actually considered (by teachers) to have
more potential in terms of “openness” and richness than some of the higher level
questions that aimed at procedural understanding, and were described by teachers
as “numbing”. Linking this to Assessment for Learning (AfL) teachers developed
ideas, in particular with respect to peer- and self-assessment, and developing pupils’
awareness of skills they are using during a series of lessons.
Reflecting on assessing tasks and what pupils have produced and learnt is as important as
analysing the tasks. (Suzanne, Session 3 evaluation)
. . . I will think about a mathematical task and evaluate what areas of the NC levels it
addresses rather than the converse, i.e. teach to the NC levels. (Bill, Session 3 evaluation)
There is scope to begin with open investigative tasks, . . . Reducing the number of
tasks, whilst allowing more time on fewer tasks allows for greater detail in what pupils
discover/learn. (Paul, Session 3 evaluation)
Thus, the link to assessment and the National Curriculum appeared to have given
teachers another view point and they appeared to have become more secure in
their knowledge about tasks, what they can afford and how they can be taught
and assessed. The assessment activities helped teachers to gain confidence in
amending/enriching materials for particular purposes, for example for “creative”
assessment. In addition, this activity helped to link assessment tasks/tests to the
National Curriculum, and to see them in a different light (e.g. as formative curricu-
lum materials rather than evaluative). There is evidence from the data that the type
of feedback likely to be “produced” by the activity was diagnostic and focussed on
assessment and instruction.
(5) In phase 5 and during the later parts of the project (Learning Walk – lesson
observations) selected lessons of John and Paul (one morning with 1 and 2 lessons
each) were videoed. For these both teachers had prepared and discussed, amongst
each other, what and how they planned to do things. The two videoed lessons (one
each) were played back in an afternoon session at university, and the subsequent
134 B. Pepin
discussion (on the basis of these two lessons) centred around teachers’ use of their
developed/prepared curriculum materials.
One of the foci of “modification” of tasks, and pedagogic practice, was to instil
more discussion into their lessons (see also worksheet).
. . . the lesson I did was modified and adapted from a lesson that I had previously done . . .
but the fact that we modified it is a result of this [project] . . . (Paul, video recall)
. . . we had looked through the activities that we had already and . . . we used our awareness
of this tool to modify the wording . . . we both wanted the discussion to take place . . . both
in pairs and in groups . . . to modify the tasks so it was more explicit that it was discussion
that we went for. (John, Video recall)
It appeared that the thinking about tasks helped to make the processes involved
in doing the tasks more evident.
I agree, I think the . . . process of going from coming up with the initial idea, estimating,
making a guess, throwing the ideas out and then honing into, to improve mathematical
symbols. The idea of mathematical language in order to revisit the problem . . . I think
that’s . . . quite a powerful . . . thing that came out of this whole process. . . .
I think that the tool has enabled us to, to mediate the tasks. [my italics] . . . Both on paper
and then, because of our awareness of what we want, or a greater awareness through out
classroom . . . communication. (Paul, video recall)
The final discussions centred around their collaboration, working with each other
as “sparring partners” in this project. Teachers emphasised the importance to work
with someone “to bounce off ideas” and go beyond what one may develop when
working alone.
Because I, I would say I have quite a lot of lessons like that, that kind of thing, but they’ve
never been developed beyond what I thought of myself . . . I’ve never, in a lot of my lessons,
I’ve never bounced my ideas off anyone else. . . . Like, [John] and I did with this one. . . .
that part of it was enriching . . . (Paul, video recall)
Thus, the “learning walks” provided opportunities for peers to suggest alterna-
tive strategies (for classroom practice), and for encouragement to trial out different
things and work together in a team. There is evidence from the data that the type
of feedback likely to be “produced” by the activity was reflective and focussed on
practice.
In summary, it can be said that teachers developed their ideas, whilst going
through the different stages: from reviewing the literature; to tasks analysis and task
enrichment; to “creative” applications and considerations of task analysis; to enact-
ment in the classroom. At each stage (and these are not seen as hierarchical) they
carried “residuals” from previous sessions, and appeared to become more confident
in terms of how to proceed, what to do next, why this may be useful, what they may
have learnt, for example as the project went on. The “analysis” and “enrichment”
of mathematical tasks appeared to have become an analysis and enrichment of their
pedagogic practice.
7 Task Analysis as “Catalytic Tool” for Feedback and Teacher Learning 135
comments) – in this case such sources are most likely provided by the social situa-
tion created by the professional development activity; internal sources for feedback
are self-generated (e.g. teachers monitoring their activities and engagement with the
learning task). The main message from these studies is that the learning context to
which feedback is addressed needs to be considered: in this case teacher learning
with curriculum materials (as compared to pupils learning in classrooms).
Considering the different types of feedback (see Table 7.1), it appears that the
development and use of the task analysis schedule (the “tool”) was crucial in
teachers’ awareness raising/developing understandings of task characteristics and
potential of particular mathematical tasks for teaching, hence in terms of support
for teachers’ learning. There is evidence that this tool was the pivotal point around
which most other activities centred, or were linked to, and which was mentioned
in all discussions and evaluations (see earlier quote by Paul): as it developed,
when it was used for the analysis and enrichment of mathematical tasks, and in
the “enactment” of the amended tasks during instruction. Considering its perceived
importance, and in terms of the associated “documentational genesis” (Chapter 2),
the feedback the tool provided can be perceived at the four different levels (out-
lined by Hattie & Timperley, 2007). At the “task level”, the analysis tool provided
feedback to teachers about the characteristics of the actual tasks, how well these
were understood. At the process level, the analysis tool provided feedback in terms
of what these tasks may, or may not, afford in terms of pupil learning and skills,
the processes needed to understand the tasks. At the self-monitoring level, the tool
provided feedback in terms of confidence of working with such an analysis tool.
Finally, at the personal evaluation level, it provided feedback in terms of confidence
to engage in further enquiries of such type.
Thinking in terms of internal and external sources for feedback, it can be argued
that the “tool” (analysis schedule) was an external source at the outset, but became
an internal source of feedback. Whilst provided (by the university teacher edu-
cator) for teacher use in “skeleton” format, and as further developed from the
literature with teachers, they shaped the task analysis tool and made it “their own”
(see also “instrumentalisation” in Chapter 2) according to what they regarded as
important characteristics for a mathematical task for their teaching. This process
started with reading and discussing the relevant literature, and subsequently it was
amended and then used on their chosen tasks. This in turn triggered ideas for
amendment/enrichment of tasks and for comparison of characteristics with National
Curriculum “features” and with national/departmental “test tasks”. At different
stages of development and use of the analysis tool, different kinds of feedback
resulting from the tool became apparent.
Moreover, it is argued that by participating in the practice of enquiry (Greeno
& Goldman, 1998) to analyze/work with mathematical tasks and the task analysis
tool, teachers gained access to feedback that stimulated their professional learning
and enabled them to become reflective (Schön, 1983). Particular attention is given
here to the role of the tool for enquiry. The tool for task analysis became a tool
for enquiry in activated feedback loops between (1) the two teachers amongst each
7 Task Analysis as “Catalytic Tool” for Feedback and Teacher Learning 137
other, (2) between them and the “tool” and (3) between them and the teacher educa-
tor and the “tool”. This, in turn, provided support for teacher learning. In this way,
the level of teacher engagement and learning lifted the “tool” beyond its level of
artefact, to become an “epistemic object” (Rheinberger, 1997): a knowledge object
that is developmental in nature and depends on the place it occupies in teachers’
collaborative practices.
An epistemic object is an object that is beyond the agents’ knowledge and under-
standing, at the time of first use, and at the edge of the epistemic horizon (see also
Miettinen & Virkkunen, 2005). At the same time epistemic objects are grounded in
historically developed practices. They function as generators of novel understand-
ings, conceptualization and perhaps innovative solutions, as they are not yet known
with certainty. The creative nature of the work with epistemic object appears to be
characterized by working “at the edge of the unknown”: working with them pro-
duces developing conceptualizations and understandings. This view of use of tools
is anchored in socio cultural theory, in particular Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of “tool”
and mediation of tools. Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) developed this
further (e.g. Engeström, 2001) claiming that learning can be mediated by a range of
tools and instruments.
At its inception the “tool” (analysis task schedule) was defined and meant to
analyze mathematical tasks, a kind of technical object grounded in familiar peda-
gogic practices. However, over time and with different activities the insights gained
(through the work with the “tool”) triggered communication between teachers (and
teachers and teacher educator) and feedback at different levels; and provided access
to a developing depth of perspective which encouraged teachers to explore further.
In short, the original tool developed into something else: it became an epistemic
object which challenged previous perceptions (e.g. creative questioning of value
and purpose of mathematical tasks, and what they can afford); it produced “novel
situations” (e.g. confidence in amending and enriching materials for particular pur-
poses); and generated novel understandings of pedagogic practice (e.g. viewing
mathematics/mathematics learning in different ways).
It can be argued that the “tool” has developed catalytic potential, in the sense that
it helped teachers, and gave them opportunities, to engage in a re-framed experi-
ence. Using the tool had aspects of familiarity (since it is grounded in the “territory”
of mathematical tasks and learning), and at the same time of novelty as some of
their perceptions are likely to be challenged and something being added to their
repertoire. This combination of familiarity and novelty is likely to create “positive
conditions” and for the teachers to experience “positive dissonance” (Baumfield,
2006) whereby routines and expectations are likely to be challenged, or disrupted,
without the teachers feeling vulnerable, and more importantly for new ways of feed-
back to be opened up. This is claimed to be the tool’s catalytic quality: it can open up
new avenues (e.g. of feedback), whilst maintaining stability by not being changed
itself. Thus, the tool’s catalytic potential is provided by its intrinsic features, its use-
fulness in teacher everyday professional lives, and its potential for empowerment in
terms of teacher learning.
138 B. Pepin
The crucial process element of the catalytic tool is the kinds of and the nature
of feedback “produced”. The feedback from the task analysis tool is developmen-
tal, context-specific and highly relevant to teachers’ professional needs: be they
reflective; diagnostic; focussed on knowledge/learning, or on skills. In Table 7.1,
an overview is provided to show which kinds of activities (related to the “tool”)
afforded which kinds of feedback, and in turn are likely to enhance which kinds of
teacher learning.
In summary, there is evidence that the project has had positive benefits to:
At a practical level results show that this project has helped teachers to spend
time on developing their knowledge for/in teaching, by thinking about and analyzing
curriculum material (some of it educative), developing the material further, and by
“enacting” the material and reflecting on the processes. The project has succeeded
in raising teachers’ awareness, and knowledge, of the educative nature of curricu-
lum material, and what that may mean for their pedagogic practice. It is suggested
that we need to help teachers learn from and work with all types of curricular mate-
rials – whether they are educative and well-designed, or otherwise – as they prepare
for their teaching. This goes beyond “curriculum delivery”, and involves develop-
ing strategies to use the support offered by the school environment and uncovering
“creative” ways to support their learning with the help of available “resources” and
“tools”. Teachers benefit from opportunities to analyse, examine, enrich or amend
new curriculum materials with their colleagues. This involves a process of “mutual
transformation” – transforming the curriculum material, as well as potentially trans-
forming the teachers’ notions of what can be done in the classroom, their pedagogic
thinking. Adding to this, new resources, such as digital resources, the web of inter-
action becomes even more complex (Chapter 16). Further research is needed that
takes us away from the dualistic thinking of “teachers and texts”, to more sophis-
ticated processes and forms of analysis that include the working environment, the
resource system, the activity format, and the curriculum script (Chapter 5).
At the theoretical level it is evident that the process of interacting with “mate-
rial” is complex, and it is often neither explicit nor public. There is evidence from
this study that curriculum materials, more precisely a task analysis schedule, can act
as catalyst for teacher learning. As the task analysis “tool” developed, it became a
catalytic tool providing feedback which in turn helped teachers to develop deeper
understandings. In the process it afforded feedback loops and changed its character,
from “tool” as artefact to epistemic object at the interface between task design and
enactment (see Fig. 7.1). Different forms of feedback emerged from the work with
the “tool”, at four different levels. The results provide deeper insights into the pro-
cesses of teacher learning with the help of analytic tools and the feedback these may
afford.
7 Task Analysis as “Catalytic Tool” for Feedback and Teacher Learning 139
Fig. 7.1 Catalytic tool in relation to feedback levels, task design and enactment
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Chapter 8
Measuring Content Through Textbooks:
The Cumulative Effect of Middle-School
Tracking
William H. Schmidt
8.1 Introduction
Textbooks are ubiquitous in schooling worldwide. While other chapters in this part
examine the interaction between textbooks and teachers, we focus on one particular
inherent characteristic of textbooks, their potential role in providing opportunities
for learning mathematics. How textbooks are designed provides a window into the
nature of the mathematics that students are expected to learn. They characterise
not only the content but also advocate what students are to be able to do with that
content – what mathematical behaviours are to be encouraged. In this way they
serve as a bridge between the teacher and the students, translating abstractions into
reality. They mediate between instruction and the actual behaviours that the students
undertake as a part of learning. As a result, such a characteristic of textbooks can
constrain opportunity.
Using textbook data from a U.S. nationally representative sample of students, we
demonstrate a methodology that characterises textbooks related to the content itself
but also to the nature of how it is presented especially with respect to the expected
behaviours. We do this for different groups of students (those found in different
tracks – courses of study) to illustrate how differences in textbooks and their use
can constrain opportunity to learn (OTL).
Other chapters in this book deal with the interplay between teacher and text-
book. For example, Rezat (Chapter 12) shows the linkage between teacher’s and
students’ usage of the textbook, while Remillard (Chapter 6) argues that teachers
are themselves passive users of curriculum materials. These are studies at the micro-
classroom level. The emphasis in this chapter is to describe the cumulative effect of
textbook usage at the macro-level, across grades, over a student’s high-school career.
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 143
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_8,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
144 W.H. Schmidt
8.2 Background
The mathematics achievement of U.S. middle- and high-school students is not con-
sidered strong by international standards (see, e.g., TIMSS, 2003, 2007; PISA,
2003, 2006) (http://timss.bc.edu/, http://www.pisa.oecd.org). This has prompted an
emerging policy focus centred on two key aspects of the educational system – the
curriculum and teacher quality. We focus on the curriculum, characterising mathe-
matics opportunities as represented in textbook coverage across grades 7 through 12
and relating that to the common practice in the United States of tracking begun in
the middle school.
Studies have shown that curriculum is related to student achievement (see Floden,
Porter, Schmidt, Freeman, & Schwille, 1981; Schmidt, 2003; Suter, 2000 for a
review of this work). Some of this work has focused on the amount of mathematics
covered (Schmidt, 1983, 2003; Stevenson, Schiller, & Schneider, 1994). Other stud-
ies have examined the role that a particular course such as algebra plays, not only
in terms of what they know but also in terms of future career opportunities. Still
other studies have focused on characterising the actual content students have stud-
ied and relating those specific opportunities to student achievement. In fact, this has
been a traditional emphasis of international studies such as the Third International
Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). The concept of OTL was designed to
capture the type of topics studied and then to relate this to cross-national differ-
ences in achievement (McKnight, Crosswhite, Dossey, Kifer, Swafford, Travers, &
Cooney, 1987).
In Finland, Törnroos (2005) characterising OTL with textbooks reported a sig-
nificant relationship between student achievement and textbook content coverage.
Törnroos analysed Finish mathematics textbooks from grades 5, 6 and 7 and cor-
related the coverage with the seventh-grade student performance on the TIMSS
1999 test. He found that a strong positive relationship between student performance
and the amount of cumulative coverage in the textbooks at the content topic level.
In order words, the more the topics were covered in the textbooks, the better the
students’ performance.
The common element in both international and national studies is that the cur-
riculum is a significant factor in explaining student achievement. The fact that these
relationships have been established at the student, classroom and country level only
strengthens the central role of this relationship to why schools matter (Schmidt,
McKnight, Houang, Wang, Wiley, Cogan, & Wolfe, 2001).
One of the factors related to what content students are exposed to in the United
States is the practice of tracking. Although not typically practiced in other countries,
at least among those studied in TIMSS, it is commonly practiced in the United
States and begins in middle school. One estimate suggests that only about 25%
of eighth-grade students attend schools that are not tracked (Cogan, Schmidt, &
Wiley, 2001).
We define tracking as the practice of having different students at the same grade
take different courses that have different content. This is distinct from ability track-
ing where students in different classes (usually sorted by ability) cover the same
8 Measuring Content Through Textbooks 145
topics but to different depths and for different amounts of time. Tracking results in
different content exposures.
Cogan et al. (2001) describes the number and nature of the different tracks typi-
cally found in the United States. Many times three to six different courses are offered
in middle schools at eighth grade, most often including general mathematics, pre-
algebra and algebra. Each course presents a substantively different curriculum, and
in turn affects students’ achievement differently. Prior studies have highlighted two
important ways that a student’s eighth-grade course affects their subsequent math-
ematics achievement: positional advantages and differential achievement growth
(Adelman, 1999; Atanda, 1999; Hoffer, 1992; McFarland, 2006; Schneider et al.,
1997; Stevenson et al., 1994).
Using data from the Longitudinal Study of U.S. Youth (LSAY), we developed a
textbook-based methodology resulting in measures of the amount of demanding or
complex mathematics content taken by a student and used them to obtain national
estimates of what is typically taken by students in each of grades 7 through 12.
These measures not only refer to the content itself, but also to the nature of what
student behaviours are expected with respect to that content. These estimates can
then be cumulated to reflect total exposure over middle and high schools to the
more demanding aspects of mathematics (gauged by a combination of content dif-
ficulty and expected behaviours) given their starting point in seventh grade, that is
the track into which they were placed in middle school. In that way we explore the
cumulative content exposure for different tracks. In the analyses presented here the
measures of curriculum are based on the textbooks used by each student in each of
the mathematics courses taken.
It is broadly accepted that textbooks are a good reflection of the implemented cur-
riculum in most countries, and that textbooks are a particularly accurate reflection of
the implemented curriculum in the United States (Fuson, Stigler, & Bartsch, 1988;
Li, 2000; Mayer, Sims, & Tajika, 1995; Nicely, Fiber, & Bobango, 1986; Schmidt,
McKnight, & Raizen, 1997a; Stigler, Fuson, Ham, & Kim, 1986). The grow-
ing emphasis on national standards and achievement testing are likely to increase
teacher reliance on textbooks as the best available reflection of national standards
and the intended curriculum (Crawford & Snider, 2000). Despite the centrality of
the textbook to the implemented curriculum and classroom practices, there have
been relatively few attempts to quantify the content coverage of textbooks (Porter,
Floden, Freeman, Schmidt, & Schwille, 1986) and to measure the level of actual
student exposure since few teachers cover the entire textbook during a school term
or year.
The TIMSS recognised the importance of obtaining reliable cross-national mea-
sures of the implemented curriculum and devoted substantial time and resources to
the development of a content classification system for use with mathematics and
science textbooks (Schmidt et al., 1997b; Valverde, Bianchi, Wolfe, Schmidt, &
146 W.H. Schmidt
Houang, 2002). The application of this system has been described in numerous
reports concerning the TIMSS results (Schmidt, McKnight, & Raizen, 1997a;
Schmidt et al., 2001), but the initial translation of this classification system into
quantitative measures has been limited to the work at the US TIMSS National
Research Center at Michigan State University (Schmidt et al., 2001).
Although the initial work by Schmidt and his colleagues was designed for
international comparisons (Schmidt et al., 2001), the classification system has the
potential to provide useful measures of the implemented curriculum at the class-
room level and in the estimation of the influence of the implemented curriculum on
student achievement.
The idea of comparing the content of mathematics textbooks to the expectations
and demands of mathematics problems is not new. Nicely (1985) and others have
studied the content and form of problems in U.S. mathematics books. An extensive
amount of comparative textbook analysis has been undertaken to understand differ-
ences in student performance in the United States and other countries (Fuson et al.,
1988; Li, 2000; Mayer et al., 1995; Schmidt, McKnight, & Raizen, 1997a; Schmidt
et al., 2001; Stigler et al., 1986).
In virtually all of these studies, the content of small segments or specific prob-
lems has been analysed and classified, but comparisons between mathematics
textbooks have not been made on the basis of the full book. Miller and Mercer
(1997) argue that some students have difficulty because many mathematics topics
are introduced too quickly by teachers who are trying to “get through the book”. No
previous study has attempted to take into account the proportion of each mathemat-
ics book that is actually covered by various teachers, especially as an indicator of
the scope of material actually covered.
Porter (2002) has made a strong argument of the need to provide a metric or
language to measure the content of the curriculum. Using a survey approach, Porter
proposed a two-dimensional measurement technique that would take into account
both the content of the implemented curriculum and the level of performance or
understanding expected of the students in a given classroom. This general approach
is similar to the textbook measurement technique described here.
content of each block was coded using as many as eight content codes and as many
as five performance expectation codes to characterise each block. The resulting data
set provided thousands of block level codes for content.
The challenge was to develop summary variables that translate the thousands of
block codes into variables that provide useful information about the content of each
mathematics text book. For purposes of cross-national comparison, Schmidt and his
colleagues used a measure of the proportion of each book allocated to each of 44
mathematics content categories and compared this measure to the amount of time
that each teacher reported that he or she devoted to the teaching of each of these
topics and to student achievement outcomes (Schmidt et al., 2001).
Another application of the TIMSS content codes is reflected in the International
Grade Placement (IGP) index. The IGP is based on the curriculum data collected
using the General Topic Trace Mappings (GTTM) from over 40 countries for the
TIMSS (Schmidt et al., 1997b). It is a weighted average of the typical grade level at
which countries first include a topic in their mathematics curriculum and the typical
grade level at which countries focus instruction on that topic. For example, an IGP of
6.6 for the topic integers and their properties indicates that across TIMSS countries,
the average of the grade level of typical introduction and the grade level of typical
instructional focus is a little more than half way through grade six. We interpret
this as indicating that, from an international perspective, this topic is typically cov-
ered in countries’ mathematics curriculum in grades six and/or seven. Similarly, an
IGP of 9.0 for the topic patterns, relations and functions indicates that the average
of countries’ typical introduction and typical focus is a little more than two grades
later than the previously mentioned topic. This means that this topic is typically cov-
ered in countries’ mathematics curriculum around grade nine (Cogan et al., 2001;
Schmidt, 2003). The IGP assumes that, given the hierarchical nature of mathemat-
ics, topics focused on in later grades are likely more complex or difficult, building
on the topics covered in earlier grades.
It is important to recognise that the TIMSS is a set of three cross-sectional studies
designed to provide cross-national comparisons. These international comparisons
are important and provide useful insights into the commonalities and differences
in mathematics instruction and learning throughout the world. Nonetheless, they
cannot be used to provide cumulative measurements on the same students.
1 This work was supported by NSF grant RED-9909569. All conclusions and findings reflect the
views of the principal investigator and co-investigators and do not necessarily reflect the views of
the National Science Foundation or its staff.
148 W.H. Schmidt
parent, teacher and classroom variables and mathematics and science textbook
information, including the percentage of the book that the teacher plans to cover
during the semester or school year.
Initiated in the Fall of 1987, the LSAY selected and followed two cohorts of
public school students from 50 public high schools. Cohort Two was a group of
3,116 seventh grade students and served as the basis for the analyses reported here.
The group was from 50 public middle schools of the feeder schools to the sampled
high schools and was followed for 7 years (see Table 8.1). During each of the six
school years, each student was asked to complete a mathematics achievement test
and a science achievement test (usually in October), and two extensive attitudinal
and activity questionnaires (in October and April).
For every mathematics and science course that included one or more LSAY
students, the teacher was asked to complete a course questionnaire that collected –
among other variables – the name, publisher and year of the textbook used in the
course and the percentage of the textbook that the teacher expected to cover during
that course. Because each student attitudinal and activity questionnaire requested
a full course schedule, including the name of the teacher and the class period in
which the course occurred, it was possible to match each student to specific teach-
ers and courses, allowing the linking of teacher-reported course variables to each
student’s record. We focus on the coding and classification of mathematics text
books here.
One of the advantages of using the LSAY data set for this purpose is that it
allows the measurement of the cumulative level of textbook (and presumably, cur-
riculum) exposure to the full range of mathematics topics for students in different
tracks throughout their middle- and high-school years. To the extent that textbooks
can be coded to reflect the implemented curriculum, it will be possible to map the
cumulative impact of tracking over a period of years and examine the influence of
differential curricular exposure on individual student achievement.
Table 8.1 Longitudinal Study of U.S. Youth (LSAY) cohort two participation rates
Grade Same school New school Early graduate Dropout Lost Quit N
7 3,116 0 0 0 0 0 3,116
8 2,718 270 0 9 89 30 3,116
9 2,267 649 0 49 48 104 3,116
10 2,038 736 0 134 53 155 3,116
11 1,907 724 2 216 76 190 3,116
12 1,743 672 27 334 110 230 3,116
Percent
7 100 0 0 0 0 0 100
8 87 9 0 <1 3 1 100
9 73 21 0 2 2 3 100
10 65 24 0 4 2 5 100
11 61 23 <1 7 3 6 100
12 56 22 1 11 4 7 100
8 Measuring Content Through Textbooks 149
This approach allows the computation for each classroom of the number of pages
of mathematics topic exposure that each student in that class experienced during
that school year. Applied to LSAY population, this approach allows the assignment
of a mathematics curriculum exposure index that takes into account the specific
textbook used in that class and the percentage of the book covered during that
course. This Mathematics Topic Exposure Index is expressed in the number of pages
of topic coverage and ranges from 0 to 1,013. Obviously, no single student reads a
thousand pages of mathematics text, but the Index reflects the estimated number of
pages on which one or more mathematics topics was covered.
To see this Index in context, it is useful to look at the seventh grade students in
terms of the mathematics course in which they were enrolled. The mean number of
topic pages for all seventh grade students was 447, but seventh-grade students in
remedial mathematics courses were exposed to an average of 365 pages of materi-
als while seventh-grade students in pre-algebra were exposed to an average of 556
pages (see Table 8.2).
The same pattern can be seen among eighth-grade students. Eighth-grade stu-
dents in a remedial mathematics course were exposed to an average of 419 topic
pages compared to 642 topic pages for eighth-grade students enrolled in first-year
algebra (see Table 8.2).
The major problem with this Index is that it makes no differentiation by the
content of the mathematics topic to which a student is exposed. A page of exposure
to whole number addition is treated the same as a page of exposure to an advanced
geometry topic. We sought an index that would provide some information about the
topics covered and the relative difficulty of those topics.
Table 8.2 Mean scores on the Mathematics Topic Exposure Index, by grade and course
Grade 7 Grade 8
Measure 2 uses the same procedures described for Measure 1, but applies the IGP
weight to each topic at the book level. The resulting weighted index was deflated to
the same range as the original index, which means that the highest weighted score
was set equal to 1,013 (the highest score on the original index) and all lower scores
were scaled accordingly.
A comparison of the mean scores on Measure 2 and Measure 1 shows that
the weighting procedure generally decreased the number of topic pages each year
(Table 8.3). The general deflation of Measure 2 indicates that a large proportion of
the topics covered by the students were relatively easy topics, which were given
lower IGP weights and the summation of these weighted scores led to a reduction
in the magnitudes of the index. The decrease in the mean number of topic pages to
which students were exposed in grades 11 and 12 is a reflection of a large number of
students who do not take a mathematics course in those years and thus are exposed
to no mathematics topics.
It is important to recognise that the population of students in the middle- and
high-school years is changing. By the beginning of high school, some students drop
out of formal schooling each year. Other students move to a different school and are
Table 8.3 Mean scores on the different mathematics topic exposure indices
M1 M2 M3 M4
Weighted
Unweighted Weighted Weighted index (IGP Number
Grade index index (IGP) index (PE) and PE) of students
lost to the study despite extensive tracking efforts and some students simply refuse
to continue to participate in the study. A comparison of the mean scores for the
population of students in school each year of the LSAY and the mean scores of a set
of students who remained in the study throughout the six middle- and high-school
years shows minimal differences in pattern or level (see Table 8.3).
Taken together, these results indicate that weighting each mathematics topic by
the IGP provides a more realistic measure of student exposure to mathematics top-
ics, but the decline in the mean scores in the last years of high school illustrates the
problem of examining these indices by looking at the mean score for all students
at each grade level, regardless of whether they are actively taking a mathematics
course or not. We will return to this problem in a later section.
If, as the preceding analysis suggests, performance expectations and the IGP each
measure somewhat different aspects of the mathematics topics to which students
are exposed, an alternative approach is to weight each block by both performance
expectations and the IGP. Measure 4 begins with Measure 3 and also weights it
154 W.H. Schmidt
using the IGP. As with the previous weighted indices, the new jointly weighted
Mathematics Topics Exposure Index was deflated to the original.
Again, the mean scores on Measure 4 are similar in pattern and structure to the
other indices, but substantially lower in numeric value than any of the previous
indices, reflecting the joint weighting process (see Table 8.3). The explanation for
the lower numerical values is the same as for the previous measures, and the effect
of the joint weighting process was to combine the factors that differentiate each item
by content difficulty and performance expectation.
1000
900
Number of Concept Pages
800
700
M1
600 M3
500
M2
400
M4
300
200
100
0
7 8 9 10 11 12
Fig. 8.1 Amount of Grade
mathematics studied: a
M-1 M-2 M-3 M-4
comparison of the measures
8 Measuring Content Through Textbooks 155
This is true for both topic difficulty and level of cognitive demand but more so for
the latter. This implies that the amount of mathematics to which the typical student is
exposed through the textbook that demands reasoning, proof and conjecture is only
a fraction of the total especially for grades seven through 10. Accounting for topic
difficulty as well reduces the total amount even further – almost a 50% reduction
for grades seven through nine. This undoubtedly reflects the remedial and repetitive
nature of the middle-school curriculum (Schmidt, McKnight, Cogan, Jakwerth, &
Houang, 1999).
These patterns may be helpful in understanding one of the reasons that the scores
of U.S. students in grade 12 often appear to decline in TIMSS and other cross-
national tests. Many U.S. high-school students have no exposure to mathematics in
the last 2 years of high school and may be less competent in algebra or geometry
by grade 12 than they were when they completed their required courses in grade 10.
Also, they do not in general have exposure to very demanding mathematics either
from a content or cognitive demand point of view.
All of the indices have been described in terms of year by year exposure. They
are constructed, however, so that we could consider these measures in terms of the
cumulative exposure of each student during the middle- and high-school years. To
understand these cumulative experiences, it is essential to take into account that the
U.S. mathematics curriculum is tracked from middle through high school. One indi-
cator of current tracking patterns is the year in which a student takes his or her first
algebra course.2 The more advanced students take pre-algebra in grade seven and
algebra in grade eight, and these students are usually considered the top track of the
U.S. mathematics curriculum. Most U.S. students take first-year algebra in grade
nine and represent the middle track. Students who take their first algebra course in
grades 10 or 11 are often vocational students or general education students in sys-
tems that require algebra for high-school graduation, and this is the third track in
mathematics. Some students are able to meet the minimum mathematics courses
through various arithmetic and business mathematics courses and never take an
algebra course in high school.
When the amount of cumulative exposure to mathematics is viewed by track,
the impact of the current U.S. policy is apparent (see Fig. 8.2). Using the Index
of Mathematics Exposure weighted by both content difficulty and performance
expectation (Measure 4), it is clear that students in the top mathematics track
2 A very small number of students take pre-algebra in grade six and algebra in grade seven, but in
the early 1990s when the LSAY was in the field, this pattern was found in less than 1% of students.
In this analysis, students who took their first algebra course in either grade seven or eight were
combined into the most advanced track. As the TIMSS results indicate, students in many countries
routinely take algebra in grades six and seven (Schmidt, McKight, & Raizen, 1997a).
156 W.H. Schmidt
3000
2000
M3
1500
M2
M4
1000
500
0
7 8 9 10 11 12
Grade
are exposed to significantly more challenging mathematics earlier than other stu-
dents and that this initial advantage grows during the 6 years of middle and high
schools.
It is important to note that all four of the track groups shown in Fig. 8.2 are
reasonably close to each other in grade seven, but that the students who take algebra
in grade eight are exposed to more challenging mathematics topics than the other
track groups. This initial advantage expands with exposure to geometry in grade
nine and second-year algebra in grade 10. By the end of high school, this top track
group has been exposed to the weighted equivalent of 2,748 pages of challenging
mathematics.
For students who begin algebra in grade nine, there is a steady growth in expo-
sure to more demanding mathematics. In weighted topic page terms, this group of
students is exposed to an average of 2,126 pages by the end of grade 12. This group
is significantly less likely to reach calculus in grade 12, which may account for the
lower rate of growth from grade 11 to 12 for this group than the top track group.
Students who take their first algebra course after grade nine are exposed to an
average of 1,758 pages of mathematics by the end of grade 12. This pattern suggests
that some schools and teachers may not see these students as strong candidates for
college and provide a less rigorous curriculum.
Students in the lowest mathematics track, who take no algebra course in
high school, are exposed to some mathematics topics in arithmetic and business
mathematics courses, but it is less rigorous than the curriculum that includes alge-
bra and often includes only the minimum number of mathematics courses required
by the state. By the end of grade 12, this group was exposed to an average of 1,072
pages of demanding mathematics which is over 1,600 pages less than the advanced
track but, perhaps even more telling, some 700 pages less exposure than those who
8 Measuring Content Through Textbooks 157
were not in the advanced or even “normal” track but those who at least took algebra
sometime after ninth grade. The consequences of these decisions are likely large
(see Fig. 8.2) and related to student achievement.
.08 .43
.07
Gender −.06 Math Tch .11 Math Curr
M Push MS .09 Exp 8−9
Fig. 8.3 A path model to predict student achievement in mathematics at the beginning of 9th
grade
158 W.H. Schmidt
Fig. 8.4 Total effect of independent variables of student achievement in mathematics at the
beginning of 9th grade
each for parent education and parent college push. Nonetheless, it was greater than
the other variables in the model. In other words, after parent and prior scholastic
achievement, middle-school mathematics curriculum exposure accounted for a sig-
nificant amount of variation in student mathematics achievement at the beginning of
ninth grade.
8.10 Summary
References
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Chapter 9
Masters’ Writings and Students’ Writings:
School Material in Mesopotamia
Christine Proust
9.1 Introduction
C. Proust (B)
Laboratoire SPHERE (CNRS & University Paris-Diderot), Paris, France
e-mail: Christine.Proust@orange.fr
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 161
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_9,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
162 C. Proust
1 The historian of education very rarely has the chance to have access to students’ work (drafts,
notebooks, exams), which had no value in the eyes of its authors, and was generally destroyed.
2 Veldhuis (1997). We don’t know how old the students were at the beginning of their scribal
education. They were old enough to be able to manipulate clay and “calame” (the cane the scribes
used to impress signs on wet clay), but still in the charge of their parents. Moreover, the age of the
students could have changed according to the place and the period.
9 School Material in Mesopotamia 163
temples, palaces, or private household. Some of them were probably more specif-
ically prepared to specialized crafts based on written tradition, such as medicine
and law, or to ensure the transmission of knowledge. It is difficult to describe with
more precision both the future professions of the scribes educated in schools and
the scholarly crafts. What is clear is that the schools, particularly those of Nippur
(see below), played a key role in training social elites. It is also probable that the
dynamic extension of scribal schools in the late third millennium (Neo-Sumerian
period) and the early second (Old-Babylonian period) in Mesopotamia and beyond
was accompanied by the development of a scholarly milieu linked to these schools.
It seems that, at least in important schools such as those of Nippur, education was
provided by professional scholars, who were quite specialized (see text ‘Edubba D’
below). These scholars were perhaps at the same time instructors in charge of the
young beginners, professors in charge of the advanced students, and creative scien-
tists. They could occupy at the same time high positions in the temple, the city, or
the palace hierarchy. Since we ignore the exact nature of the scholars’ charge, I pre-
fer to refer to them as ‘masters’ rather than as ‘teachers,’ a term that could implicitly
suggest that teaching at the elementary level was their unique activity.
The conservation of the unskilled writings of students is partially accidental. It is
due primarily to the nature of the writing medium, the clay, a nearly indestructible
material. It also ensues from the reuse of dry and waste tablets as construction mate-
rial. Trapped in walls, floors or foundations of houses, tablets produced by students
and subsequently discarded have escaped other forms of destruction.
The context in which the education of the scribes took place is not always well
known, and it was probably not the same everywhere, or at every time. On the basis
of the sources on which they rely, historians point out that the context of the train-
ing was institutional, domestic, professional, or religious. In Ur, a city of southern
Mesopotamia, the home of a priest seems to have housed important teaching activi-
ties in the Old-Babylonian period (Charpin, 2008). In Sippar, farther north, a school
was integrated into a household, according to Tanret (2002). The Assyrian mer-
chants who developed a business over long distances between Mesopotamia and
Anatolia transmitted the basics of writing and arithmetic to their children by practic-
ing their craft, using methods similar to apprenticeship (Michel, 2008). In Nippur,
the great religious and cultural capital of Mesopotamia, situated a hundred kilo-
meters south of the present-day Baghdad, the school context appears to have been
institutional and secular. Education was especially important because of the pres-
ence of a high court, the development of an important medical tradition, and the
political role of scribes from Nippur in the legitimization of kingship. If we con-
sider the situation a thousand years later in Mesopotamia, the context has changed
completely. The practice of cuneiform has declined in favor of alphabetic writing on
perishable media (parchment and papyrus, nowadays lost), and has become confined
to few families of scholars, related to the clergy.
This brief historical overview stresses the diversity of the teaching contexts and
of the sources used by historians. Each of these contexts deserves particular analysis,
which is not possible in the limited space of this chapter. Concerning elementary
education (Sections 9.4 and 9.5), I shall limit myself to the Old-Babylonian sources
164 C. Proust
from Nippur, on the one hand because of the abundance of tablets, on the other hand
because the education in Nippur was a model throughout the vast area in which
cuneiform writing was used.3 The section on masters’ writing (Section 9.6) will
rely on sources from various known or unknown provenances.
3 Old Babylonian tablets from Nippur and now kept in Istanbul and Jena are published in Proust
(2007, 2008a). Photos and informations are available on line at http://cdli.ucla.edu/ (Cuneiform
Digital Library Initiative website), by entering Museum number or CDLI number (both information
are provided here). Parts of the Philadelphia tablets are published in Robson (2001). Veldhuis’
Ph.D. thesis contains a study of lexical tablets from Nippur, and a detailed reconstruction of Nippur
curriculum (Veldhuis, 1997).
4 We know six Edubba texts. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (ETCSL, http://
etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/) provides the following list: Edubba A or “Schooldays” (Kramer, 1949);
Edubba B or “A scribe and his perverse son” (Sjöberg, 1973); Edubba C or “The advice of
9 School Material in Mesopotamia 165
composition ‘Edubba A’ or ‘School days’ (Kramer, 1947, p. 205), gives the impres-
sion that the school was an institution where the discipline was harsh, and the staff
very numerous and specialized.
Who was in charge of [. . .] (said) ‘Why when I was not here did you talk?’ caned me.
Who was in charge of the [. . .] (said) ‘Why when I was not here did you not keep your head
high?’ caned me.
Who was in charge of drawing (said) ‘Why when I was not here did you stand up?’
caned me.
Who was in charge of the gate (said) ‘Why when I was not here did you go out?’ caned me.
Who was in charge of the [. . .] (said) ‘Why when I was not here did you take the [. . .]?’
caned me.
Who was in charge of the Sumerian (said) ‘You spoke [. . .]’ caned me.
My teacher (said) ‘Your hand is not good,’ caned me.
Another Edubba composition provides more details on the curriculum. The text
‘Eduba D’ (Civil, 1985) contains a dialogue between two students who are training
to speak Sumerian. In turn, they praise their own skills and insult their partner. The
text begins as follows (translation Vanstiphout, 1997, p. 592)5 :
(Examiner and Student)
1. ‘Young man, [are you a student?’ – ‘Yes, I am a student.’]
(Examiner)
2. ‘If you are a student,
3. do you know Sumerian?’
(Student)
4. ‘Yes, I can speak Sumerian.’
(Examiner)
5. ‘You are so young; how is it you can speak so well?’
This extract shows that the Sumerian was not the mother tongue of the young
scribes, who had to learn to speak fluently this dead language. The following extracts
refer to the curriculum (ibid).
11. ‘The [texts] in Sumerian and Akkadian, from A-A ME-ME
12. [To. . .] I can read and write.
13. All lines from d INANA-TEŠ2
14. Till the ‘beings of the plain’ at the end of LU2 -šu I wrote.
15. I can show you my signs,
16. Their writing and their interpretation; and this is how I pronounce them.’
[. . .]
19. ‘Even if I am assigned LU2 -šu on an exercise tablet
20. I can give the 600 LU2 entries in their correct sequence.
[. . .]
26. In a single day, the teacher would give me the same pensum four times.
27. In the final reckoning, what I know of the scribal art will not be taken away!
28. So now I am master of the meaning of tablets, of mathematics, of budgeting,
29. Of the whole scribal art, of the disposition of lines, of evading omissions, of . . .
30. My teacher approved (my) beautiful speech.
31. The companionship (in the school) was a joyful thing.
32. I know my scribal art perfectly;
33. Nothing flusters me.
34. My teacher had to show me a sign only once,
35. And I could add several from memory.’
The text shows the relationship between writing, speaking (lines 12 and 30) and
memorization (line 35). The list of school tasks enumerated in lines 11, 13, 14, 19,
20, and 28 reproduces the elementary curriculum that was reconstructed from other
sources, mainly school exercises (Veldhuis, 1997). Note the details concerning some
technical skills (lines 19 and 29): shaping the ‘exercise tablet,’ drawing the lines
between rows and columns, arrange correctly the cuneiform signs, and introducing
hyphenation in the right places.
As indicated above, it must be kept in mind that these texts were composed and
used for educational purposes, and they deliver an idealized picture of the schools.
Several historians have insisted that this kind of literature tells us more about the
ideology of the scribes than about the realities of teaching (George, 2005). Some
details described in ‘Edubba texts’ are nonetheless corroborated by other sources.
These compositions are thus sources of information of great value to the historian.
To sum up, the literary texts show that the documentary material used for teach-
ing Sumerian was composite. Much of this material escapes us forever, namely, the
whole oral tradition. The written material includes compositions specifically cre-
ated for teaching, pieces of ancient literary heritage elaborated in earlier periods
and recomposed. Once fixed in a curriculum and gradually standardized, this set of
texts gained some stability, and passed without much change from one generation to
another during the Old-Babylonian period and partly beyond. The corpus of literary
texts used in education was formed after a complex process mixing original cre-
ation, selective reuse of earlier knowledge, and standardization. I will focus further
on these processes in the case of mathematics.
see Proust, 2007; Robson, 2001; Veldhuis, 1997), and stress the information that
these sources provide us concerning the resources of the masters, when possible.
From the first glance at the school tablets, one is struck by their material aspect.
The school tablets can be classified in four clearly recognizable types. It is inter-
esting to note that certain types of tablets have Sumerian names, which means that
this classification is not only a convenience of the modern historian, but reproduces
the one that the scribes themselves had established. This typology is not quite the
same everywhere, which shows that, beyond the uniformity of the content, teaching
methods might vary from one school to another. The types of school tablets from
Nippur are the following:
– Type I tablets are large tablets containing a long text, continuously and densely
inscribed on the obverse and on the reverse (see tablet Ist Ni 2733 on the CDLI
website, no. P254643).
– Type II tablets contain different texts on the obverse and on the reverse. On the
obverse, a model was noted in an archaic style by a master, and copied once or
twice by a student; the copies were sometimes traced and erased repeatedly.6 On
the reverse, a dense text was written by heart by a student. Perhaps the Sumerian
term ‘tablet to throw’ (saršuba) is associated with this type of tablet (see tablet
HS 1703, CDLI no. P229902, containing a lexical list on the obverse and a
metrological7 list on the reverse – Fig. 9.1 below). I shall return later to this
type of tablet, particularly important in Nippur.
– Type III tablets are small rectangular tablets containing a short extract, often a
multiplication table, called ‘long tablets’ (imgidda) in Sumerian (see tablet HS
201a, CDLI no. P254581, containing a multiplication table).
– Type IV tablets are small square or round tablets, containing a short exercise,
called ‘hand tablet’ (imšu) in Sumerian (see tablet Ist Ni 18, CDLI no. P368708,
containing an area calculation – Figs. 9.2 and 9.3 below).
Type I, II, and III tablets were used in the elementary level of education, and type
IV tablet in a second stage. The vast majority of Nippur tablets is of type II, and was
used as a sort of diary notebook.
Type II tablets very often contain Sumerian texts on one side and mathematical
texts on the other side. It has been shown that the text noted on the reverse had
been studied and memorized before the one noted on the obverse (Veldhuis, 1997).
A statistical study of correlations between the texts of the obverse and reverse of
type II tablets allows a reconstruction of the order in which the various texts were
studied, and therefore of the curriculum. These texts are very standardized lists (of
signs, Sumerian words, phrases, measurements) and tables (metrological, numer-
ical), which appear on many duplicates. The mathematical curriculum in Nippur,
6 In order to erase signs impressed in wet clay, scribes simply rub them lightly with their finger.
Tablets bear often fingerprints and erased signs covered by others.
7 The term “metrological” refers to the measure systems (see the following page).
168 C. Proust
Ist Ni 3913, CDLI n°P229593. School type II tablet from Nippur, Istanbul Archaeological Museum (Proust 2007, copy pl. XXI).
The obverse contains a Sumerian lexical list, including mathematical terms regarding volume calculations. The reverse contains
a list of measures of capacity. The right side of the tablet, which contained student copies, is lost. Note the characteristic
appearance of the fracture, which results from the fact that the right columns have been written and erased several times,
Ist Ni 18: type IV school tablet from Nippur de type IV. Archaeological
Obverse
4.26.[40]
Reverse
4.26.40 9
40! 1.30
13.30
that is, the chronological sequence of different lists and tables that was to be learnt
by students, may be summarily described by Table 9.1 below. The main function
of theses texts was learning the metrological systems and sexagasimal place value
notation (SPVN).8
8 Metrological systems (systems used for noting measures of capacity, weight, volume, surface,
and length), were described in “metrological lists”. Metrological tables provided a correspondence
between measures and abstract numbers, that is, numbers written in sexagesimals place value nota-
tion. SPVN was used in mathematical texts. This notation used 59 digits (1–59), made of two kinds
of signs: ones (vertical wedges ) and tens (oblique wedges ), repeated as many times as nec-
essary. For example, 12 is noted . The numbers are made of sequences of digits following a
positional principle in base 60: each sign noted in a given place represents 60 times the same sign
noted in the previous place (on its right). SVPN does not specify the magnitude of the numbers.
For example, the numbers 1, or 60, or 1/60 are noted in the same way (a vertical wedge ). Initial
and final zeros are unnecessary, and indeed, they are not attested in any known cuneiform text.
However, the absence of notation for median zero was a weakness of the system, which was cor-
rected in later periods: in the mathematical and astronomical texts from the last centuries before
our era, scribes used signs indicating the absence of a power of 60 in the positional numbers. In
the transcriptions, digits are noted in the modern decimal system, and separated by dots. For exam-
ple the numbers 44.26.40 which appears in Table 9.1 is a transcription of the cuneiform number
9 Current digital databases permit a simultaneous representation of both composite text and real
texts written in available sources. The advantages of digital media over paper to represent the
lexical lists in all their dimensions have been noted by Veldhuis in his study of school texts of
9 School Material in Mesopotamia 171
Indeed, several piece of evidence show that these lists were memorized, at least
partially, by the students. First, mathematical lists and tables are attested almost
only on school tablets. Very few ‘reference texts,’ that is tables used by trained
scribes for their professional activities, including teaching, are known.10 The mas-
ters knew the tables by heart. Second, some characteristics of lexical lists, especially
the logic that guides the sequential order of the items, clearly reflect the constraints
of memorization. Many digressions in the lexical lists, where items attract others
in a seemingly unexpected way, by association of ideas or homophony, could be
explained by memorization processes (Cavigneaux, 1989; Veldhuis, 1997).
The numerical tables are also written in a quite unexpected order, since they fol-
low an order different from which we feel natural from an educational point of view.
First comes the reciprocal table, then the different multiplication tables in descend-
ing order: table of 50, 45, 44.26.40, etc. (see Table 9.1 above). The first tables seem
to be the more difficult. The explanation could be the following: analysis of school
tablets shows that the first sections of the lists were copied with a frequency much
larger than the last, because the copy always starts with the beginning of the list, but
continues only rarely until the last item. We can assume that, by placing the ‘diffi-
cult’ tables in first position, the masters made sure that they were more frequently
copied and recited than the simplest, placed at the end of the series of multiplication
tables.11
What exactly did it mean, for a student to learn a list or a table? The typology of
tablets helps us to answer this question. In a first step, the students learnt to write
short excerpts, reproducing a model on the obverse of type II tablets, then they
memorized the pronunciation, they recited the excerpt, and, in the last step, they
reproduced by heart a large part of the list by writing it on the reverse of type II
tablet. Learning therefore inextricably combined writing and memorization.
The lists and tables memorized in elementary education were a set of linguis-
tic and mathematics tools that were subsequently used by the scribes throughout
their entire administrative or scholarly careers; these tools include repertoires of
signs, dictionaries, grammatical paradigms, systems of measurement, and numeri-
cal tables. As noted above, these tools are attested mostly in school tablets and rarely
among scholarly writings.
Students’ drafts provide evidence that the knowledge of masters included a vast
repertoire of numerical results, generally memorized and ready to be mobilized in
professional practice or teaching. Thus, school texts are not childish texts, but rather
Veldhuis (1997, Ch. 5). He exploited these advantages in the development of his online database
(DCCLT, http://cdl.museum.upenn.edu/dcclt/).
10 One of the rare exceptions is a mathematical prism now kept in the Louvre (AO 8865, CDLI
No P254391), of unknown provenance. It is a large prism carefully written and crossed by an axial
hole, probably to be easily usable. This prism is a precious object which looks very different from
the drafts of students. This prism could indicate that the “composite text” was not always entirely
memorized by professional scribes, who needed to consult a reference text.
11 This conclusion is largely based on discussions with Anne-Marie Chartier, at a workshop on
education in Mesopotamia (Paris, 15/03/2006).
172 C. Proust
reflect the knowledge shared by a community of youth and adults passed through
the mold of scribal schools. These texts are ‘elementary’ in the sense that they con-
stitute the basic knowledge needed to take on future scribal charges. Resources for
elementary education were largely immaterial since they were mainly memorized
by the masters.
This knowledge was not limited to the city of Nippur, but widely spread in
Mesopotamia and neighboring regions. The same measure systems, the same calcu-
lation techniques, and almost the same lexical lists were taught not only in southern
Mesopotamia, the cradle of the Sumero-Akkadian culture, but also to the east in
Susa (west of Iran), to the north in Mari (middle valley of the Euphrates, the border
between Syria and Iraq), and later to the west in Ugarit (Syrian coast). The milieu
that disseminated this common knowledge was probably linked to professional
scribes involved in education, who possibly circulated from one city to another.
This ‘academic’ knowledge that transcends regional boundaries could have been
relatively autonomous in relation to local practices. For example, the metrology
(i.e., the measure system) taught in the schools of Mari and Ugarit was not the
one practiced in the everyday administrative activities of these cities. Thus, we see
taking shape a common culture belonging to a specific segment of the population
whose members, though few, were mobile and influential over a wide geographical
area.
Mathematical lists and tables used in the elementary level of education form
a highly structured and coherent system, whose function appears when analyzing
the exercises used in a more advanced level of education. These exercises, often
written on type IV tablets (see Fig. 9.2 below), relate to multiplication, reciprocal,
and calculation of area and volume. This enumeration already provides interesting
information: the operations that are the subject of school training are limited to
the field of multiplication. Addition and subtraction are absent. If we look more
carefully at how the numbers and measures are noted in the elementary lists and
tables on the one hand, and the calculation exercises on the other hand, we see that
some basic principles are consistently applied. The measurements are recorded
using numerical signs following an additive principle. Metrological tables provide
a correspondence between, on the one hand, these measures, and on the other
hand, positional numbers, noted in base 60. The exercises where multiplication and
reciprocal are performed use positional numbers, with no mention of measuring
units or objects counted. The multiplication and reciprocal operate only on
positional number, or ‘abstract numbers’ according to Thureau-Dangin
(1930).
The exercises on area calculation are particularly interesting because they show
how the two types of numbers act at specific and distinct stages in the calculation
process. The layout of the area calculation in Ist Ni 18 (see below) shows clearly
these two stages of calculation since they are written in two distinct areas of the
tablet.
School tablets reveal an original conception of numbers, where quantification
and calculation fill two dissociated functions, undertaken by two different numerical
systems: quantification is made by additive numerical systems (in the lower right
9 School Material in Mesopotamia 173
area of the tablet Ist Ni 18), and calculation is made by a positional system (in the
upper left area of the tablet Ist Ni 18). The whole set of school tablets from Nippur,
including ‘advanced’ exercises, shows the dynamic use of these tables in the practice
of calculation.
Through the school tablets, the historians have access to concrete aspects of
school training. The layout of the text on the clay tablet, the notation of numbers,
and the errors provide particularly valuable clues for the reconstruction of calcu-
lation practices. More interestingly, they show us how the masters and the erudite
themselves had been trained. Our reading of advanced mathematical texts is thus
transformed, since they can be tackled using mathematical tools that were inculcated
into young scribes, not using our modern arithmetic and algebraic tools.
This sample shows how the layout of a text reflects the concepts taught, and help
the nowadays historian to capture these ancient concepts. By noting that the look of
a textbook is influenced by the structure of a program, Remillard stresses the same
phenomenon in her chapter (Section 6.3.3).
The scribal schools in Mesopotamia produced a highly standardized body of
texts, shaped by teaching practices. This normative effect of teaching practices is
not unique. But the particular context of Mesopotamia, with social demand for uni-
fication of metrology (see below) and specific practices of teaching (memorization)
produced an original curriculum. This coherent and robust curriculum was enjoying
a great success though the Ancient Near East.
From this description of the school tablets from Nippur, a picture of a highly
stereotyped education, leaving little room for pedagogical creativity, might emerge.
But such an image would be the result of extrapolating too readily from informa-
tion provided by extremely fragmented sources. As mentioned above, to reconstruct
everyday life in the Old-Babylonian schools, we have only the written production
of beginners, as well as some literary texts. Little information has reached us con-
cerning the parts of education that do not use writing, such as music, theater, or
oral literary tradition. Regarding mathematics, consistent evidence indicates that
written artifacts represent only a part of the ancient calculation practices since men-
tal arithmetic and concrete calculation tool played an important role (Proust, 2000).
Indeed, the resources of the masters, as defined by Gueudet and Trouche (Chapter 2),
might have included a complex system of written texts, memorized texts, calcula-
tion devices and various communicational processes, but only the written artifacts
reached us. We have then to reconstruct a rich environment from truncated evidence.
Furthermore, only the first stages of education are well known. As mentioned, we
owe our sources to the recycling practices of the scribes. School tablets have been
selectively preserved precisely because they had been thrown out. But what do we
know about education at the more advanced levels? The available sources are less
numerous and more difficult to interpret. For example, excavations of Nippur have
174 C. Proust
yielded hundreds of mathematical school tablets, but only three advanced mathe-
matical texts reached us. Even so, it is quite likely that advanced mathematics were
produced at Nippur. In addition to the hazards of excavations, several different rea-
sons may explain this paradox. First, the scholarly tablets were circulating. It is
possible that the excavators have unearthed tablets written in Nippur but kept in
other cities, without being able to identify their origin. Indeed, the Old-Babylonian
mathematical tablets bear no indication of place, date or author name. Another
explanation is unfortunately plausible. The mathematical tablets are most of the
time of unknown origin because they were bought from dealers by European and
American museums as well as by private collectors. It may be that such tablets have
been found at Nippur and disappeared into the opaque net of the antiquities trade.
What is an ‘advanced mathematical text’? In the foregoing discussion, I used the
term ‘advanced’ in a vague sense to designate texts other than elementary school
texts. But one could make more subtle distinctions and identify various types of
writings, such as the production of advanced students, texts written by masters for
teaching purposes, and purely erudite texts. The boundary between these types is
difficult to trace, and reliable criteria are often lacking. Identifying the function of
a text in relation to teaching practices is possible only on a case by case basis.
Since the archaeological context is usually unknown, this analysis is usually based
primarily on internal evidence. In the following, I shall provide two samples of such
analysis, both related to the algorithm of reciprocal calculation. The first sample
is diachronic and aims to highlight that the function of a text, including its use in
education, can change over time. The second is synchronic and aims to show how
the link between teaching and scholarship is a two-way relationship.12
Reciprocal tables provide a sample of text that was a school text in certain peri-
ods, and was not in other periods. The earliest known reciprocal tables are dated
from the so called Neo-Sumerian period, that is, the late third millennium B.C. The
context is the emergence and consolidation of the first centralized states, which have
dominated much of Mesopotamia and neighboring regions.13 The policies of these
states were characterized by centralized control on the basis of social and economic
standardization of writing, metrology, accounting, etc., accomplished through a
series of ‘reforms.’ These reforms are known mainly due to references found in
some royal hymns that were used thereafter in education. For example, in the text
‘Shulgi B,’ widely used in Old-Babylonian scribal schools, the Neo-Sumerian king
Shulgi is supposed to have standardized metrology and to have developed the scribal
schools. The interesting aspect of this story is the link established between stan-
dardization and development of schools. Indeed, schools played a major role in the
creation of new standards, as well as in their wide dissemination. The reform of
weights and measures, with the creation of a single and coherent system for all
12 The first sample is more detailed in Bernard and Proust (2008), and the second in Proust (2011).
13 These states were ruled by two king dynasties in two periods separated by one century:
the Akkad dynasty, 2300–2200 (Sargon and successors), and the Ur III dynasty, 2100–2000
(Ur-Nammu, Shulgi and successors).
9 School Material in Mesopotamia 175
units of measure, results from this context. It is possible that the place value nota-
tion was invented in connection with this standardization process. Anyway, the few
Neo-Sumerian reciprocal tables provide the earliest known evidence of place value
notation. Furthermore, the clay tablets on which the earliest numerical tables are
written are fine objects, showing a mastery of the cuneiform writing that is not
that of a young beginner.14 The Neo-Sumerian reciprocal tables reflect the activity
of the scholars who developed and implemented royal policies of standardization.
These tables, as well as the multiplication tables that seem to have appeared later,
subsequently were used for elementary education and integrated into the curriculum.
Now let us travel in time by crossing over a millennium and a half. We find
again the same reciprocal tables, but in a radically different context. Mathematical
tablets dated from the Hellenistic period (ca. 3rd century B.C.) were found among
the remains of the great libraries of Uruk and Babylon, belonging to priests. These
tables were used in teaching, but no longer in the elementary education of children
learning the basics of writing and arithmetic. In this late period when cuneiform
writing was disappearing, this kind of table belonged to the specialized training of
young scientists already literate in Greek and Aramaic. The reciprocal tables were
still school texts, but not in the same way as in the Old-Babylonian context. This
example shows how the function of a text may change in history, and thus how it
may be used as a resource by masters in different ways. The presence of reciprocal
tables in Hellenistic libraries shows the importance that the later scholars who knew
cuneiform attached to the preservation of ancient intellectual heritage.
To sum up, the tables created at the end of the third millennium in a scholarly
environment linked to political power, were not necessarily primarily school texts.
Subsequently, their content was widely disseminated through communities linked
to scribal schools, and used in elementary education in the Old-Babylonian period.
Finally, reciprocal tables were incorporated into a frozen body of writing belonging
to a ‘canonical’ scholarly heritage, probably compiled in the early first millennium,
and, in the Hellenistic period, these tables were transmitted in quite closed religious
circles. The function of the same table was by turn linked to engineering, elementary
education, and antiquarism. These changes illustrate that, as noted by Remillard
(Section 6.3.6), ‘the reader’s relationship is with the text and not the author.’ Indeed,
the relationship between text and reader changes over time.
The second sample allows us to grasp another aspect of the relationship between
erudite texts and school texts. This sample concerns an algorithm used in the
Old-Babylonian period to calculate reciprocals of regular numbers15 that do not
belong to standard tables. This algorithm is found in numerous school tablets, such
as the following example (Fig. 9.3).16
The algorithm is based on decomposition into regular factors. The regular num-
ber for which the reciprocal is sought, here 4.26.40 (in the Mesopotamian base 60
system), is decomposed into factors belonging to known standard tables, here 6.40
and 40, and then the reciprocal of these factors, here 9 and 1.30, are multiplied the
one with the other. The result is the sought reciprocal, here 13.30. Note that the
factors appear in the trailing part of the number to be factorized. For example, the
number 4.26.40 ends with 6.40, thus 4.26.40 is divisible by 6.40.17
The calculation could be summarized as follows:
thus,
4.26.40 9
40 1.30
13.30 2
27 2.13.20
4.26.40
Note that the beginning of the calculation is identical to that of the school tablet
Ist Ni 10241 described above. However, after finding 13.30, the inverse of 4.26.40,
the scribe continues the computation by seeking the reciprocal of 13.30, which pro-
vides of course the original number 4.26.40. Each section of the large tablet CBS
1215 contains the calculation of the reciprocal of the entry (direct sequence), fol-
lowed immediately by the calculation of the reciprocal of the reciprocal (inverse
sequence). Almost all the known school exercises of reciprocal calculation, what-
ever their provenance, legally or illegally excavated, contain one of the calculations
contained in the large tablet CBS 1215. So one might think that tablet CBS
16 In translation, the exclamation point after 40 means that indeed the scribe should have written
40 on his tablet, but in fact wrote something else (in this case, he wrote 41 instead of 40).
17 For this reason, Friberg gave the name “trailing part algorithm” to this method (Friberg, 2000,
pp. 103–105).
9 School Material in Mesopotamia 177
1215 was a kind of textbook, and was used by masters to prepare exercises for
students.
However, a closer observation of the text leads to doubt about this too simple
explanation. First, the samples found in the school exercises are extracted only from
the direct sequences of the large tablet CBS 1215. Second, the choice of regular fac-
tors in the decompositions follows fixed rules in direct sequences, but is much freer
in reciprocal sequences. These observations suggest that the relationship between
the large tablet CBS 1215 and the small exercises is the reverse of that which is
generally supposed. In the large tablet, it would appear that the existing school
material was compiled, systematized, developed, and reorganized to produce a text
whose objectives are not only teaching, but also searching for generalization and
justification of the algorithm. These operations on texts (collecting, re-arranging,
systematizing, and developing) are analogous to the one implemented by teachers
working on resources (Section 2.1.2), but with other purpose than teaching. The
result of these operations is a new production, which differs in nature from the orig-
inal school exercises. The goal, the audience and the expected use is not the same
as the pedagogic material it comes from. Such a text would be intended to commu-
nicate certain mathematical results to peers rather than to convert knowledge into
teaching materials. In fact, it is likely that the two processes, transmission and inno-
vation, were not exclusive and that they interacted with each other in ways to which
we do not clearly grasp. This erudite text seems to be the result of teaching practices,
where interaction between students and masters played an important role. Rezat, in
his chapter (Chapter 12), show how, in a comparable way, a textbook may be the
result of interactions between teachers and students.
The two cases briefly mentioned above show the difficulty of describing pre-
cisely what resources were available to masters (or built by them). The principal
reason lies in the nature of our sources, which are fragmentary and do not always
permit us to capture the complexity of the relationship between education and
scholarship.
9.7 Conclusion
What can one say, finally, on the process of making resources for teaching in the
Mesopotamian context? Various pieces of evidence show that the knowledge taught
at an elementary level constituted a large body that was completely memorized by
the experienced scribes, including masters. The knowledge of the master is thus
largely embedded in their memory. But a school tablet does not necessarily contain
a school text in the sense that this text has not always been specifically elaborated
for the purpose of education. A text inscribed on a school tablet may belong to the
cultural background of the scribes, and may have been transmitted unchanged, as
is the case with dictionaries, multiplication tables, or trigonometric tables today.
Sometimes, there is little difference between a text written by a young student and
a text in some way belonging to the resources of the master. At a more advanced
178 C. Proust
level, we deal with mixed processes of creating and transforming knowledge. The
development of exercises is connected with the invention and explanation of new
mathematical concepts. These innovations could have emerged from the school
activity itself, in the context of a network between scholars. The resources of mas-
ters result therefore from a complex and two-way process between learning and
scholarship, involving memory, oral communication, writing, and probably material
artifacts.
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J.-R. Kupper (Eds.), Miscellanea Babylonica, Mélanges offerts à M. Birot (pp. 67–78).
Paris: ERC.
Friberg, J. (2000), Mathematics at Ur in the Old Babylonian period. Revue d’Assyriologie, 94,
98–188.
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and reality. In Y. Sefati, P. Artzi, C. Cohen, B. L. Eichler, & V. A. Hurowitz (Eds.), An expe-
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of bureaucracy in the Near East (Vol. 46). Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of
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Michel, C. (2008). Ecrire et compter chez les marchands assyriens du début du IIe millénaire av.
J.-C. In T. Tarhan, A. Tibet, & E. Konyar (Eds.), Mélanges en l’honneur du professeur Muhibbe
Darga (pp. 345–364). Istanbul, Turkey: Sadberk Hanim Museum Publications.
Proust, C. (2000). La multiplication babylonienne: la part non écrite du calcul. Revue d’histoire
des mathematiques, 6, 1001–1011.
Proust, C. (2007). Tablettes mathématiques de Nippur. Varia Anatolica (vol. XVIII). Istanbul,
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Proust, C. (2008b). Quantifier et calculer: usages des nombres à Nippur. Revue d’Histoire des
Mathématiques, 14, 143–209.
Proust, C. (2011). Interpretation of reverse algorithms in several Mesopotamian texts. In K. Chemla
(Ed.), History of mathematical proof in ancient traditions: The other evidence. Cambridge:
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d’assyriologie, 95, 39–66.
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105–169.
9 School Material in Mesopotamia 179
Malcolm Swan
M. Swan (B)
Centre for Research in Mathematics Education, School of Education, University
of Nottingham, Nottingham NG8 1BB, UK
e-mail: malcolm.swan@nottingham.ac.uk
181
182 M. Swan
The U.S. educational system is perhaps more textbook dependent than most
other cultures. Textbook production is a huge commercial business and its prod-
ucts are weighty tomes (Schmidt notes that the eighth-grade textbooks average 700
pages) that attempt to contain the union of content required by different state and
school district adoption systems. Schmidt takes as his starting point the assumption
that “textbooks are a particularly accurate reflection of the implemented curricu-
lum in the US” and that they provide a measure of “the curricular experience of
individual students”. He then uses weighted page counts to analyze the mathe-
matical content to which students at different grade levels are “exposed”, where
these weightings are based on content difficulty. He finds that the number of pages
increases to a peak in Grade 10 and declines thereafter; that the content is unde-
manding and repetitive: “a mile wide and an inch deep”; and that the long-term
cumulative effect of tracking widens inequities in terms of “exposure to more
challenging mathematics”. Unlike other authors in this section, Schmidt makes no
allowance for the qualitatively different ways in which the same textbooks may be
interrogated and used. His assumptions, whatever their validity in the United States,
would not apply to other cultural situations, such as England, where there is no
textbook adoption process and where experienced teachers use them only selec-
tively. In England, schools’ inspectors criticize textbooks for focusing too much on
providing practice for examination questions and for failing to promote understand-
ing, connections, and enquiry. They note how effective teachers compensate for this
(like Ms. Jordan in Remillard’s chapter) but “in less confident hands” the subject
is reduced to “techniques for passing examinations” (Ofsted, 2006). Exposure to
textbooks does not correlate with “experiencing mathematics” in my view.
In contrast, Proust takes us back 4000 years to school materials in ancient
Mesopotamia. The artifacts she considers are clay tablets used in scribal schools –
institutions where discipline was harsh. She shows how the tablets produced by
students enable her to reconstruct a “fairly accurate picture” of the curriculum,
pedagogy, and concepts taught. The activities involved reproducing, memorizing,
and practicing measure systems, calculations, and lexical lists. One design fea-
ture that I found interesting was the organization of the memorization exercises.
Counter-intuitively, the difficult exercises came earlier, presumably so that they were
practiced more frequently and students would not miss them.
Mathematics curricula have always valued the memorization of facts and flu-
ency in calculation. Internationally, there is a widespread view among educationists
that such aspects are over-valued at the expense of understanding concepts and
representations, developing strategies for investigation and problem solving, and
appreciating the power of mathematics in society (Swan & Lacey, 2008). In the
United States, for example, the widely adopted Common Core State Standards for
Mathematics (NGA & CCSSO, 2010) include specific references to the importance
of developing “Mathematical practices”; in the UK the most recent national cur-
riculum documents emphasize the importance of “Key” mathematical processes
(QCA, 2007); across the EU there are calls to include an increased emphasis
on “inquiry based learning” (Rocard, 2007). Such aspects, however, remain sepa-
rated and marginalized in teachers’ practices and textbooks continue to assume a
Reaction to Part II 183
learned from trials that teachers were much less likely to use discussion in learning
if we restricted the resources to textbooks.
Ruthven’s chapter similarly draws attention to often neglected aspects of the
context that influence the ways in which teachers use digital resources, in partic-
ular dynamic geometry software. Although this software was designed without an
explicit pedagogical model in mind, it quickly became valued as a tool for pro-
moting collaborative, “discovery” learning in geometry. When digital resources are
observed in use, however, it quickly becomes apparent that well-designed software
in the hands of experienced teachers does not necessarily result in mathematical
activity. Computer feedback, for example, often encourages trial and improve-
ment rather than the formulation, testing and validation of hypotheses (Joubert
Gibbs, 2007). Ruthven examines the appropriation of dynamic geometry software
by one teacher using a broad analytical framework that outlines some of the tensions
and difficulties that arise. This includes: the working environment (e.g., changing
rooms), the resources available (e.g., making links between manual geometrical
constructions and computer-based ones), teachers’ patterns of classroom behavior
(the tension between individual exploration and productive discussion), the “cur-
riculum script” (the potential actions within the teachers’ repertoire, particularly
when surprises occur) and the pressures of time (the tension between covering the
curriculum and securing student learning). This framework is very helpful to the
design-researcher. It is sobering to realize that dynamic geometry software is now
used only rarely in England, and then often as only a demonstration device. This
again underlines the importance of designing experiences rather than products. By
this, I mean that the typical end-user should be observed using prototypes in realis-
tic circumstances throughout the design process.1 Far from ignoring or abdicating
the responsibility for the way our materials are used, we should begin to analyze
and describe how they have been used effectively and incorporate these descriptions
into the materials themselves.
This brings us to the issue of professional development. Pepin notes how new
mathematical materials are beginning to recognize the importance of building
opportunities for teacher learning into their design (DfES, 2005). Pepin describes
her own work with teachers and reflects on the nature of the conceptual tools that
teachers need in order to make sense of classroom tasks. The specific tools she
describes – her “task analysis tools” – are similar to tools I have also used with
teachers (see for example MARS (1999, 2000) and Swan & Crust (1992)). These
are powerful in focusing attention on the purpose of classroom tasks and the poten-
tial for learning that a task provides. As Pepin notes, they can also serve to enable
teachers to audit their curriculum and assessment provision and create tasks for
themselves. The context in which Pepin uses these tools is that of a collaborative,
mediated, professional development “course”. In my own work we are currently
seeking to develop professional development tools for other contexts – the lone
1 As Steve Jobs told his staff at Apple, back in 1997: ‘You’ve got to start with the customer
experience and work back to the technology – not the other way around’ (Arthur, 2010, p. 27).
Reaction to Part II 185
teacher and the teacher working in school-based groups with no external mediation.
The design considerations here are similar to those confronting the designer of class-
room materials, but this context is clearly more difficult to observe and is currently
under-researched. Such materials equip teachers with a framework and language to
critique classroom materials and reflect on their own values for education. This is
particularly true if they are presented in a way which they can modify and make
their own, as Pepin does.
One reason why educational research is generally regarded as neither influential
nor useful is that the importance of systematic research-based design is undervalued
and its difficulty underestimated (Burkhardt, 2006; Burkhardt & Schoenfeld, 2003).
All too often, designers marginalize teachers in the creation of materials and
researchers regard classroom contexts and teachers’ practices as so intractable and
individual that materials appear almost irrelevant. Educational interventions are (of
course) context sensitive and we need more research to understand which contex-
tual factors are critical and which are not and more observational data of materials in
action so that we can improve them by building in the productive adaptations made
by teachers (Burkhardt & Schoenfeld, 2003). This is labour intensive and requires
a collection of well-engineered tools for analysis. I am grateful to these authors, for
providing suggestions for tools that will help me to analyze the impact of my own
educational designs in a more systematic manner.
References
Arthur, C. (2010, October 18). The geeks are about to inherit the earth. The Guardian. London and
Manchester, p. 27.
Burkhardt, H. (2006). From design research to large scale impact. In J. van den Akker, K.
Gravemeijer, S. McKenney, & N. Nieveen (Eds.), Educational design research (pp. 121–150).
Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
Burkhardt, H., & Schoenfeld, A. (2003). Improving educational research: Toward a more useful,
more influential and better-funded enterprise. Educational Researcher, 32(9), 3–14.
DfES. (2005). Improving learning in mathematics. London: Standards Unit, Teaching and Learning
Division.
Gravemeijer, K. (1998). Developmental Research as a Research Method. In A. Sierpinska &
J. E. Kilpatrick (Eds.), Mathematics Education as a Research Domain: A search for Identity
(pp. 277–295). Kluwer.
Joubert Gibbs, M. (2007). Classroom mathematical learning with computers: The mediational
effects of the computer, the teacher and the task. Unpublished PhD, University of Bristol,
Bristol.
MARS. (1999). High school assessment, package 1. White Plains, NY: Dale Seymour.
MARS. (2000). High school assessment, package 2. White Plains, NY: Dale Seymour.
NCTM. (2001). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics.
NGA (National Governers Association) and CCSSO (Council for Chief State School Officers).
(2010). Common core state standards for mathematics. Retrieved October 10, 2010, from
http://www.corestandards.org/
Ofsted. (2006). Evaluating mathematics provision for 14-19-year-olds. London: HMSO.
QCA (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority). (2007), The national curriculum. Retrieved
October 10, 2010, from http://curriculum.qcda.gov.uk/
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Rocard, M. (2007). EUR22845 – Science education now: A renewed pedagogy for the future of
Europe. Retrieved July 18, 2011, from: http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/document_
library/pdf_06/report-rocard-on-science-education_en.pdf
Schoenfeld, A. (2004). Design experiments. In P. B. Elmore, G. Camilli, & J. Green (Eds.),
Handbook of complementary methods in education research (pp. 193–206). Washington, DC:
American Educational Research Association.
Swan, M. (2006). Collaborative learning in mathematics: A challenge to our beliefs and practices.
London: National Institute for Advanced and Continuing Education (NIACE) for the National
Research and Development Centre for Adult Literacy and Numeracy (NRDC).
Swan, M., & Crust, R. (1992). Mathematics programmes of study: INSET for key stages 3 and 4.
New York: National Curriculum Council.
Swan, M., & Lacey, P. (2008). Mathematics matters. National Centre for Excellence in Teaching
Mathematics. Retrieved January 29, 2009, from: http://www.ncetm.org.uk/files/309231/
van den Akker, J. (1999). Principles and methods of development research. In J. van den Akker,
R. Branch, K. Gustafson, N. Nieveen, & T. Plomp (Eds.), Design approaches and tools in
education and training (pp. 1–15). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
van den Akker, J., Graveemeijer, K., McKenney, S., & Nieveen, N. (Eds.). (2006). Educational
design research. London and New York: Routledge.
Part III
Use of Resources
Chapter 10
Researcher-Designed Resources and Their
Adaptation Within Classroom Teaching
Practice: Shaping Both the Implicit
and the Explicit
10.1 Introduction
Mathematics education research has, over the years, yielded numerous resources,
many of which have been both designed with the practitioner in mind and made
accessible to them. But little is known about the ways in which teachers take on
such research-based resources and adapt them to their own needs. In 2000, Adler
proposed that, ‘mathematics teacher education needs to focus more attention on
resources, on what they are and how they work as an extension of the teacher in
school mathematics practice’ (p. 205). However, the little that exists regarding the
research involving researcher-designed resources has focused more on the mathe-
matical design of the resources (e.g., Ainley & Pratt, 2005) or on their impact
with respect to student learning (e.g., Hershkowitz, Dreyfus, Ben-Zvi, Friedlander,
Hadas, Resnick, Tabach, & Schwarz, 2002), rather than on the ways in which the
resources are used by teachers and on why they are used in these ways. The research
presented in this chapter centres on the ‘how’ and the ‘why’ of teachers’ adapting
of researcher-designed resources.
In their Introduction, Gueudet, Pepin, and Trouche state that the aim of this volume
is ‘to deepen our understandings of teacher documentation in the field of mathemat-
ics education,’ where documentation processes are considered to include the ways
in which teachers collect, select, transform, share, implement, and revise resources,
as well as the influences upon these processes. Because the teachers whose practices
are described in this chapter were participating in a research project that involved
C. Kieran (B)
Département de Mathématiques, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
H3C 3P8
e-mail: kieran.carolyn@uqam.ca
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 189
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_10,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
190 C. Kieran et al.
their use of the resources designed by the researchers – resources related to the learn-
ing of algebra with Computer Algebra System (CAS) technology – the focus herein
is more restrained in that it is oriented specifically to the ways in which the teach-
ers ‘transformed’ these resources in their teaching and to the factors contributing to
these transformations.
One of the pivotal constructs of the documentational approach of didactics
(Gueudet & Trouche, 2009) is documentational genesis, with its dialectical pro-
cesses involving both the teacher’s shaping of the resource and her teaching practice
being shaped by it. Building on a distinction introduced by Rabardel (1995),
Gueudet and Trouche (Chapter 2) emphasize that not only does the teacher guide
the way the resource is used, but also that the affordances and constraints of the
resource influence the teacher’s activity. As they point out, ‘design and enacting are
intertwined.’ However, within the framework of the documentational approach, lit-
tle research has as yet used the design characteristics of given resources as a focal
lens for studying the ways in which design might shape teaching practice. Remillard
(2005), in her review of the research literature on teachers’ use of mathematical cur-
ricula, argues that features of the curriculum matter to curriculum use as much as
characteristics of the teacher and that such research is rather unexplored terrain.
In the spirit of Remillard, this chapter uses the main features of the researcher-
designed resources as a tool for analyzing the ways in which resources can occasion
the shaping of individual teaching practice.
However, teachers also shape the way in which resources are used. Robert
and Rogalski (2005), for example, have argued that teachers’ personal histories,
experience and professional history in a given activity, and knowledge and beliefs
about mathematics and teaching, impact on their teaching practice and the ways
in which they use curricular materials. In addition, Sensevy, Schubauer-Leoni,
Mercier, Ligozat, & Perrot (2005) have noted that the didactic techniques they
observed within each of the teachers’ teaching of the same content were ‘produced
on a background of beliefs’ (p. 174) that gave rise to a certain consistency in the
practice of each teacher. Similarly, Schoenfeld (1998) has described the ways in
which teachers’ goals, beliefs, and knowledge interact, accounting for their moment-
to-moment decision-making and actions. According to Schoenfeld, the practice of
teachers, whether it be the activity of the lesson planned by the teacher, or the
unscripted activity engendered by unexpected students’ difficulties or responses, is
regulated by deep-seated goals, beliefs, and knowledge.
In contrast, some of the more recent research related to teaching practice involv-
ing computer-technology resources has advanced the argument that models focused
on teachers’ established routines are insufficient for analyzing teachers’ activi-
ties in technology-based lessons. For example, Lagrange and Monaghan (2010)
have found that teachers’ practices in dealing with the complexity of classroom
use of technology are far from stable. The literature related to the use of novel
teaching materials has also disclosed that different teachers enact the same cur-
riculum materials differently (e.g., Chavez, 2003), and that the same teacher may
enact the same curriculum materials differently in different classes (Eisenmann
& Even, 2011). Nevertheless, Drijvers, Doorman, Boon, Reed, & Gravemeijer
10 Teachers’ Shaping of Researcher-Designed Resources 191
(2010), who have combined the constructs of emergent goals (Saxe, 1991) and
instrumental orchestration (Trouche, 2004; see also Chapter 14), suggest that the
unstable practices of teachers within technology environments and with novel cur-
ricula might still be rooted within a system of more stable beliefs and knowledge.
These various findings with respect to the tension between, on the one hand, the
design forces that can provoke instability and a reshaping of teaching practice,
and on the other hand, the force of consistency within a teacher’s existing prac-
tice that leads to a teacher’s shaping of given resources, attest to the complexity
of the interactions between the dual processes of documentational genesis. One
of the aims of this chapter is to better understand the dialectical relation between
these two forces.
10.2 Background
The study presented herein is part of a larger program of research, the first phase
of which was oriented toward student learning: its central objective was to shed
light on the co-emergence of algebraic technique and theory within an environment
involving novel tasks and a combination of CAS and paper-and-pencil technolo-
gies (see Kieran & Drijvers, 2006). The second phase of the program, which was
oriented toward teaching practice, included secondary analyses of the video-data
from the first phase. From the start, these analyses disclosed specific differences
in the manner in which teachers were integrating the researcher-designed tasks
into their day-to-day practice. Individual teachers were mediating the technical and
theoretical demands of the tasks for their students in quite different ways. These
secondary analyses provide the foundation for this chapter.
Of the five teachers participating in our initial study, the three who are featured in
this chapter were selected because they all taught in the same city – a large urban
metropolis – and thus shared a certain common curricular experience. They shall be
named T1, T2, and T3. To help in further maintaining their anonymity, the masculine
gender will be used throughout.
T1, whose undergraduate degree was in economics, had been teaching mathe-
matics for 5 years, but had not had a great deal of experience with technology use in
mathematics teaching, except for the graphing calculator. In observing T1’s teaching
prior to the start of the research, the researchers noted that he encouraged his pupils
to talk about their mathematics. T1’s class of grade 10 students was considered by
the teacher to be of medium-high mathematical ability. They were quite skilled in
algebraic manipulation, as was borne out by the results of a pretest we administered.
They were used to handling graphing-calculator technology on a regular basis, but
had not experienced CAS technology prior to the start of the research.
192 C. Kieran et al.
T2, who was the most mathematically qualified of the three teachers, had taught
mathematics for 16 years, half of this time at the college level, before teaching at
the secondary level. He was a leader with respect to the advancement of the use
of technology in the school where he was teaching. In our prestudy observations,
we noted that his practice tended to be teacher-centred. T2’s students seemed very
strong, mathematically speaking, on the basis of the same pretest as was mentioned
above, and were experienced with the various capabilities of graphing-calculator
technology, but not with CAS.
T3, whose undergraduate degree was in the teaching of high-school mathemat-
ics, had 5 years of experience in the teaching of mathematics at the secondary
level. While he had some prior experience with the use of graphing-calculator
technology in his teaching, he had never before used CAS. T3’s students were
considered by their teacher to be of average mathematical ability. They had some
graphing-calculator experience, but none with CAS. The pretest that we admin-
istered indicated that they were weaker in symbol-manipulation ability than the
students of the other two classes.
overhead projector that projects the screen display of the calculator hooked up
to it), which ways they adapted the task-sequence materials, and the extent
to which the designed resources seemed to be contributing to a reshaping
of their practice. In addition to the videotaped observations of each class-
room lesson involving our task-sequences, and the follow-up conversations
with each teacher, we also observed a couple of lessons of each teacher’s regular
teaching practice prior to the start of the research.
In designing the task-sequences, our intentions revolved around three key aspects:
the mathematics, the students, and the technology.
Mathematics-wise, all of the task-sequences involved a dialectic between tech-
nique and theory within a predominantly exploratory approach, with many open-
ended questions. The mathematics that formed the content of the tasks intersected
with, but also extended, the usual fare for grade 10 algebra students. At times, the
main mathematical theme of the task-sequence was more technique oriented, as in:
factoring the xn −1 family of polynomials for integral values of n, solving systems of
linear equations, using factoring to solve equations containing radicals, and explor-
ing the sum and difference of cubes. At other times, the focus was more theoretical
in nature, as in the task-sequences relating to the equivalence of algebraic expres-
sions. But in both cases, a combination of technical and theoretical activity related
to the mathematics was envisaged. In brief, the intended emphases relating to the
mathematics included: (i) coordinating the technical and theoretical aspects of the
mathematics, (ii) pattern seeking, inductive reasoning, and development of tech-
niques, (iii) conjecture making and testing, and (iv) deductive reasoning and proof.
194 C. Kieran et al.
Student-wise, we built into the task-sequences not only questions where the
students would be encouraged to reflect on their mathematics, but also indicated
moments where they would be expected to talk about their mathematical think-
ing during whole-class discussions. Tasks that asked students to write about how
they were interpreting their mathematical work and the answers produced by the
CAS aimed at bringing mathematical notions to the surface, making them objects
of explicit reflection and discourse in the classroom. In sum, the intended emphases
that related to the students included: (i) encouraging them to be reflective and inquir-
ing into their thinking and (ii) encouraging them to share their ideas, questions, and
conjectures during collective discussions.
Technology-wise, all of the task-sequences involved technical activity with either
the CAS, with paper and pencil, or with both. We viewed the CAS as a mathe-
matical tool that, through the task, stimulates reflection and generates results that
are to be coordinated with paper-and-pencil work. The CAS served thus as a
confirmation-verification tool and/or a surprise generator (producing results that
would, in general, not be expected by the students). Very few CAS commands were
required for the task-sequences we designed, simply factor, expand, solve, and the
evaluation command; thus, the manipulation of the technological tool itself was not
to impede the mathematical thinking encouraged by the task-sequences. Additional
technologies that we considered would be used included the view-screen and the
blackboard. In sum, the intended emphases that related to the technologies included:
(i) taking advantage of the potential of CAS for producing surprising responses that
would provoke a rethinking of techniques or theories, for verifying conjectures of a
technical or theoretical nature, and for checking paper-and-pencil work and (ii)
using the blackboard for rendering public, within class discussions, both teacher
explanations and student work.
The teacher guides, which also contained all of the task questions that were
addressed to the students, included many specifics that were addressed to the teacher
alone. First, they offered explicit suggestions as to the precise mathematical content
that might be addressed within the collective discussions. Second, they presented a
few examples that illustrated, pedagogically speaking, how a particular topic might
be further explained at the blackboard. The following text from the teacher guide
for the first part of the Activity 7 task-sequence illustrates how the researchers made
explicit the main mathematical issues for discussion, potential erroneous thinking
on the part of the students, and the role of the CAS for the given task questions (see
Fig. 10.1).
But, in general, the teacher guides did not elaborate on the student- or
technology-related intentions of the researcher-designers. For example, the teacher
guides did not specify how to conduct the collective discussions – how to encourage
10 Teachers’ Shaping of Researcher-Designed Resources 195
For discussion:
In the course textbook, taking out a common factor is approached without a clear motivation or
rationale for its use. Here, the aim of taking out the common factor y − 2 is relatively easy to
( )3 ( ) (
motivate, be it in the expression y − 2 − 10 y − 2 or the expression y − 2 )3 − 10 (y − 2)− y (y −2).
In each case, taking out the common factor enables students to reduce the problem to one of
solving a quadratic equation (having solutions: y = 6 and y = –1), whether it be by factoring out
⎛ ⎞
( )( 2
) ( )
y − 2 on both sides of the equation y − 2 ⎜ y − 2 −10 ⎟ = y y − 2 , or by invoking the zero-product
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
( )( )
2
theorem in the equation y − 2 ⎜ y − 2 −10 − y⎟ = 0. Moreover, the aim is to orient students to the
⎝ ⎠
possible ‘ taking out of the common factor ’ involving the radical expression in the two subsequent
items.
Among those students who take out the common factor y − 2 on both sides of the equation, some
are likely to ‘lose’ the solution y = 2. Whether or not this be the case, however, on the basis of this
example the teacher should conduct a classroom discussion about what precautions to take
before canceling a factor common to both sides of an equation. In effect, for the values of a
variable for which the common factor vanishes, this simplification is tantamount to division by zero!
Those values of the variable must therefore always be treated (i.e., verified as possible solutions)
one by one, before simplification. It is this very simplification, for which the solution y = 2, given by
The teacher can also help students see how to avoid this problem by using the strategy consisting
Fig. 10.1 Intentions of the researcher-designers that were rendered explicit within the teacher
guide for Activity 7
reflection, how to inquire into student thinking, how to have students share their
thinking with their classmates during the collective sessions, how to use the
blackboard to help students coordinate their CAS and paper-and-pencil techniques,
or how to orchestrate discussions of a theoretical nature.
196 C. Kieran et al.
in the spirit of what was communicated directly. Also in line with Helgesson, we
would argue that the implicit does not necessarily require any additional reflective
interpretation than that which is called upon for the explicit. Thus, adapting what is
implicit should be akin to adapting what is explicit.
The two task-sequences that are the focus of this chapter are Activities 6 and 7.
Activity 6 was related to the factoring of xn −1, for integral values of n (for a differ-
ent elaboration of this task, see Mounier & Aldon, 1996, whose work provided the
initial inspiration for our task-sequence). Activity 7 dealt with the use of factoring to
solve equations with radicals. These task-sequences were selected for two reasons.
First, the two of them taken together highlight the duality of the adaptations made
by our teacher participants: adaptations dealing with more implicit aspects of the
design and with unspecified areas of the researcher-designed resources, and adap-
tations related to changing or reorganizing an explicit aspect of the design. Second,
while the analytical focus documents the ways in which teachers spontaneously
transformed the resources, some evidence is also provided of the manner in which
teaching practice was being shaped by the nature of the resources. Thus, the fabric
of documentational genesis provides the backdrop for an analysis on the basis of the
three overlapping, interrelated design features of the resources: the mathematics-
related, the student-related, and the technology-related, with specific attention to
both their implicit and explicit dimensions. The extracts analyzed from Activity 6
bear on adaptations made to the more implicit intentions of the researcher-designers,
with examples drawn from the practice of T1 and T2, while Activity 7 focuses on
adaptations to the explicit with examples from T3’s practice.
T2: [while writing at the board; see Figure 10.3] When you expand this x − 1 ( )(x + 1) and
add all your terms you get x ( 2
− 1). Agree? And for the other one (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1) the same idea, I
multiply the –1 throughout, getting −x 2 − x − 1, and that is going to give you x 3 − 1. What do
T2: They cancel out, because the x just elevates the degree of everything, and when you bring
the −1, all the middle terms will cancel. You are going to have your x3 because you elevated
the degree, but you are going to have your −1 at the end as well, and everything in the middle
will cancel out. That is why without doing any algebraic manipulations, if I did
Fig. 10.2 Extract from the discussion surrounding the Telescoping Task in T2’s class
through some of the verifications would lead students to strive for deepening their
factorization techniques, but that this would require some additional elaboration
presented at the blackboard.
The Telescoping Task. Let us consider the beginning of the first collective discus-
sion within Activity 6, where T2 conveyed his particular approach to dealing with
mathematical issues of a technical and theoretical sort (see Fig. 10.2 and Fig. 10.3).
The context was Question 2d: How do you explain thefact that the following
prod-
ucts (x − 1)(x + 1), (x − 1) x2 + x + 1 , and (x − 1) x3 + x2 + x + 1 result in a
binomial?
The technique and the theory of the mathematics are being talked about. But
notice that T2 is not drawing these aspects from the students, but is rather presenting
them himself. If one could say that our general intention about coordination between
technique and theory has not been disregarded, our implicit intention with respect
to fostering personal mathematical reflection on the part of the students, and on
inquiring into their thinking, is clearly set aside by T2’s intervention. This is in
contrast with T1’s way of orchestrating a whole class discussion, as is seen with the
example of the subsequent Reconciling Task, which is provided in Fig. 10.4.
The Reconciling Task. For the factoring of x4 − 1, the CAS had not yielded
for the students what they had expected: not (x − 1) x3 + x2 + x + 1 , but
rather (x − 1)(x + 1) x2 + 1 . In T1’s class, the following discussion ensued (see
Fig. 10.5).
The extract provided in Fig. 10.5 illustrates the ways in which T1 adapted the
researcher-designed resources by filling in some of the unstated gaps in the teacher
10 Teachers’ Shaping of Researcher-Designed Resources 199
Fig. 10.3 T2’s use of the blackboard during the Telescoping Task
In this activity each line of the table below must be filled in completely (all three cells), one
row at a time. Start from the top row (the cells of the three columns) and work your way
down. If, for a given row, the results in the left and middle columns differ, reconcile the two
by using algebraic manipulations in the right-hand column.
x2 − 1 =
x3 − 1 =
x4 − 1 =
x5 − 1 =
x6 − 1 =
guide. He inquired into students’ thinking and used this as a basis for discussing
some of the different approaches to factoring completely x4 − 1. This was done
with the stated aim of reconciling the differences between the unexpected result
produced by the CAS and the paper-and-pencil result yielded by the general rule.
200 C. Kieran et al.
T1: What we did initially is not wrong. It’s just not complete. … So for x 4 − 1, it’s what?
( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
S1: x − 1 x + 1 x 2 + 1 [teacher writes at the board: x 4 − 1= x − 1 x + 1 x 2 + 1 ]
T1: So let’s look at this one. How can we go about getting that without the calculator?
( )( )
T1: Is that right (as the teacher writes at the board: x − 1 x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 ]
Class: Yeah.
S2: [student explains how she would group the second factor, as the teacher writes at the
S3: [the student Bob then describes how he would factor x 4 − 1 by first breaking the x4 part
S3: Difference of squares [the student continues his explanation of the technique, which the
T1: So both ways reconcile the differences, coming in from different points of view.
Fig. 10.5 Extract from the discussion following the Reconciling Task in T1’s class
T1 also displayed on the blackboard the various factoring approaches offered by the
students, which thereby presented a public record of their different techniques.
This is in contrast to the manner in which T2 responded to the implicit intentions
of the researcher-designers for the same task. As seen in the Fig. 10.6 excerpt, T2
used the blackboard to show only the technique that he wanted to emphasize for the
factoring of the x4 − 1 binomial: the difference of squares. It would also appear that
student participation was called upon with the sole purpose of providing an opening
10 Teachers’ Shaping of Researcher-Designed Resources 201
T2: Now for the x 4 − 1, if you use the trick that we were looking at, and we just write it like this
( ) ( )( )
[teacher writes on the board x 4 − 1 = x − 1 x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 ]; this is factored but not fully
factored. When you press Factor on your calculator, what do you get? What did you
( )( )(
S1: x − 1 x + 1 x 2 + 1)
T2: [teacher wrote this response on the board] Right! Like that. So, how do we reconcile the
two? …
T2: Yes, you go back to the start, and that is what I said, you can go back to the start, and look
( )
at how you do it paper-and-pencil-wise. If you go back to the start and you’ve got your x 2 − 1 ,
( )
your x 2 + 1 [teacher writes these two factors on the blackboard] – your difference of squares –
( )
and then you have another difference of squares here [teacher points to x 2 − 1 and writes
(x − 1)(x + 1) below it]. … So, in another words, what we are discovering is that our little trick
( )
that we did, that only helps to get the x −1 out. That doesn’t necessarily mean that what is
( )( )( ) ( )( )
S3: I did the opposite, I mean, [ x − 1 x + 1 x 2 + 1 = x − 1 x 3 + x 2 + x + 1 ]
T2: Reconciling the two doesn’t mean just expanding one and showing it is x 4 −1, and I guess
S2: Instead, we can just, eh, factor out the other x 2 and make it, for the second factor.
T2: So, you grouped two by two. So, that is another way you could have factored this bracket
( )
over here. Because it is four terms, you factor out x 2 here; you get x + 1 , then you factor
( ) ( ) ( )
your x + 1 out, and you get x + 1 and x 2 + 1 . Ok? All right. [Teacher does not write the
grouping method out on the blackboard; he just points to the different terms and states orally
S2’s method.]
Fig. 10.6 Extract from the discussion surrounding the Reconciling Task in T2’s class
202 C. Kieran et al.
for T2’s own preferred approach, the one that he considered more efficient. Other
approaches that students offered were dealt with orally.
Another instance of T2’s manner of adapting what was implicitly conveyed in
the resources concerns the factoring of x10 − 1. Here, the surprise factor of the CAS
tended not be taken advantage of, nor allowed to play its intended thought-provoking
role. While students were still working on the second part of the Reconciling Task,
with the polynomials from x7 −1 to x13 −1, trying to reconcile their paper-and-pencil
factorizations with the results produced by the CAS, T2 rapidly wrote x10 − 1 =
5
x − 1 x5 + 1 on the board. He then stated: ‘The one that may give you some
trouble here is the x to the 10th. I will explain
why.’ He proceeded
to explain at the
board the factorization x5 +1 = (x + 1) x4 − x3 + x2 − x + 1 , with a great deal of
ad hoc hand-waving. It appeared here and elsewhere in Activity 6 that T2 assumed
ownership of all the main mathematical ideas presented in class, a corollary being
that students were not held responsible for thoroughly explaining their own thinking.
A rather different situation evolved in T1’s class where the x10 − 1 example led a
student to conjecture a new theory involving the factoring of xn + 1 for odd ns – on
the basis of the CAS factorization of x5 + 1, supported by the factoring pattern for
the sum of cubes, x3 + 1 (for more on the unfolding of this student’s conjecture, see
Kieran & Guzmán, 2010). T1 encouraged the student to talk about the way he was
thinking and to be as complete as possible in his explanation.
The Proving Task. T1 believed that students would need time to get into the last
task of the sequence, the Proving Task: Explain why (x + 1) is always a factor of
xn − 1 for even values of n ≥ 2. Note that the teacher guide had not included any
explicit suggestions in regard to the proving task, simply a possible solution on the
basis of the Factor Theorem, i.e., ‘a is a zero of the polynomial p(x) iff (x − a) is
a factor of p(x).’ T1 waited patiently until some of the students had ideas to submit
to the class. He then asked three of them to go to the board in turn and to write
down and explain their proofs. He requested that the class listen carefully to the
explanations being offered by these proof-givers: ‘Guys, give him a chance’ and
‘Ok, listen because this is interesting, it’s a completely different way of looking at
it.’ After each of their explanations, everyone in the class was encouraged to discuss
and try to understand the main approach used in the proof. From time to time, T1
asked for further clarification, offered counter-examples, and pushed students to
think more deeply. T1’s way of filling the gaps in the teacher guide for the Proving
Task was in sync with the student-related intentions of the researcher-designers, and
even enriched them further.
In a teacher interview held with T1 at the close of Activity 6, he was asked if
he felt that his participation in the project was affecting his teaching practice in any
way. This is part of what he had to say (Kieran & Guzmán, 2010, pp. 141–142):
I think it’s made me think more, or made me realize that what I like is making them [the
students] think a little bit more. And I think I did that anyway, I remember when you came
into class last year that there were some things similar happening, but it just made me, just
consider a little bit more: Can I let them come through this themselves, let them try this
out themselves a little bit more, which I think I always did – but just seeing these activities
10 Teachers’ Shaping of Researcher-Designed Resources 203
work, it’s made me realize there’s more scope to it than I have done in previous years. There
is much more scope to let them really go.
Although he stated that the CAS technology was essential to the changed nature
of his students’ mathematical learning, he was quick to point to the role played
by the mathematics of the task sequences. The intertwining of novel and substan-
tive mathematical tasks, and technological tools appropriate for these tasks, led to
mathematical activity that, according to T1, the students quite enjoyed and from
which they learned a great deal. This, in turn, promoted the development of new
awarenesses on the part of T1, awarenesses that were reshaping his teaching prac-
tice. He realized that he could push his students to think a little bit more about
their mathematics and put even more emphasis on having them share their reflec-
tions with the rest of the class. We continued to observe T1’s classes during the
2 years that followed. He never stopped using the task-sequences and CAS tech-
nology that he mentioned he had found so worthwhile during the present study; at
the same time, his practice continued to evolve along all three dimensions of the
researcher-designed resources.
Primary idea: Factoring (taking out a common factor) as a tool for solving equations,
Secondary ideas:
• Factoring (taking out a common factor) can be applied not only to constants and
variables, but also to algebraic expressions that can be taken as objects to operate
upon.
• Students should be able to bring the methods learned for solving linear and quadratic
equations to bear on equations that are neither linear nor quadratic, per se.
• Simplifying an equation by dividing both sides by some factor may lead to a loss of
solutions. In equations in which such simplifications are possible, the strategy of
isolating terms on one side of the equation and using the zero-product theorem is
generally a more effective solving method;
• In equations involving variables under the radical sign, verification after solving is not
only advisable, but necessary.
Fig. 10.7 Explicit mathematical notes in both the student task-sequence and the teacher guide
and (c) the verification by CAS of the paper-and-pencil solutions which would lead
for many students to a required reconciliation of the two sets of solutions.
All of the examples given in this section are drawn from T3’s practice, as it
was here that we observed the most extensive adaptations to the explicit aspects of
the researcher-designed resources. Specifically, his adaptations involved replacing
an expression by a letter, inserting a transitional equation, and using the CAS to
factor a quadratic. In addition, we note that T3 had an empathetic way of preparing
students for possible task difficulties, telling them not to worry and reformulating
each question with a phrasing that in his view was better adapted to their level of
understanding. A notable sign of his general attitude is the fact that from the outset
of the prior Activity 6, in advance of bringing it to class, he told the researchers that
he had decided to skip the final Proving Task, it being too difficult in his view. In his
defence, recall that T3’s class was the weakest of the three.
Replacing An Expression by a Letter. For the first proposed equation in Activity 7,
√ 3 √ √
5 x − 4 + 11 x − 4 = (2x + 1) x − 4 (10.1)
a general reflection on how students would proceed to solve this equation was to
be elicited. Immediately afterward, they were to be directed toward the simpler
equation
(y − 2)3 − 10 (y − 2) = y (y − 2) (10.2)
which was the one to be actually solved. From the start, while reading and reword-
ing the instructions, √
before anything whatsoever had been done by his students, T3
suggested replacing x − 4 by a (see Fig. 10.8).
10 Teachers’ Shaping of Researcher-Designed Resources 205
T3: Just imagine that this expression, root of x minus 4, is replaced by a. It would give you
something much simpler, wouldn’t it? So each time it’s written ‘root of x minus 4’, if we write a
instead, we would have quite a simpler equation and then, what would you do? Because the
principle would be, say, quite the same. Anyway, some aspects would be the same. So try to
see what you could do to solve this equation ... or anyway, what would be your steps. We don’t
ask you to solve it, just go with what you think you would do. There are no bad answers, just try.
T3 [reading]: ‘Using paper and pencil, see whether you can first solve the following equation.’ So they
are giving you another one that may be less scary, which is y minus 2 to the three ... [He does not finish
reading the second equation, but searches for a piece of chalk]. Well ... They are giving you this one so
that you can compare, they say that it is somewhat analogous to the ‘monster’ given just before. They
say [reading]: ‘Factoring (taking out a common factor) might be useful here.’ So they are giving you a
hint. Ok, I have seen that some of you wrote interesting things, in the sense that you have already good
ideas about how to solve. Nevertheless I’ll give one to you all, because some of you are facing it
( ) (
[He writes on the board: 5 a − 3 + 2 a − 3 )2 = 3(a − 3)3.] I'm coming back to what I've said before,
about root of x minus 4, if I remember well, that it could be replaced by a value, say, a. Ok, it may have
given some of you a hint, precisely about what could be done with it. So here [he gets a piece of colored
( )
chalk and circles a − 3 ], if I say here that a minus 3, if all of this parenthesis here would have been,
2 3
say, x. We would be facing [he writes on the board: 5x + 2x = 3x ]. Do you agree? All I have done is
that I've been saying to myself: Instead of writing a − 3, to make things easier, I'll replace a − 3 by x.
And then, I’m facing this new equation. Is this equation [pointing to the board] less scary?
made in the interests of time or to reduce some of the overall complexity of the task.
Nevertheless, it was outside the suggested route of solving with paper-and-pencil
and, only later, verifying the solutions with the CAS. Moreover, for the third ques-
tion of this first part of the task-sequence – the one that asked students to check their
solutions of Eq. (10.2) with those produced by the CAS – T3 chose to eliminate
this question, having introduced Eq. (10.2) with a view-screen display of the three
solutions yielded by the CAS and subsequently asking students to find themselves
the same three solutions with paper and pencil. Thus, the surprise realization that
there might be three solutions, and how it came to be that one of them had been lost
through their paper-and-pencil techniques, was never provoked in T3’s class.
10.5 Discussion
The discussion that follows touches upon issues related to documentational genesis,
as well as the design features of the resources and the influences contributing to
their shaping by participating teachers in their practice.
Despite the limitations of our study in terms of number of teachers and time
frame, our findings – fragile as they are with respect to the complex interaction
between the complementary forces of shaping and being shaped by – suggest that
the interaction between these two forces of documentational genesis may at times,
and with different individual teachers, be stronger with respect to one force than
the other. It seems particularly the case that, during the early stages of using novel
resources, the shaping of resources by some, if not many, teachers may be espe-
cially strong and may serve as a formidable counterforce to the potential of the
same resources to shape teaching practice. Suffice it to say that the relation between
the dialectical processes of documentational genesis remains for us an area where
further study is warranted.
in both intentional domains, teachers will adapt the resources that they use. This
is not to suggest that researchers and curriculum developers should not attempt to
make as explicit as possible their intentions with respect to the content and use of the
resources they design. But they should expect that – as will be discussed shortly –
the personal beliefs, goals, and habitual classroom practice of the teachers may be
at variance with the epistemological and pedagogical assumptions underlying the
researcher-designed resources and that this will inevitably lead to adaptation.
Our finding that, whether the intentions of the researcher-designers were explicitly
stated or implicitly suggested, teachers adapted the given resources leads naturally
to the question as to what it was that underpinned these adaptations, that is, why
were the resources adapted in the ways that they were? An additional question
concerns the issue of the consistency of these adaptations within individual teachers.
The teachers’ mathematical knowledge clearly filtered their interpretation of
the mathematical intentions of the researcher-designers. This was seen in T3’s
inappropriate choice of example that he used when inserting his substitution tech-
nique into the task-sequence. Pedagogical content knowledge also played a role.
It underpinned the well-developed ways in which T1 orchestrated the whole-class
discussions with students being asked to explain their thinking to the class at large,
the differential ways in which T1 and T2 used the blackboard for keeping a written
trace of students’ thinking and as a tool for mediating the reconciliation of paper-
and-pencil and CAS responses, and the varying roles for the CAS technology that
were encouraged by each of T1, T2, and T3.
Teachers’ beliefs accounted for much of their adaptive activity with respect to
their use of the researcher-designed resources, from T1 who believed his students
could and should be challenged mathematically and thereby adapted the unfolding
of the task-sequences in such a way that students be held responsible for their own
mathematical thinking, to T2 who believed that the teacher is the mathematical focal
point of the classroom, to T3 who believed his students required a certain social and
mathematical security net.
In keeping with Schoenfeld (1998), we have attributed beliefs and knowledge
to be at the root of the adaptations that the individual teachers carried out in their
day-to-day teaching with our resources. However, such attributions do not account
entirely for the global picture of each teacher’s approach to adaptation. The enact-
ment of a teacher’s beliefs, which translates into both short- and long-term goals
in the classroom, also constitutes a ‘pedagogical contract’ with the students – a
certain set of expectations of the teacher for the students and vice versa (note that
this pedagogical contract takes in the ‘didactical contract’ of Brousseau, 1997, but
also includes more, namely certain attitudes, beliefs, and convictions of the teacher
that are not tied specifically to the mathematical content being considered à la
Brousseau).
210 C. Kieran et al.
For example, T3 was extremely sensitive to the perceived needs and abilities of
his students, as inferred from his rewording of the task questions and alteration of
the content so as to try to make the mathematics more accessible to them. He seemed
reluctant to put his students into potentially awkward situations where they might
not know how to express themselves; thus he engaged the class in very few collective
discussions. He called upon students whom he thought might have the beginnings
of an answer and then proceeded to elaborate on their rather sketchy responses. In
short, he made few mathematical demands of his students. His interactions with the
students always weighed on the side of showing empathy toward them.
In contrast, T2 delighted in demonstrating his mathematical prowess to the stu-
dents. This seemed to be a central part of the identity he had forged for himself in the
mathematics classroom. His students, who were very bright, also seemed to appre-
ciate his displays of mathematical competence. He used the beginnings of students’
oral answers as the spark for his own elaborations of the underlying mathematics.
He never asked students to respond more fully, but rather attempted to anticipate
the direction in which their thinking was headed. There seemed to be an unwritten
contract between him and his students that he was the main mathematical resource
of the classroom.
A rather different pedagogical contract was at play in T1’s class. T1, who was
highly respectful of his students, not only encouraged the expression of their math-
ematical thinking but also asked them for further explanation and justification.
During the whole-class discussions, he often assumed what we came to call his
discussion posture – sitting on the edge of one of the empty student-desks at a front
corner of the classroom, thereby indicating to the class that it was now time for
some serious collective thinking and sharing of ideas. He intended that students be
pushed mathematically and had confidence that they could rise to the occasion, if
encouraged to do so – which they did.
The three teachers’ deeply held beliefs, which constituted a manner of interacting
with their students, lent a certain consistency to their individual adaptations of our
resources. This consistency was also seen when impromptu activity occurred. For
example, when faced with the unexpected proofs generated by a few of the students,
T1 asked the students to come to the front to explain their thinking to the rest of
the class; these exposés were then followed by classroom discussion of the central
ideas of the proofs. In contrast, T2 when similarly faced with an unexpected proof
idea from a student tried to interpret it on his own and illustrate it himself at the
board. T3, as per his intentional goals vis-à-vis his students, decided not to embark
at all on the proving task. Thus, even if the unexpected led to different ways of han-
dling the situation, each teacher acted on the spur of the moment in ways that were
consistent with his own convictions and ways of interacting with his class. This find-
ing makes contact with Remillard’s (Chapter 6) observation that teachers’ modes of
engagement with resources are shaped by their expectations, beliefs, and routines,
thereby bestowing a degree of stability on these modes. Sensevy (Chapter 3) makes
a similar point with regard to the enactment of the threefold process of teaching
practice by which documents, prior intentions, and intentions in action are inti-
mately linked together. Also related to this discussion are the findings reported
10 Teachers’ Shaping of Researcher-Designed Resources 211
by Drijvers (Chapter 14), who describes the unfolding of teachers’ intentions with
respect to their classroom use of computer-based resources in terms of didactical
configuration, exploitation mode, and didactical performance.
Lagrange and Monaghan (2010) have argued that inconsistency characterizes the
practice of teachers in dealing with the complexity of classroom use of technol-
ogy. While we would agree that the presence of the CAS technology within our
researcher-designed resources led to more unplanned and impromptu activity than
might otherwise be the case in a mathematics class, we would have to disagree with
the substance of their claim. We argue instead that the manner in which individ-
ual teachers engaged in this impromptu activity was indeed consistent. An example
involves the unexpected complete
5 factorization
of x10 − 1 by the CAS with its unan-
ticipated factorization of the x + 1 factor. This led to on-the-fly decision-making
on the part of both T1 and T2: for T2, it was to gain control of the mathematical
situation by having himself present to the class the factorization of this ‘new’ class
of expressions; for T1, it was to give the student who was provoked into thinking
about a new factorization rule for xn + 1 the time to express his new conjecture
and the examples that were supporting it. Just as with the proof example above,
T1 and T2 each handled differently the impromptu foray occasioned by unexpected
results with the technology; nevertheless, their approaches were clearly consistent
with their individual deep-seated beliefs and habitual manner of interacting with
their students.
In closing, our findings regarding the various ways in which teachers adapted
the researcher-designed resources cast light on a particular aspect of the theoret-
ical frame of the documentational approach of didactics, namely the differential
role that the same resources can play within the dialectical process of documen-
tational genesis whereby resources occasion the shaping of and are shaped by
individual teaching practice. The implicit and explicit aspects of the researcher-
designed resources served as both affordances and constraints that influenced
teachers’ activity. Resources are not neutral; they speak to different teachers in dif-
ferent ways – even to teachers using the same resources and sharing the same goal
of participating in a research project aimed at developing the technical and theo-
retical knowledge of algebra students within a CAS-supported environment. The
teachers brought into the study their own beliefs, knowledge, and customary ways
of interacting with their students. Quite clearly this had an impact for each class
on the nature of the mathematical activity engaged in. The different ways in which
the same resources were shaped were by no means irrelevant or insignificant in
nature; they either promoted or impeded the emergence of different techniques and
theoretical-conceptual elements in students. But that is a whole other story.
A. Boileau, F. Hitt, J. Guzmán, and L. Saldanha. We also acknowledge the support of the
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (Grant #410-2007-1485), the Fonds
québécois de recherche sur la société et la culture (FQRSC, Grant #2007-NP-116155), and the
PROMEP/103.5/10/5364, México (2010). We thank the editors and reviewers for their helpful
feedback on an earlier version of this chapter.
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Chapter 11
Classroom Video Data and Resources
for Teaching: Some Thoughts
on Teacher Education
11.1 Introduction
This chapter examines teacher documentation with a focus on the classroom. It has
a double objective. Firstly, it aims to show the complexity of the ways in which
“test teachers”, involved in a research team, use material and symbolic elements
as resources when teaching, and to clarify their use of such resources. Secondly, it
investigates the use of videos as resources, for researchers, and finally for teacher
education/educators.
We analyse the videos with a focus on how teachers can use students’ written
work1 as a shared documentation, shaping this as resources for a collective study
in classroom, as the instructional sequence proceeds. This use of students’ writings
seems to belong to a long tradition if we consider Proust’s analysis of CBS 1215
tablet, in Chapter 9 of this book. Classroom videos are the central kind of data in our
study. Large studies (TIMMS, 1999) and related comparative studies (e.g. Andrews,
2009) have provided standard descriptions of teachers’ actions. Our study (or the
part of our study corresponding to the first aim described above) complements such
works. It focuses indeed, not on ordinary classes, but on experimental classes, where
didactical engineering (Artigue, 1989) has been set-up.
The teaching we study has thus very specific features. It takes place within an
experimental school, the Centre for Observation and Research on Mathematics
1 In the case of this instructional sequence, a first moment (situation d’action) is followed by a
moment for communication: students who tried to describe the thickness of sheets of paper use
their description for ordering the same paper. The “written work” at stake here in the sequence is
composed by the written orders.
D. Forest (B)
IUFM de Bretagne, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Rennes Cedex, France
e-mail: dominique.forest@bretagne.iufm.fr
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 215
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_11,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
216 D. Forest and A. Mercier
2 CORMT was the research team in Jules Michelet School, 33400 Talence (France). Brousseau
worked in the school for many years (1972–1999) and we got more than 400 video records of
CORMT lessons, from 1982 to 1999, as numerised archives in the VISA project (IFE and ENS
Lyon).
3 Each year pupils were tested on the basis of standard tests for school achievement evaluation
(SAT). Pupils taught by CORMT school teachers scored on average higher (or equal) to those of
neighbourhood schools (Brousseau, 1980; Brousseau & Brousseau,1987).
11 Classroom Video Data and Resources for Teaching 217
recognise a pile of paper sheets among five different piles. But the pupils were not
able to distinguish the piles at a glance to one sheet, and they could not measure
directly the thickness of one sheet with a calliper.4 In this situation, integers were
not efficient and pupils needed to find a new code. Some of them proposed “A”
the thickest, “E” the thinnest, but this code made it difficult to differentiate more
than three thicknesses. Most groups of pupils proposed to measure several sheets
together to get a measurable thickness and suggested a code of the following form:
(23 sheets; 3 mm). After the pupils worked by themselves to find an answer, and
after the teacher asked one of each working groups to present their work, we will
see here how a teaching resource was created by the joint action of the teacher and
the pupils.
These two class sessions led to the production of messages by pupils. For the
beginning of the third session, these messages were then communicated to the whole
group and organized by the teacher in a table like this:
Table 11.1 Messages of pupils are organized in a table which is drawn on the blackboard
A B C D E
To analyse both verbal and non-verbal aspects of the teacher’s action, appropriate
theoretical frameworks are needed. We refer here to the framework of proxemics
(Hall, 1963, 1966) applied to didactical situations as developed by Forest (2006,
2009). We describe non-verbal phenomena with the notion of distance, in a self-
centred and perceptive way. In addition to the metric distance, we take into account
4 The calliper is a rubber one, the ruler of which is graduated in millimetres. This makes the direct
measure of any sub-millimetric thickness impossible.
11 Classroom Video Data and Resources for Teaching 219
eye-contact, mutual gaze, positions and postures, and we include phenomena such
as touch, or pitch of the voice. We use this type of distance to describe fittings
of teachers, students, and other elements with a principle that can be summarised
as follows: what is close (for me) is more important than what is remote. This
approach allows us to report and analyse the proxemic comments and allows
the identification of teaching/learning phenomena related to the dynamics of the
milieu.
After completing the table the teacher moves away from the blackboard and
stands aside while looking at pupils. This displacement is accompanied by a ges-
ture with both her hands. She moves her hands in front of her as we can see on the
picture.
From the perspective of a natural semantic of action (Sensevy, 2001), this gesture
can be interpreted as: “I haven’t done anything”, or in a weaker version as: “As a
teacher, I’ve done my share of the work”. The teacher then turns her back to the
blackboard and that way, reinforces the second interpretation when she asserts: “I’ve
put on the blackboard all the messages that were written” (implied “by all of you”).
The pupils’ agreement she is asking for is purely formal and aims to remind their
previous relation to the objects of the milieu.
We show this by a photogram (see below). The teacher’s corporal behaviour
is described in a four dimensional code: the direction of the shoulders line, the
pointing of the hands, the direction in which she looks and the spatial position-
ing in the classroom. We cut the flow of teacher’s action on the video as one
shot for each global proxemic state. Then we give a complete transcription of
the flow of language action, and associate each utterance to the related shot.
Sequences of photograms Bn are then the data for our analysis of relevant didac-
tical episodes. The choice is guided by both the epistemological importance of
didactic phenomena (here, the collective creation of a mathematical notation),
and the density of proxemic behaviour of the teacher in the construction of the
milieu.
220 D. Forest and A. Mercier
B1 B2 B3 B4
T: So I, I have put it in P (pupil): Well, it was 27, T: OK, so actually, it T: But here we had met
yellow here//come on, T: Uh, no, we had was compatible//it was some problems, and
Akim, come on// have discussed it, and it was almost true, we could Vanessa, you had made
put in yellow what we Cristobal who came to accept that message. a remark here.
The teacher returns to She quickly shows the She continues to look With her hands, she
the blackboard, moves E5, then returns to E1, at the table, indicating maintains the indication
aside and shows the E1 remaining to one side alternately E5 and E1. on E5, and looks at the
When completely moving aside, the teacher leaves the pupils in front of the
resource but she does not leave them alone. She organises the discussion, indicates
what they should look at in the table (photogram B1) and brings them to focus on
a particular issue (photogram B2 then B3). Nevertheless, she does not specify this
issue herself: “we could have accepted that message but we had met some problems,
and Vanessa you made a remark here” (photogram B4).
Then the teacher moves away from the blackboard area and walks between desks,
so that she’s close to pupils. After re-emphasizing the differences between the two
types of messages, she invites Vanessa to speak:
11 Classroom Video Data and Resources for Teaching 221
“Vanessa: there are 25 sheets and 27 sheets, there are two sheets as deviation.
And we had said that it could. . . we had found “25 sheets 2 mm 1/2”, then 27
2 mm 1/2, almost 3. And so it proves that it is. . . we have not finished, need a
calliper, uh, a more sophisticated calliper, with more. . . um
T: with more. . .?
P: strokes. . .
T: Yes Peter? More details? But which details would you have needed?
P: the half-millimetre
T: What?
P: half-millimetre
T: half-millimetre
By her spatial positioning among the pupils, the teacher indicates that she let
them a lot of space in didactical joint action. According to Vanessa, the difficulty
here for pupils lies in the precision of the measuring instrument (“a calliper, uh, a
more sophisticated calliper”). The teacher is now close to Vanessa (referring to the
blackboard). That encourages Vanessa to take more responsibility and allows the
emergence of the question of the accuracy of the measuring instrument.
That will be resolved by other means: the rising number of sheets. Instead of
contradicting Vanessa’s assertion, the teacher accepts it, makes it clearer and asks
the pupils to detail information that would be useful to solve the problem: “half-
millimetre” (the graduations of the calliper). This statement sets off controversy
about the accuracy of the tool. Pupils can take part in the controversy, with the help
of the table on the blackboard. To help pupils to realize that the table could be a
possible resource, the teacher moves to the blackboard.
B10
During the discussion, the teacher stands near the blackboard while leaving a
distance between her and the part of the table she is currently pointing to (27 sheets
of paper = two and a half mm almost 3, message previously produced by the pupils).
This pointing gesture along with her spatial positioning, her posture and her eye-
contact allows both the teacher to be present at the heart of the debate and the pupils
to bear the major responsibility.
The teacher does not decide whether “graduations” should be used, but instead,
she encourages the pupils to debate on how to practically designate each sheet of
paper: “but here, would half-millimetres be helpful?”[. . .] “to write this message
. . .”
Finally, a pupil provides the refutation: “we’ll finish with an all black strip”. Once
this proposal has been discussed, the teacher now joins the pupils again. Doing this,
she leaves the blackboard area as a free space.
T: Anyway we, on our T: So therefore, uh, we T: So, could we not do T: Have some of you
callipers, we have only stayed on that problem, it differently? Some who have found it
millimetres. saying half a millimetre, teams have perhaps difficult ... did it fall on
P: I’ve found how to do it. and then another half of met those difficulties… halves, or almost
P: we’ve found it! the half, and we’ll never with the half. halves ...
succeed, we must find
another solution.
After staying for a while The teacher indicates The teacher goes back The teacher turns her
among the students, the cell E5 while among students, back to the blackboard,
the teacher goes back looking at the pupils. looking alternately at and moves to the back
to the blackboard. them and at the table of the classroom.
on the blackboard.
11 Classroom Video Data and Resources for Teaching 223
On the photogram B11, we see the teacher going back to the blackboard. Her
movement is accompanied by a statement that refers to the material constraints of
the milieu: “Anyway we, on our callipers, we have only millimetres”. The use of the
terms “we” and “our” underline the proximity of the teacher and the pupils.
We note that the teacher, despite the demands of some students (“we’ve found
it!”), takes time to “institutionalise” – to establish as an official reference, shared by
the whole class (Brousseau, 1997) – the rejection of sub-graduations, ensuring that
the need to find another solution has been accepted by all the students.
Moving to the blackboard (B12) is also an opportunity to engage students in
seeking further solutions.
The photogram B13 shows the teacher’s return to the pupil area. Her movements,
along with her successive eye-contacts with the pupils and her gazes on the table on
the board, continue the process of creating and maintaining proximity. The teacher
does not say: “my” “your” or “their” problem but “our” problem because everybody
has worked on it. “Some teams have perhaps met these problems. . . with the half”.
The teacher’s spatial positioning close to the students, with her focus on the table
(on the board) enable her to remind pupils of the presence of the table where all
the notations produced are captured. Even though the teacher makes clear that the
table is available and could be useful, the pupils remain responsible for relying on
the relevant information. This process is supported by the movement of the teacher
to the back of the class (B14), now turning her back to the blackboard.
These teacher’s comings and goings are accompanied by many gestures and hand
movements that support her activity. The final movement of the teacher leaves room
for the pupils to act.
B15 B16
P: I! P: We are team 2
T: You, yes? So, what team do you belong to? T: You are team 2. Ah, so how have you solved the
problem?
The teacher keeps on fading back of the She stops at the last rank, next to the pupil who is
classroom. speaking, while looking ostensibly at the table.
224 D. Forest and A. Mercier
The teacher implements here a real didactical reticence: she helps the pupils in
the process of finding the thickness but the progress of the action remains under
their responsibility. Finally the teacher adopts a position of a pupil looking at the
table as a collective resource, the main object of attention (B16).
At the same time, her proximity with the pupil who is currently speaking allows
the teacher to encourage her in producing a proposal (including a slight touch of the
student in photogram B15). The support of the pupil’s action is better understood if,
like the pupils, we have the table in front of us and in particular the boxes with the
messages of the team 2 who has solved the problem (Table 11.1).
Supported by the teacher, the pupil explains the approach of her group, which will
be commented on later in a collective discussion. Then the teacher will institution-
alise the notations invented by the pupils as a mathematical object before starting
to fill the empty boxes on the board. From now that point on, these notations are
available to all.
In this lesson, we have considered pupils’ actions when measuring the thickness of
a paper sheet and coding their results (the action situation according to Brousseau,
1997), in addition to the actions on the various representations pupils have worked
with and developed (the formulation-situation). We have linked the movement from
the action-situation to the formulation-situation with the teacher’s technique to ini-
tiate and manage this movement. We have shown then how the teacher does this
by mobilising an artifact5 as a resource for her action (Brousseau, 1997, pp. 195–
202): a two-way table of pupils’ coding results (groups) × (types of paper), on
the blackboard (Mercier, Rouchier, & Lemoyne, 2001). She directs pupils’ atten-
tion to the table producing in that way a public account of the pupils’ previous
actions. This artifact supports a new and unique collective memory about multi-
ple personal actions (Flückiger & Mercier, 2002; Matheron & Salin, 2002). Pupils’
representations, recorded on the blackboard, become mathematical codes and make
sense for all: this allows pupils to remember their own action as related to their and
others’ previous actions. From now on the teacher can say “What did we do yes-
terday, and what did you do personally?” and she produces a new situation where
mathematisation is the focus.
In this lesson the pupils’ actions change, from measurement to proportional rea-
soning, through the notations they produce. This process supposes a communication
5 We share Tomasello’s position (1999): “The evidence that human beings do indeed have species-
unique modes of cultural transmission is overwhelming. Most importantly, the cultural traditions
and artifacts of human beings accumulate modifications over time in a way that those of other
animal species do not” (pp. 4–5), including in these artefacts “tool industries, symbolic communi-
cation, and social institutions”, this process requiring “faithful social transmission that can work
as a ratchet to prevent slippage backward” (p. 5).
11 Classroom Video Data and Resources for Teaching 225
game (in which notations are tested through the information they provide) and a val-
idation game (when notations are verified thanks to theory, here, proportionality) in
course of which the pupils come to see their notations as mathematical notations for
measures: the first step towards rational numbers. To support this didactical move-
ment, the teacher must be confident that acting in this way is the “right way” of
teaching mathematics. Not only because this is an inquiry-based method, but also
because this method requests the related didactical movement (Brousseau, 1997).
This reflects Brousseau’s epistemological point of view on mathematics: num-
bers are symbolic systems that give a complete report for measurement operations
(Lebesgue, 1935/1975).
Every day the “test teacher” in Brousseau’s CORMT asks herself about the peda-
gogical content knowledge that is at stake for her lesson: “What is the future of this
symbolic code that the pupils have proposed as an account for their action?” and
“From now, using this code, what could they calculate?”, “What reasoning is then
made possible?” She has now to find a way of helping pupils in their work with the
codes: testing their usefulness and validating their theoretical consistency. Those
two dimensions of the pupils’ action rely on the teacher’s ability to organise and
regulate specific situations (Brousseau, ibidem). For those reasons the “teacher’s
game” is a very difficult game to play. Playing this game is a subtle action, out
of reach for an inexperienced teacher. However, teaching in an inquiry-based way
requires such choices. A written documentation is available from CORMT archives
but no one could use it for teaching again the CORMT lessons: the documents don’t
give enough information about the very decisions a teacher must make (Forget &
Schubauer-Leoni, 2008; Schubauer, Leutenegger, Ligozat, Flückiger, & Thevenaz-
Christens, 2010). It leads us to raise the question of the possible use of CORMT
videos for the training of novice teachers.
We claim that it is much more useful to show to novice teachers some seri-
alised sequences of test teachers’ actions than to give them a lecture upon teaching
gestures and their effectiveness (though we will not test this hypothesis here and
leave it for future work). In particular, studies of such videos could be organised
within collective groups of teachers and researchers (Mercier et al., 2001). Such an
approach seems to be fruitful: therefore, we argue for constituting large databases
of classroom video, as we began to do it in the frame of the Vidéos de Situations
d’Apprentissage (ViSA, videos of learning situations)6 project.
6 The provision ViSA is supported by the IFE and ENS Lyon, in the VISA project (http://visa.inrp.
fr).
226 D. Forest and A. Mercier
provides a wealth and variety of cases, and allows users to reflect and analyse teach-
ing and learning process. But we have to take into account that a key component of
teaching expertise seems to be the ability to notice and to interpret what happens
in one’s classroom (Sherin & Van Es, 2005). Expert teachers make special choices
about where to direct their attention.
This “noticing” capacity detailed by Sherin is likely to be important if we want to
implement inquiry-based lessons like Brousseau’s lessons. Training teachers, with
the help of video, to set up such inquiry-based lessons is a challenge for teacher
educators, in particular for the following reasons:
(1) Analysing teachers’ choices (made visible with the help of video) requires
investigating their Pedagogical Content Knowledge (Ma, 1999; Shulman,
1986). This is a delicate matter, which could be approached in training via
collective work, as in lesson studies (Chapter 15).
(2) Teachers’ proxemic behavior and pragmatic use of language cannot be taught by
lectures, because non-verbal phenomena are fundamentally different from ver-
bal phenomena with which they are intertwined. This difference has been the-
orized by Bateson (1972) through the analogic-digital distinction.7 Therefore
we have to use a specific way to make the non-verbal phenomena visible and
accessible (Forest, 2009; Wilder, 1998).
(3) Teachers’ proxemic behavior and pragmatic use of language are teaching
techniques8 but are also individual and personal properties.
Like mathematics in the CORMT example, all activities which aim at under-
standing the world, are made possible due to the production of a system of
representations which serves as a framework for the work of de-psychologisation
and rationalisation of our primitive knowledge (Bachelard, 1965). Studying the
teacher’s action requires to build such a distance with the observed reality; it cannot
rely only on the natural language. Displaying useful and relevant elements to study
teacher’s action (natural and technical language, video shots, photograms, etc.) is a
way to build this distance, which is needed to provide access to the phenomena, and
progress in the understanding of the teacher’s action.
Video shots can show this movement, from the pupils’ action in the world of
objects (playing a real game) to their actions in a world of symbolic objects that
allow them to understand the world of objects (playing with symbols to master the
rules of the real game, if not the game). And videos can show the teacher’s choices
in accompanying pupils in this movement related to “umbilical questions” such as
the one we choose as emblematic for this issue: “How can we measure objects which
are much smaller than a measuring unit?”, for which an universal answer is such an
object as “a rational number”. Every didactical exercise constitutes an interpretation
of the knowledge to be studied. If this interpretation is worth being studied, the
video can provide the researchers with the material, physical and language elements
that are part of each joint didactical action. This may produce, thanks to a collective
work with teachers, formal systems that can guide the action (Fleck, 1935/1979;
Chapter 3).
A video documentary can show objects and their functioning, human gestures
and enunciations. But the rhythm of the lesson yields an empathetic movement,
which hinders the scientific observation. The use of photograms permits to over-
come this difficulty. It allows us to consider more systematically what happens in
the classroom; this use of photograms is a way of “creating distance”. It seems that
the analyses of recordings need to be conceived in a renewed paradigm (Bateson,
op. cit.; Winkin, 2000). With the discretisation of data and the resulting photoshots
it becomes possible to make particular phenomena visible and to connect semiotic
constructions with the underlying didactic intentions (Chapter 3).
Our work illustrates how physical processes and language phenomena participate in
the dynamics of the milieu, in which the teacher’s actions rely on a very elaborated
epistemology visible through the preparation of the lesson (Brousseau & Brousseau,
1987) and also in the process of teaching. But there is a huge gap between the way
mathematics is typically taught in French schools and the teaching on the CORMT
videos. If those data provide us with the opportunity to revisit inquiry-based teach-
ing as Brousseau imagined it, we claim that a simple viewing of classroom videos
does not allow the teachers to fully and accurately elucidate the teacher’s and pupils’
didactical joint actions. It needs a more sophisticated approach; in the following, we
start to explain what such an approach could be.
228 D. Forest and A. Mercier
Firstly, we need to create distance while watching body gestures and positioning.
Furthermore, we need a system of description which allows us “to recognize the
hallmarks of a didactical phenomenon” (Leutenegger, 2000, p. 245, our translation),
a semiology of didactical facts and acts such as clinicians invented for medicine,
during the XIXth century (Foucault, 1973). Moreover, the semiology that we need
must take into consideration both the teachers’ knowledge and the pupils’ knowl-
edge, and their evolution. Our multimodal analysis with proxemic, verbal transcript
and photograms attempts to build such a system.
Secondly, conditions and constraints in ordinary schools are not the same as
in the CORMT school. In addition, there is a considerable time gap (30 years).
The use of video for teachers’ professional training and development requires an
extensive study of didactic systems within the ordinary classrooms. Therefore, we
are currently trying to experimentally bring about the phenomena observed in the
CORMT school, and to produce video shots for mathematics teachers’ professional
training based on these experiments. In various French schools we are following
Brousseau’s method and we videotape teachers setting up collaborative interactions
with the pupils, and using the representations they produce, constituting them into
resources for the learning processes.
Thirdly, as Lave and Wenger (1991) argue, “a community of practice is an
intrinsic condition for the existence of knowledge” (p. 98). Drawing on “didactical
engineered” lessons like those of Brousseau, our videos could be used in collective
settings, similar to “lesson studies” (Chapter 15), and with the support of teacher
educators and/or researcher (Chapter 17). Practices could be on the basis of the
experience of “teacher’s video-club”, as reported by Van Es and Sherin (2009). With
this analytical and practical devices, teachers produce, watch and discuss excerpts
of videos from their classrooms.
In summary, we claim that the production and use of video documents is useful
for teachers education, in particular when used in connection with Brousseau’s the-
oretical framework. This is much more ambitious than producing the photograms
of a single episode. However, designing such a resource needs to be thought
through carefully. The aim is neither to lead teachers to reproduce what they see
on the screen, by mere imitation, nor to introduce theoretical categories. The most
promising training device could consist of teachers collectively studying the same
situations, which in turn may lead them to re-produce “didactical engineering” of
those situations, with the support of researchers.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Serge Quilio for providing this video from
CORMT and for his suggestions about analysis, Tracy Bloor and Jana Visnovska for helping us to
revise the English language in this chapter.
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Chapter 12
Interactions of Teachers’ and Students’
Use of Mathematics Textbooks
Sebastian Rezat
12.1 Introduction
Many studies tackling the question “What kinds of curriculum materials do teachers
select and use, and how?” that has been raised in the introduction of this volume
point to the importance of mathematics textbooks. The mathematics textbook was
and still is considered to be one of the most important resources for teaching and
learning mathematics (Valverde, Bianchi, Wolfe, Schmidt, & Houang, 2002).
Studies on teachers’ preparation work, and on teachers’ use of textbooks – even
though carried out in different countries and focusing on different grade-levels –
draw a very coherent picture of how and how often teachers use their mathemat-
ics textbooks: In planning activities teachers rely heavily on textbooks (Bromme &
Hömberg, 1981; Chávez, 2003; Hopf, 1980) and the mathematical content of the
classroom is heavily influenced by the text (Johansson, 2006; Schmidt, Porter,
Floden, Freeman, & Schwille, 1987). Mathematics textbooks are used by teachers in
two dominant ways, namely as a source for tasks and problems (Pepin & Haggarty,
2001, p. 168), and as a guide for instruction. The latter relates to decisions about
what to teach, which instructional approach to follow, and how to present content
(Valverde et al., 2002, p. 53).
But, where is the student? Although some authors regard students as the main
readers of textbooks (Kang & Kilpatrick, 1992; Love & Pimm, 1996), studies on
the use of textbooks by students are rare. That mathematics textbooks are directed
at learners is already apparent in the mode of address (see Chapter 6) of most text-
books: The voice of mathematics textbook is directed to students, e.g. students are
invited to do tasks and activities, mathematical concepts are explained in a way that
is appropriate for students (Remillard, 2000; Valverde et al., 2002). Nevertheless,
students are usually only considered when textbooks are analysed in terms of oppor-
tunities to learn. How students take advantage of these opportunities has only been
studied at a rudimentary level.
S. Rezat (B)
Institut für Didaktik der Mathematik, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, 35394 Giessen, Germany
e-mail: sebastian.rezat@math.uni-giessen.de
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 231
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_12,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
232 S. Rezat
But, Pepin and Haggarty (2001) also point out that “the ways in which the teacher
mediates the text are largely unknown” (p. 166).
The notion of interactions of teachers’ and students’ use of textbooks has differ-
ent facets. In a narrow sense it relates to the question of how teachers’ and students’
uses of the textbook interact with one another. More broadly “interactions” also
refers to impacts of the teachers’ use of the textbook on students learning, for exam-
ple motivational aspects, and to how students’ use of textbooks affects the teacher
in a more general sense, for example the planned succession of the lesson.
This chapter will elaborate on teachers’ mediation of textbook use and on
impacts of students’ use of textbooks on teachers’ plans. The findings presented
here build on a study that was initially carried out with a focus on students’ use
of textbooks (Rezat, 2009). In the next section the methodology of the study will
be introduced. The major findings of the study concerning impacts of teachers’
use of textbooks on students and vice versa will be presented in Sections 12.3
and 12.4. These findings will lead to the proposal of a more comprehensive
12 Interactions of Teachers’ and Students’ Use of Mathematics Textbooks 233
framework for the investigation of the use of textbooks and other resources that
are shared by students and teachers in section 12.5.
12.2 Methodology
First of all, the data were coded according to the procedures of Grounded
Theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Open coding of teachers’ explicit references
to the textbook in the classroom was used to identify and develop dimensions of
teacher-mediation of textbook use.
To understand the teachers’ mediatory role on students’ use of mathematics text-
books, students’ utilisations of the book were reconstructed using the theoretical
lens of Rabardel’s (1995, 2002) theory of the instrument. According to Rabardel
an instrument is a psychological entity that consists of an artefact component and a
scheme component. In using the artefact with specific intention the subject develops
utilisation schemes which are shaped by both, the artefact and the subject.
Furthermore, the effects of students’ use of mathematics textbooks on teach-
ers’ plans were analysed using the documentational approach (Gueudet & Trouche,
2009; see also Chapter 2) as a theoretical lens. The documentational approach is
based on Rabardels’ notions of instrumentalisation and instrumentation of artefacts.
According to Gueudet and Trouche (2009; Chapter 2), teachers’ documentation
work encompasses teachers’ interactions with resources, their selection and teach-
ers’ work on them (adapting, revising, reorganising . . .). A document consists of
a set of resources and utilisation schemes linked to these resources and to specific
situations.
A pivotal aspect of both theoretical lenses used in this analysis is the notion
of utilization scheme. According to Vergnaud (1996) a scheme is an invariant
organisation of behaviour for a certain class of situations. It is characterised by
operational invariants, inference possibilities, rules of action and goals. Vergnaud
stresses the importance of operational invariants. They represent knowledge that is
implemented in a scheme and therefore determine the particular structure of the
scheme. Therefore, the reconstruction of operational invariants can contribute sub-
stantially to the understanding of teachers’ and students’ use of resources and related
interactions.
While different theoretical lenses are used to grasp different aspects of inter-
actions related to teachers’ and students’ uses of textbooks these frameworks are
complementary because both the instrumental approach and the documentational
approach, are related to Rabardel’s theory of the instrument. By referring to anal-
ogous theoretical concepts, such as instrumentalisation and instrumentation, they
are capable of drawing a comprehensive picture of the phenomenon under study by
approaching it from different perspectives. How to integrate these frameworks into
a more comprehensive framework will be discussed at the end of this chapter.
the field notes enabled the identification of different dimensions in which teachers
mediate textbook use.
Teacher 1 (6th grade) uses tasks from the book only once in a while but he draws
attention to the book in a general way almost every lesson. Whenever he asks the
student to do a task or problem he points to the book as a helpful means, for example
“If you don’t know how it is done you can look it up in your textbook”1 or “in order
to do the following task there is a resource you might use: your book”. In addition, he
arranges teaching scenarios where students have to use their books to find assistance.
He let the students work individually on a worksheet with questions about symmetry
and congruence mappings. After they finished the worksheet he asked them to look
up their answers in the book without referring to specific sections. Accordingly, the
students had to find the relevant sections in the book on their own. Furthermore,
teacher 1 addresses textbook use on a meta-level, for example “What could you do
if you don’t find anything helpful skimming through your book? You know, it can
happen that you overlook something”.
Teacher 2 (12th grade) uses tasks and problems from the book mostly for assign-
ing homework, for example “Homework, due Monday: Page 184, number 5 b, e, h”.
After introducing the integration by parts rule as a new subject she points to the
book in a general manner: “What we have done today you can find on page 182”.
Teacher 3 (6th grade) and teacher 4 (12th grade) use the mathematics textbook
predominantly in a way that is regarded as typical in the relevant literature, namely
as a collection of tasks and problems. The structure of the lessons of teacher 4 can
be best described as a sequence of tasks and problems from the book with short
instructional interludes. Typically, he refers to the book in the following way: “And
now we want to look inside our books on page 22, number 7, please”; “Let’s look
inside the book on page 33, number 2, please”; “For Wednesday, please work on
numbers 3, 4, and 5 on page 33”.
These four teachers’ explicit references to the textbook can be characterised
according to three dimensions. The first dimension relates to the way in which
the students’ use of the textbook is affected by the teacher. Students’ use of text-
books might be influenced directly or indirectly by the teacher. All references to the
textbook quoted above are explicit: The teacher is talking about the book in some
way. Thus, the students’ attention is drawn directly to the book. However, it will be
shown later that students’ utilisations of mathematics textbooks are also influenced
indirectly by the mere use of the textbook by the teacher in the classroom. In these
cases, the use of the textbook is not caused by an explicit reference to the book by
the teacher, but the use of the book in the classroom is a prerequisite for the stu-
dents’ self-directed use. Indirect mediation of textbook use is usually not planned
by the teacher and often eludes his attention.
The second dimension of mediation of textbook use relates to the specificity
in which the teacher refers to the book. Teacher 4 typically refers to a specific
1 All citations from teachers and students are originally in German und were translated by the
author.
236 S. Rezat
section in the book, for example page 22, task number 7. On the contrary, teacher 1’s
references to the book are general. He does not refer to specific sections, but draws
attention to the book in a general way. In the case of teacher 1, the students have to
decide themselves which section on which page they are using. Specific and general
mediation of textbook use can only appear in combination with direct mediation,
because the characteristic of indirect mediation is that the teacher does not refer to
the book at all, but the students are influenced by its use in class.
The third dimension relates to the binding character of the mediation. Teachers’
mediation of textbook use might be voluntary or obligatory. Teacher 1 mediates the
use of the textbook as a voluntary task. He reminds the students that they can use
the book in order to get assistance. But, the students do not have to use the book if
they do not need assistance. In contrast to teacher 1, the mediation of textbook use
of teacher 4 is obligatory. The students do not have a choice to use the book or not.
They are supposed to work on the assigned tasks and problems.
The matrix in Fig. 12.1 summarises the conceptualisation of these different
ways teachers mediate textbook use and draws attention to the fact that all three
dimensions are intertwined in a concrete mediation of textbook use.
Fig. 12.1 Conceptualisation
of ways teachers mediate Mediation Obligatory Voluntary
textbook use
Specific
Direct
General
Indirect
Five of these six combinations of the different ways teachers mediate text-
book use were actually observed in the study. The five ways of mediation will be
explained in the following sections.
It was also observed that teachers sometimes explicitly refer to a specific section in
the textbook in a non-obligatory sense. Teacher 2’s reference to the section in the
book where students can find the subject of the mathematics class is a typical case
of direct, specific and voluntary mediation. The teacher refers explicitly to a specific
page of the book and thus mediates textbook use directly and specifically, however,
12 Interactions of Teachers’ and Students’ Use of Mathematics Textbooks 237
students are not obliged to read the page as the prompt is just a hint to students for
further study.
From the interview data on students’ use of textbooks it becomes apparent that
students sometimes also ask the teacher for such recommendations. For example,
Lilli – a sixth grade student – explained in the interview: “I usually ask the teacher
for recommendations which parts of the book I can use for further practicing”.
In the study, teacher 1 did not always refer to specific sections in the textbook. In
the case of the teaching scenario with the worksheet, he explicitly asked the students
to look up their answers in the book without telling them a specific section. Other
times, he advised his students to use the book when they needed assistance with
tasks and problems. In these cases, the use of the book was voluntary. But again, he
did not tell them specifically where the relevant information can be found.
book in the mathematics class. Therefore, the teacher’s use of the textbook in class is
a perquisite for Emma’s voluntary utilisation of the book. Students’ like Emma are
most affected by implicit teacher mediation. This became evident in the mathematics
class of teacher 1. Teacher 1 did not use tasks from the book for a period of 2 weeks.
Some students did not use their books for consolidation during this time. But, after
the teacher let them work on some tasks from the book they used their book heavily
for consolidation in the same way as Emma.
Whereas in Emma’s case the teacher’s use of the textbook is a prerequisite for
her use of the book the case of Merle illustrates that a close connection between
the sequencing of textbook contents and instruction can foster student’s voluntary
learning.
One of Merle’s (6th grade) utilisation schemes of the textbook is her use of ker-
nels and excerpts from the expository section of the textbook lesson that follows
the textbook lesson corresponding to the latest topic of her mathematics class. She
infers the relevance of the section from its position in the book. Underlying this
inference is the assumption that the order of the textbook lessons corresponds to the
succession of the topics in the mathematics class. Her utilisation-scheme also inter-
acts strongly with the use of the textbook by the teacher. But, the interaction is of
a different kind than in the case of Emma. Emma’s use of the textbook was depen-
dent on the teacher’s use of the textbooks. If the teacher does not use tasks from the
book, Emma will not utilise her textbook. In contrast to Emma the teacher’s use of
the textbook is not a prerequisite for Merle’s utilisation. She can find out the lesson
in the textbook that corresponds with the latest topic in the mathematics class her-
self. However, if the teacher does not follow the sequence of the book her scheme is
not useful.
Merle’s case sheds a different light on teachers’ close adherence to the book.
Whereas an instruction that closely follows the book is sometimes connoted neg-
atively (Ewing, 2004), it provides the foundation for an effective utilisation of the
book by Merle.
The two cases exemplify how the teacher’s use of the textbook can affect stu-
dents’ use of textbooks. Both students used the textbook of their own initiative,
but in both cases the use of the textbook by the teacher was related to a success-
ful utilisation. Whereas in the first case the teacher’s use of textbooks in class is
a prerequisite for Emmas’ self-directed selection from the book, the second case
shows that a close adherence of teacher’s instruction to topics and sequencing in the
textbook might afford students’ self-regulated learning. Some students are highly
dependent on teachers’ implicit mediation of the textbook.
teachers. In the study, situations where the students’ use of the textbooks interfered
with the teachers’ plans were documented during classroom observation. One exem-
plary situation observed in sixth grade will be analysed in detail to substantiate this
assertion:
The subject of the lesson is the rule for multiplying decimals. The aim of the
teacher is that the students discover the rule themselves. The resources he uses are
four tasks from different textbooks and group work. The textbooks from which the
tasks are chosen are not used by the students. These tasks are supposed to guide
students’ discovery of the rule for multiplying decimals in different ways: one by
estimation in an everyday context, a second one by transforming decimals into ordi-
nary fractions, a third one by using the calculator and the fourth one by calculating
as if there was no decimal point and setting the decimal point afterwards on the basis
of estimation. The situation is characterised by a tension between the requirements
of the tasks and the students’ knowledge.
While working on the task in small groups two students use the box with the rule
from the textbook-lesson “multiplying decimals”. The reason Denise gives for using
her book is: “I want to know how to multiply decimals”. Mia argues that she uses
her book because she “want(s) to know it in advance.”
Following the group work the teacher summarises the findings from the work
in small groups in whole class discussion. The resources he uses are students’ ver-
balisations of the rule. While writing the rule for multiplying decimals onto the
black board, one student complains: “But, in the textbooks it says that you have to
determine the algebraic sign first.”
This statement reveals that the student compared the rule on the black board with
the rule in the book. He wants to know why both rules are not identical. The teacher
is obviously not prepared for this kind of intervention and answers: “I don’t care
what is written in the book.”
The analysis of this situation in terms of the documentational approach reveals
that these students’ use of the textbook as an instrument affected the teacher’s plan.
The document of the teacher comprises the four tasks, group work, students’ verbal-
isations of the discovered rule and the black board as resources. From his utilisation
of the resources the following operational invariants might be inferred: “To guide
students’ discovery of the rule for multiplying decimals is a good way of introduc-
ing the new rule”. “Using students’ own verbalisations of a new rule is a good way
to formulate a new rule”. In this situation the document is constructed in use.
The statements of the two students using their textbook during group work reveal
that both students use the book in order to acquire knowledge that is required to
solve the problem. Consequently, both of them avoid the discovery of the rule for
multiplying decimals and skip directly to the essential result by using their text-
books. Thus, the instrumentalisations of the textbook by the two students as a means
to acquire knowledge interferes with the teacher’s instrumentalisation of the four
tasks, that is with a central feature of the teacher’s document.
The incident, occurring during the verbalisation of the new rule in whole class
discussion, is also characterised by a conflict of the students’ behaviour with the
operational invariant of the teacher’s utilisation scheme. While the student seems to
240 S. Rezat
be interested in a correct and consistent formulation of the rule and therefore relies
on the authority of the textbook the teacher wants to connect to students’ creative
mathematical activity by using the resource “students’ verbalisation”.
In both the incidents the teacher is confronted with unexpected student inter-
ventions. As a consequence the document cannot be implemented in the way it
was planned. An interesting question here is how the document changes because
of the students’ behaviour. To answer this question information about the teacher’s
repeated instrumentalisation of tasks to guide students’ discovery of mathematical
rules and his instrumentalisation of students’ verbalisations are required. The data
used here do not contain any more information about similar situations. But, since
students’ use of textbooks in a group work situation easily eludes the teacher’s atten-
tion, it is likely that the document will not be affected. This might be different for the
incident occurring in whole class discussion. Nevertheless, this observation points
to the importance of knowledge about students’ use of resources as part of teachers’
professional knowledge. If the teacher is familiar with students’ instrumentalisations
of textbooks this knowledge is likely to influence his documentational genesis.
These observations point to the important fact, that students’ use of resources can
play a crucial role in teachers’ documentational work, especially if the evolution of
documents in use is considered. Therefore, the role of students in the documenta-
tional process should not be reduced to resources that are used by the teacher, but the
active part of the student in shaping the enacted curriculum should also be consid-
ered. As Cohen, Raudenbush, & Ball (2003) write “Learning depends on students
and teachers making bits of lessons develop and connect” (p. 126). Therefore, Cohen
et al. argue for a model in which the key causal agents are situated in instruction. In
the following section, a model fulfilling this need will be outlined.
In the introduction of the chapter it was pointed out that research on the use of
textbooks either focuses solely on teachers or on students. The same seems to apply
for research on the use of ICT (see Chapter 3). Consequently, theoretical frameworks
conceptualising the use of these resources emphasise either the role of teachers or
students. The other user of the resources and its role as an active designer of the
enacted curriculum tends to be marginalised, respectively.
In the previous section it was argued that the documentational approach concep-
tualising teachers’ interactions with resources proposed by Gueudet and Trouche
(2009) does not comprise students’ use of resources as an influential factor affect-
ing teachers’ design process of the curriculum. As long as the focus is on the design
area (Remillard, 2005), that is teachers’ activities outside the class, this model suits
the situation as the teachers’ activities are only affected by his beliefs about stu-
dents’ use of resources. Gueudet’s and Trouche’s framework (Chapter 2) considers
teachers’ beliefs as an important aspect affecting planning decisions and therefore
is an appropriate model for the design area. Although the documentational approach
focuses on teachers’ planning activities outside the class (Gueudet & Trouche, 2009,
12 Interactions of Teachers’ and Students’ Use of Mathematics Textbooks 241
p. 201). Gueudet and Trouche point out that the design of documents continues in
use (p. 207). But, as soon as the document in use is considered insufficient atten-
tion is paid to the active role of the student in the documentational approach. This
was exemplified by the situation analysed in the previous section. The active part
that students’ use of resources plays in the design of documents is not accessible
via teachers’ beliefs in the documentational work. Therefore, if the framework is
supposed to comprise the design of documents in use as suggested by Gueudet and
Trouche (2009), the use of resources by students influencing this process has to be
considered.
A comparison of the documentational approach with the framework concep-
tualising teachers’ interactions with curriculum materials2 proposed by Remillard
(2005) reveals that Remillard pays more attention to the students’ active role. In her
framework the student is included as an influential factor on the enacted curricu-
lum and therefore affects the teachers’ participatory relationship with curriculum
materials. But still, the framework explicitly conceptualizes the teacher–curriculum
relationship and marginalises the students’ role. Students are regarded as only one
influential factor, among others, on the enacted curriculum. His role as an active
user of the same material is not taken into account.
The previous analysis of both the effects of students’ use of resources on the
implementation of teachers’ documents and the impact of teachers’ use of resources
in the classroom on students’ use of them indicates that a comprehensive investiga-
tion of the use of resources must consider both users of the resources: the teacher
and the student. Only focusing on one of these aspects will lead to an incomplete
picture because the interactions between the use of resources by teachers and by
students are neglected. A more comprehensive model for the study of the use of
resources is provided by the didactical tetrahedron in Fig. 12.2.
Resources
Student
Teacher
Fig. 12.2 The didactical
tetrahedron – a
comprehensive model for the
study of the use of resources Mathematics
2 Curriculum materials are only one aspect of resources in the wide meaning underlying the
documentation approach. Therefore, Remillards’ framework is more limited in scope than the
documentation approach because of the focus on curriculum materials.
242 S. Rezat
In this model resources are situated in relation to the didactical system in the
narrow sense as described by Chevallard (1985). In line with Cohen et al. (2003),
the teacher and the students are regarded as active agents of instruction and as
active users of resources. Therefore, the model allows for the analysis of interactions
between teachers and students over content including their independent, but inter-
related use of resources. Regarding the broad conceptualisation of “resources” that
is put forward in this book (Adler, 2000; Chapter 1), it might seem surprising that
mathematics and resources appear at two different vertices in the didactical tetra-
hedron. Adler (2000; Chapter 1) argues for a conceptualisation of knowledge as a
resource, and thus mathematics, understood as mathematical knowledge, should not
be separated from the resources in the didactical tetrahedron. But, Adler herself sep-
arates mathematics and resources when she refers to resources as being “both visible
(seen/available and so possible to use) and invisible (seen through to the mathemat-
ical object intended in a particular material or verbal representation) if their use
is to enable access to mathematics” (see Chapter 1). This also becomes apparent
in the definition of what she calls an “evaluative event”, that is “an interactional
sequence in a mathematics classroom aimed at a particular mathematical concept or
skill” (see Chapter 1). Additionally, it is suggested in the activity theory origins of
the instrumental approach (Rabardel & Bourmaud, 2003; Chapter 2) to distinguish
between the object of the activity and the mediating artefacts (Engeström, 1987;
Vygotsky, 1978). In line with the previous considerations the didactical tetrahe-
dron puts forward the view that the object of the activity of teaching and learning
mathematics is mathematics. Furthermore, the distinction between resources and
mathematics affords the inclusion of other aspects, such as that of semiotic medi-
ation (Sträßer, 2009, p. (1)75). Thus, it seems to be capable of further expansion
and integration of other important aspects in the field of the use of resources, for
example, the Theory of Semiotic Mediation (see Chapter 3).
In the following discussion. it will be substantiated that this model is capable
of integrating different theoretical perspectives on the basis of the instrumental
approach and relates these perspectives to one another.
The documentational approach conceptualises teachers’ interactions with
resources (Chapter 2). The outcome of this interaction is a document consisting
of a set of resources and utilisation schemes which comprise teachers’ beliefs as
operational invariants. The scope of a document is linked to a class of professional
situations which are defined in mathematical terms. Altogether, the documentational
approach conceptualises activities of teachers with resources related to specific
mathematical content. In the didactical tetrahedron this activity is represented by the
triangle with the vertices teacher, resources and mathematics. As outlined above, a
shortcoming of the documentational approach is that the active role of students in
the design of documents in use is not included. This aspect is added in the didac-
tical tetrahedron. The triangle with the vertices student, resources and mathematics
represents the student as an active user of resources in order to learn mathemat-
ics. In this triangle, the use of resources by the student is conceptualised by the
instrumental approach (Rabardel, 1995, 2002; Trouche, 2005). The teacher’s task is
an intentional and systematic organisation of resources available in a mathematical
12 Interactions of Teachers’ and Students’ Use of Mathematics Textbooks 243
task situation to guide students’ instrumental genesis. This activity is captured by the
metaphor of orchestration (Trouche, 2004; see also Chapter 14) which is introduced
in the context of the instrumental approach. Thus, the teacher’s perspective on the
triangle “student–resources–mathematics” is a perspective of orchestration. Finally,
the effects that the instrumental geneses3 of the teacher and of the students have
on one another are represented by the triangle with the vertices teacher, students
and resources. Both, teachers and students are active users of resources with their
own individual instrumental genesis. In the triangle “teacher–students–resources”,
these instrumental geneses interact with one another. On the one hand, the student is
capable of affecting the instrumental genesis of different resources within the doc-
umentational genesis of the teacher as outlined in section 12.4 by being an active
user of resources himself or herself. On the other hand, teachers mediate the use of
resources by their own use of them.
By incorporating the two human players in the mathematics classroom, the tetra-
hedron model allows for integrating the different theoretical perspectives related to
the instrumental approach. Therefore, it provides a more comprehensive model for
the investigation of the use of resources. It is not only suitable for the analysis of
issues related to the two players’ instrumental geneses of different resources, but
draws attention to interrelations of these instrumental geneses.
Finally, the classroom situation referred to in this article draws attention to a
particular, but nevertheless important aspect of teachers’ professional knowledge:
knowledge about students’ use of resources. The widely accepted and influential
conceptualisation of teachers’ professional knowledge by Shulman (1986) only
relates to content knowledge and therefore does not comprise knowledge about stu-
dents. Accordingly, many conceptualisations of teachers’ professional knowledge
developed from Shulmans work (e.g. Bromme, 1992) do not comprise knowledge
of students’ use of resources as an important aspect. Fortunately, this situation
has changed. The Teacher Education And Development Study in Mathematics
(TEDS-M) conducted by the International Association for the Evaluation of
Educational Achievement (IEA) – one of the latest international surveys on teachers’
professional knowledge – incorporates knowledge of students in terms of knowledge
of learning theories, predicting typical students’ responses, including misconcep-
tions, analysing or evaluating students’ mathematical solutions, arguments and
questions (Tatto, Schwille, Senk, Ingvarson, Peck, & Rowley, 2007). But still, this
conceptualisation does not comprise knowledge about students’ actual ways of
3 The notion of instrumental genesis refers to the use of artefacts, usually focusing on only one
artefact. If a set of resources is considered, it would be appropriate to speak of a teacher’s docu-
mentational genesis. However, the distinction between artefacts and resources would need further
elaboration. Furthermore, there has not been introduced an analogous notion for student’s use of
multiple resources yet. Therefore, it is only referred to instrumental genesis for both teachers and
students because it would be inconsistent to refer to the use of a set of resources for the teacher
(documentational genesis) and to the use of one artefact for the student (instrumental genesis).
Since documentational genesis encompasses the instrumental geneses of multiple artefacts this
framework also relates to documentational genesis of teachers.
244 S. Rezat
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Chapter 13
Teachers Teaching Mathematics
with Enciclomedia: A Study
of Documentational Genesis
13.1 Introduction
The integration of new technologies to the classroom and its relationship with stu-
dents’ learning and appreciation of mathematics has received attention in a wealth of
studies (e.g. Artigue, 2004; Hegedus & Moreno-Armella, 2009; Hoyles & Lagrange,
2010; Lagrange, Artigue, Laborde, & Trouche, 2003; Lozano, Sandoval, &
Trigueros, 2006; Mariotti, 2002; Trigueros & Lozano, 2007; Sandoval, 2009; Swan,
Schenker & Kratcoski, 2008). Teachers’ practices have also received some attention
(Assude, 2008; Kynigos & Argyris, 2004; Roschelle, Shechtman, Tatar, Hegedus,
Hopkins, Empson, et al., in press; Trigueros & Sacristán, 2008). In México, in the
last decades, there have been two national projects designed to integrate technology
to teaching. One of them, “Enciclomedia”, was designed to support the teaching
and learning of all subjects in grades 5 and 6 of primary school by working with
one computer and an electronic whiteboard in the classrooms, together with exist-
ing teaching mandatory materials and curriculum. Enciclomedia provides teachers
and students with digital resources – interactive programs, animations, activities for
dynamic geometry software and spreadsheets – which are linked to different parts
of the curriculum and the official textbooks.
Evaluations of the Enciclomedia project by several institutions show positive
results in terms of resources’ usability and interactivity, a high potential for pro-
moting meaningful and high order operations learning, as well as high motivation
of students (Díaz de, Guevara, Latapí, Ramón, & Ramón, 2006; Holland, Honan,
Garduño, & Flores, 2006; Trigueros, Lozano, & Lage, 2007). Issues related to
infrastructure and teacher training were, however, found problematic. One challenge
our educational system still faces is how to help teachers to integrate Enciclomedia’s
resources into their teaching of mathematics so that it contributes to student learning.
Some studies (e.g. Díaz de et al., 2006; Sagástegui, 2007) have reported that these
M. Trigueros (B)
Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, CP 1000 México City, Mexico
e-mail: trigue@itam.mx
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 247
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_13,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
248 M. Trigueros and M.-D. Lozano
resources can change the way technology is used in the classroom and help teachers
develop a learning environment where students can participate actively and profit
from their use. However, there are few studies concerned with the ways teachers
use Enciclomedia resources while participating in professional development courses
designed to help them use these resources effectively (Chávez, 2007).
In this chapter we examine teachers’ professional development through the anal-
ysis of their appropriation and transformation of Enciclomedia resources. To do
this we use the documentational approach of didactics (Chapter 2) to analyse
information about teachers’ interactions with Enciclomedia obtained from differ-
ent sources. In particular we intend to answer the following research questions: how
do teachers develop documents, which comprise several resources, including dig-
ital programs from Enciclomedia, throughout time? What are the components of
those documents? Is it possible to describe patterns in the way teachers use these
resources?
After a brief discussion of the theoretical framework, we will describe the
methodology used in this study. We then focus on the results found on how three
different teachers develop and use resource systems (see Chapter 5) in their class-
rooms, and how these systems evolve in time. We will finally discuss those results
focusing on answering our research questions.
13.3 Methodology
The research project described in this chapter was carried out by two researches
who were involved in the development of Enciclomedia resources, teacher training,
and research. Data came from different sources (lesson observation, written mate-
rials, interviews, and requested letters). Firstly, we reviewed all the information
13 Constituting Digital Tools and Materials as Classroom Resources 249
we had collected for 6 years from our direct involvement with 50 teachers work-
ing with Enciclomedia. We organised professional development workshops through
which we had intermittent contact with 10 teachers who stayed with us during 4
years. Selected workshop sessions were video recorded, and teachers’ written mate-
rials were collected. In addition, during these 4 years we carried out classroom
observations of selected teachers to investigate the ways the resources were used.
From the analysis of the collected data, we chose, for this study, to focus on three
teachers we considered representing the characteristics of different groups of teach-
ers using Enciclomedia. Two of them showed professional development pathways
that were representative for most of the 50 teachers we had closely worked with.
The first (T1) of these two was selected from a group of school teachers who were
finishing a 1-year professional development course where teachers not only learnt
more about how to use Enciclomedia resources, but also shared with each other their
experiences and practices in their classrooms. By the time he started this course, he
had already been using Enciclomedia for 2 years in 6th grade.
The second teacher (T2) teaches 6th grade students and has been using
Enciclomedia for 6 years. She was trained by the team who developed Enciclomedia
resources and had the opportunity to observe how they taught lessons using the
programs. She has also taken two other workshops on Enciclomedia, which were
offered by the local ministry of education.
Teacher (T3) is a teacher-researcher who had been teaching for 5 years in a
primary school before she included digital resources in her lessons. She has been
involved in mathematics education for several years, is interested in reading the
mathematics education literature and is eager to learn new things. She got involved
in “Enciclomedia’s” workshops from its early stages, and has been using it for 4
years. She always has the latest version of the program installed in her computer at
home. We selected her because she represented a small group of teachers who were
particularly successful in integrating resources in their practice.
After selecting the above-mentioned teachers, we carefully revised all the
collected data related to them, and decided to carry out new classroom observa-
tions using a semi-structured observation guide and to interview each of them.
Additionally we designed, specifically for this research study, an instrument which
consisted of a series of four letters, written by the teachers one every 2 months and
addressed to a fellow teacher in which they shared their experience while work-
ing on a particular mathematical topic with Enciclomedia’s resources and where
they included elements of success and difficulties encountered with students. These
letters were used as an indirect means of obtaining information that otherwise
could not have been obtained, and with the purpose of helping teachers reflect on
their practice (this is similar to the reflexive investigation approach described in
Chapter 2).
To make our results reliable, each researcher analysed all the data, using the same
general analysis guide, looking for teachers’ particular ways of using Enciclomedia
and other resources, together with their approach to teaching specific lessons. We
then came together and discussed the results obtained.
250 M. Trigueros and M.-D. Lozano
considered stable, but his use of technology was not as he utilised it differently in
different occasions. While some of the rules of action can be considered usages, we
observed that Cubícula was utilised in a haphazard manner.
During the professional development course, T1 had opportunities to reconsider
his beliefs. He reviewed his lesson plan on volumes, and taught it again. During
interviews T1 said that he “did not feel completely at ease during the lessons”;
we observed that he continuously had to modify his plan. He included the use of
paper cubes before using “Cubícula”, the combination of the program with activi-
ties from the textbook, and demonstrations by rotating the solids or decomposing
them in slices. His students participated more but he still gave most definitions and
explanations and devoted many activities to the understanding of the meaning of
symbols in formulae. During discussions in the professional development course
T1 said he was “still not sure about how to guide students’ explorations and con-
clusions”, and “how to link exploration with important mathematical ideas”. During
the interview he commented he didn’t feel confident about “how to handle students’
participation”.
We observed the influence of the activities from the professional development
course on T1’s document genesis and structure. The document’s material compo-
nent was complemented by concrete paper cubes, the blackboard and a worksheet
with questions about volumes of specific solids. Its mathematical component stayed
the same. The didactical component, however, changed. It involved exploration by
252 M. Trigueros and M.-D. Lozano
students and demonstrations by the teacher with Cubícula. New rules of action
appeared “it is important to start by knowing what students think about the topic”,
“start the lesson by using concrete materials”; “making these operations with con-
crete materials is not easy, so ‘Cubícula’ is needed.”; “immediate feedback from
the computer is important to check what students did with the program”, “use of
the program helps students visualize solids from different perspectives, it makes
counting of the cubes easier”, “use decomposition of figures by levels of cubes to
calculate their volumes”. We consider T1’s document evolved by the introduction
of concrete materials and new rules of action. The use of Cubícula is probably being
integrated in usages of resources. We can only infer that “formulae are important”
is still an operational invariant for T1, since this belief seems to guide T1’s planning
and teaching actions.
As a final requirement from his training course, T1 had to plan and teach a lesson,
and discuss some data with the instructor and colleagues. He chose the same lesson.
He added to his lesson plan: “make sure that students explore, work in teams, more
active participation”. T1 asked a colleague to take notes during his lesson to be used
for discussion in his course. He had opportunities to use the computers to prepare
his class. He told the instructor “I will let students work with concrete material and
try to make them rotate it and examine its different layers. Students need to practice
and use all their senses. When they face difficulties manipulating the materials, I
will suggest to use Cubicula”.
During the lesson he had students construct regular and irregular solids in small
groups and asked them to calculate their volume. Then he said “Let’s work with
‘Cubícula’; you will be able to see things that are not easy to see with the solids
you constructed”. He let students participate and verify results by going to and from
Cubícula’s activities and textbook problems. Students also worked with a work-
sheet he designed before doing the most difficult textbook exercises and were given
another worksheet as homework.
During discussion at the professional development course, he stressed some ideas
that are related to his changes as teacher: “mathematical discussions are important”,
“Cubícula helps developing students’ imagination and to find out ways to calculate
volume of solids”, “they also had opportunities to understand the formulae and use
them”. After the course T1’s resources system was enriched in each of its com-
ponents. The material component was enriched by the integration of the two files
he introduced; the mathematical component by his making an explicit distinction
between capacity and volume, and the didactical component changed considerably
as he motivated his students to participate, used small group work, work with the
computer, work with worksheets, and he made sure to close the session.
We found new rules of action for T1: “compare operations with concrete materi-
als to those done with Cubícula”; “use decomposition of figures by levels of cubes
to calculate volume of solids” “avoid counting the cubes without reflection”, and
“students need reflection to relate work with ’Cubícula’ with formulae to calcu-
late volumes”. After observation of another class the following year, we realised
some of those rules had become usages and that Cubícula was clearly integrated into
the document. We were able to infer some operational invariants: “construction of
13 Constituting Digital Tools and Materials as Classroom Resources 253
solids with concrete material and with ’Cubícula’ helps students understand volume
formulae” and “formulae are important, students need to know how to use them”.
In summary, even when T1’s emphasis on the use of mathematical formulae
remained, their role changed from being the central focus of the didactical approach
to be the result of joint exploration with concrete materials and the program, which
became part of the document. However, we consider that in T1’s document the
resources system and the associated rules of action had not stabilised yet.
Teacher 2 has been a teacher for 10 years. After reviewing our data, we decided to
exemplify her documentational genesis by analysing her lesson on combinatory.
At first, T2 didn’t feel confident with lessons on these subjects. The first time
T2 used Enciclomedia’s resources to teach combinatory, we observed her lessons
and interviewed her after the class. Beforehand, she had looked at the program
“Tree diagrams”, which allows users to construct tree diagrams level by level and in
which users can highlight different paths in the diagram using different colours, to
facilitate counting processes. Even when T2 liked the program, she still felt hes-
itant about her mathematical understanding: “. . . During the weekend I worked
with ‘Tree diagrams’, . . . but also reviewed Encarta (the encyclopaedia, which is
included in Enciclomedia) to look at some definitions about. . . combinations or
permutations. . . I still don’t understand them well. . . for example the differences
when there are repeated elements. . . using the program has helped me . . .”. During
the lesson, we observed that she relied completely on the programs. She brought
her notes to the classroom and repeated what she had read. She had prepared a
PowerPoint slide showing a tree diagram she had constructed and explained it to the
students. Then she used “Tree diagrams” together with activities from the textbook.
During the interview she commented: “Students had many difficulties, . . . I did not
feel comfortable”.
T2’s lesson plan, the PowerPoint slide, the textbook and “Enciclomedia”
constitute the material components of the first document she constructed. The
mathematical component was limited to what she had read before the lesson. The
didactical component consisted in explanations of the importance of considering all
the possibilities, and the way tree diagrams can help organize the information and
count.
The rules of action we inferred are: “students need explanations in order to work
with ‘Tree diagrams’, this topic is too difficult”, “consider both types of problem sit-
uations: different and repeating elements”, “present advantages of tree diagrams as
a representation tool”, “explain the relationship with products to count the different
possibilities”. Some operational invariants we detected are: “there is no understand-
ing without explanation”, “’Tree diagrams’ is needed for students to understand
explanations”, “it is important to differentiate between different combinatory sit-
uations”. After she underwent training on the use of “Enciclomedia”, T2 started
feeling more comfortable with this topic. When we observed her during the third
254 M. Trigueros and M.-D. Lozano
year, we could appreciate how her planning was based more on “Enciclomedia’s”
teaching guides. She mentioned: “It is important to work with this activity a lot in
order to learn this topic, . . . to help students in the classroom”. She started the lesson
by posing the questions suggested in the teaching guides. She then asked students to
work with the program while she worked on the same problems on the blackboard
and discussed, with the whole class, the usefulness of tree diagrams and products.
During the interview she said “I worked hard with the program. . ., together with the
teaching guides I was able to reflect and learn many things that I hadn’t understood
before. . . ”
The material component of T2’s second document consisted of her new lesson
plan, the teaching guides from “Enciclomedia”, the blackboard, the digital program
and the textbook. The mathematical component was enriched by her reflection on
combinations and permutations. Its didactical component changed. After working
with the program, T2 gave students more opportunities to work and think by them-
selves, asked important questions to help them reflect on the need of organizing
information to count, and on the advantages of the use of tree diagrams. Some of
her rules of action changed: “asking questions to students helps them reflect on
their actions”, “exploration with ‘Tree diagrams’ favours understanding”. We found
in her work, a new operational invariant: “‘Tree diagrams’ promotes reflection and
understanding”. In the interview she said she had started using the paperboard to
record students’ strategies and discussions so she could review them and make
future decisions.
T2 follows now, 5 years after her first training, a specific plan for the class of
situations where she teaches combinatory: before the lesson she gives students a
homework task with the intention of reviewing students’ knowledge. She reviews
her plan for the lesson and works with “Tree diagrams” (Fig. 13.2) at home. She uses
students’ strategies from the homework task to discuss advantages and limitations
of different methods and stresses the usefulness of tree diagrams. Students draw
a tree diagram for the homework task on their notebooks. T2 then uses the pro-
gram to review their work, asks students interesting questions about counting, and
relates them to tree diagrams. Later, T2 introduces other tasks for students to work
with “Tree diagrams”, first with different elements then with repeated elements and
organises whole class discussion about different counting strategies with different
types of sets.
T2 added the use of paperboards and notes on her lesson plan relating activ-
ities with competencies students need to develop and specific difficulties she has
observed when teaching combinatory to the material component of her document.
The mathematical component did not change and the didactical component was
enriched by adding a previous activity and by interweaving small group work, whole
class discussion and institutionalisation of the results obtained.
We found in T2’s work specific usages demonstrated by new rules of action that
were confirmed by her interview’s responses: “using a homework problem before
the lesson provides a means to recover students’ ideas and strategies”, “start by
combinations of different elements reviewing what students did before”, “let stu-
dents work in groups and discuss their strategies before using ‘Tree diagrams’”,
“introduce products as a way to count”. We also inferred from her work new oper-
ational invariants: “students need to think on problems by themselves before they
work with others or the whole group”, “the program helps students organize their
thinking”, “counting has to be related with the use of products”.
move too fast and did not reflect while working with the program. As a result, some
of them got stuck and could not solve the problems in the textbook, with or with-
out the program. T3 then prepared a worksheet with specific problems for students
and in interviews she said she spent more time discussing the mathematics with the
whole group:
T3 – During the first year I just used a couple of examples to find equivalent expressions
with “The Balance”, asking them to balance the scales before getting to the textbook prob-
lems . . . I realized that I moved too soon, and I let them explore the most difficult problems
on their own . . .. So for the second year I gave them a worksheet to work with . . . and we
had long discussions on how equivalent expressions could be found and on why they were
equivalent.
The worksheet and the new activities involved more mathematical concepts
than those included in the textbook. The mathematical component expanded as
T3 refined her activities. The didactical component related to this new docu-
ment also included activities which were not present before the introduction of
“Enciclomedia”. T3 mentioned having to change her teaching strategies to get stu-
dents’ attention since they got absorbed by the computer program. Additionally,
introducing a particular sequence of activities before starting the work on the text-
book also meant a didactical development. In the end, after having tried this for two
different school years, T3 said she thought the experience had been useful both for
students and for her as “more students were able to solve the really difficult exer-
cises on the book”. In this initial 2-year period, possible rules of action related to
the class of situations “working with equivalent fractions and with operations with
fractions” include “developing very specific sequences of activities to be used both
13 Constituting Digital Tools and Materials as Classroom Resources 257
with ‘The Balance’ and with paper and pencil and later using the program to work
with problems in the textbook” and “allowing students to work on their own and
having whole class discussions regarding the mathematics involved”.
As time went by, T3 became familiar with other programs such as “The number
line” (Fig. 13.4), which also includes work with fractions.
She mentioned having used it in class and having observed that students became
excited when playing with it. She mentioned that she used this program “not linked
to a particular chapter in the textbook, but whenever I wanted them to work with
fractions and have fun”.
At a mathematics education seminar, T3 heard colleagues talking about the dif-
ferent uses of fractions, she read about it and decided to analyse what the different
uses both in “The Balance” and in “The number line” were. She commented: “there
are different things I can do with each program, even when they are both related
to fractions . . . I wanted to find a way to use them in a more productive way . . .
like . . . when to use which, and how”. She developed a teaching sequence includ-
ing the use of both programs, and developed specific activities based on the previous
ones. This exemplifies a third phase of documentation for T3, where she drew from a
variety of resources in order to create a teaching sequence that addressed the learn-
ing of fractions from a wider perspective: “I was aware that fractions are used in
different ways, and that students must be supported in learning all the different uses,
so I thought of strategies using the ‘The Balance’, ‘The number line’ and specific
activities that could enhance this learning.”
Even when the mathematical components still included the same concepts, the
didactical aspect was widely modified by the introduction of the different uses of
258 M. Trigueros and M.-D. Lozano
fractions into the sequence: “I think that, having to find a number between con-
secutive integers might help them think of a fraction as number in itself, not as an
operation or as a result of an operation”.
Finally, at a later stage, when the number of Enciclomedia resources related to
fractions increased significantly, T3 decided to reconsider her teaching sequence,
to include the use of more digital programs, keeping her focus on the teaching of
the different uses of fractions. She analysed if the new programs could contribute to
this and how, and decided to include them in her teaching sequence. She developed
a long sequence including all the programs to address different uses of fractions
in different ways. T3 decided to include problems from different textbooks, and
developed new worksheets for students. The mathematical component stayed the
same. Didactically, the sequence was longer, and different: “I am taking more time,
I am using more resources in order to go deeper into each one of the uses of rational
numbers. I am making them reflect more on their work with the programs by posing
more difficult problems I am getting from other books, but also I am including
operations”.
In the end, for a class of situations linked to “designing activities for the teaching
and learning of fractions”, T3 developed a complex set of action rules including:
“posing particular problems and exercises for the different uses of fraction”, “using
the programs in ‘Enciclomedia’ related to fractions in a specific order and for a
long time, so that students become familiar with the different uses of fraction in
different contexts and deepen their knowledge”, and “combining digital resources
with worksheets and a variety of word problems in a precise way”. The operational
invariants in this latest document might comprise “working with the different uses
of fractions in different ways, both using digital an non-digital resources enhances
students’ learning”, “students have to be able to solve a variety of problems related
to fractions in order to deepen their knowledge of this concept and these include
both complex activities and drill exercises” and “an effective teaching sequence that
allows students to learn fractions is necessarily long, students need time to develop
their knowledge”.
T3 has been teaching this sequence for a few years now. Her document has
evolved from specific activities to a well structured didactical sequence. We believe
she has developed a scheme of utilisation, since patterns in the way she uses
the digital resources from Enciclomedia together with other resources can be
observed.
We now explore the findings described above, in terms of the ways in which the
introduction of Enciclomedia has shaped the development, and organization, of
documents of the three teachers. In the development of documents, both instru-
mentalisation and instrumentation (see Chapter 2) occur “naturally”. Using these
ideas to analyse the differences found in teachers can be illuminating. Similarly
13 Constituting Digital Tools and Materials as Classroom Resources 259
to Drijvers (Chapter 14) we observed that the use of technology together with the
documentational process was paralleled by a process of professional development
with a greater focus on the mathematics involved than that showed when the process
started.
The teachers described in this chapter changed their teaching practice as a result
of using Enciclomedia. Changes, however, have not been the same for all three.
Each developed different kinds of documents in the process of incorporating the dig-
ital resources into their activities, and in this process they transformed the material
resources from Enciclomedia by using them in particular ways.
T1’s last document consists of material resources which included elements that
were not present before such as concrete materials and the program Cubicula
together with usages described as rules of action in the paragraphs above, which are
linked through operational invariants related to the contribution of concrete mate-
rials and to the understanding and importance of volume formulae. Enciclomedia
enabled T1 to include different teaching strategies and actions in order to achieve
this desired outcome. Contact with the program did change T1’s actions in the
classroom, together with the documents he produced, in a way he thought students
learned the mathematical content. T1 used Cubícula as a “means to an end”, show-
ing the program’s features such as rotation of solids as a way for justifying and give
meaning to the algebraic formulae employed: “I use it so that I can show them where
the formulae come from”. This, of course, is not the only way that the program can
be used, but it is the one T1 found useful to achieve his goals.
We have shown how T2 developed, through her years of experience with
Enciclomedia, documents for a mathematical topic she was originally afraid to teach
and had previously avoided altogether during her lessons. Throughout the process of
instrumentation, “Enciclomedia” shaped not only her teaching strategies and group
dynamics: “I use it a lot for whole class discussions, . . .students really become
engaged, . . . they talk a lot about counting and how many possibilities there are,
so it is not just me asking questions and them answering, . . .”, but also the math-
ematical content she included and, moreover, her own mathematical understanding
became enriched. “I really couldn’t understand a thing about combinations and per-
mutations, but the teaching guides and the program help, because I can do it several
times . . . Now I can teach these chapters in the textbook”. She used the program
not only to justify mathematical procedures but as spaces for exploration, in which
students were allowed to build their own tree diagrams.
Finally T3 also showed ways of working different from her acting as a teacher
before she started using Enciclomedia. She developed a documentation system that
comprised a number of resources that included work with several “Enciclomedia”
programs and with the different uses of fraction, both through complex word prob-
lems and practice exercises. The variety of resources T3 found in Enciclomedia
related to fractions allowed her to develop a long teaching sequence in which dif-
ferent kinds of activities for the different uses of fractions were involved. It became
clear that the integration of resources into the initial document followed a specific
purpose. In the latest form of the document this purpose was reflected in the already
described operational invariants.
260 M. Trigueros and M.-D. Lozano
This constituted new kinds of actions for T3, since previously she had followed
the textbook approach which did not include long sequences devoted to specific
mathematical content and which presents mainly complex problems for students to
solve without much practice or algorithms. “Through this sequence I included also
more drill and practice exercises and I stayed with the same topic for a longer period
of time”. Her understanding of the didactical component and her understanding of
mathematics learning were also deepened “I am more aware of certain things now,
because when using the programs I ask children about their strategies and some
things emerge, which I did not consider before. They really can use many interpre-
tations and fraction representations; they use several when solving one problem or
when explaining. I was not aware of this, maybe because the programs give them a
lot of freedom, they are so enthusiastic and they employ all the resources available
to them, so they can show me, in a way, what they are thinking”. T3 used the pro-
grams both for exploration and for solving problems and exercises, which enriched
her documentational genesis. The instrumentalisation process also involved using
the programs for “working with the different uses of fractions in different contexts.”
In the end T3 produced a complex document which included material resources,
usages and operational invariants which had not been present before.
The changes we have described, including the different documentational geneses,
cannot be conceived as simply the result of introducing Enciclomedia. The teach-
ers’ personal history, as well as institutional affordances and constraints and external
circumstances have also had an important influence. Opportunities for reflection on
their own teaching practice have been, from our perspective, crucial, as was also
found by Drijvers. T1, for example, had to discuss his teaching plans with col-
leagues from the professional development course. T2, was able to discuss some of
her ideas with the “Enciclomedia’s” mathematics programs developers, and through
these discussions she was able to try out the materials and develop lesson plans for
difficult mathematical topics. We also consider that the opportunities she had of
working with Enciclomedia at home and her own persistence and hard work were
very important factors in her documentational genesis.
Possible factors which might be involved in the documentational genesis in the
case of T3 include the integration of new material resources, both digital programs
from “Enciclomedia” and problems T3 found in different textbooks. Her partic-
ipation in a mathematics education seminar, discussions with colleagues and her
reading of mathematics education literature also played an important role in her
development as a teacher and in her creation of more complex and rich documents
for her teaching.
We can see, therefore, that the introduction of the program Enciclomedia, can
influence teaching practices and documentational genesis in powerful and different
ways, especially when it is accompanied by reflection and discussion with fellow
teachers and researchers. At the same time, each teacher used the programs in a
unique way. They can be used, for example, for exploration of mathematical ideas,
for justification and for solving exercises. It would be useful to include discussions
on the different uses that can be afforded by the programs during training work-
shops, together with opportunities for extensive reflection on teaching practices.
13 Constituting Digital Tools and Materials as Classroom Resources 261
As we have found that all three teachers greatly benefitted from discussions both
with peers and other expert colleagues, we also contend that creating working
groups inside and outside the schools constitute an essential element in professional
development programs.
As seen through this chapter, the process of documentational genesis, that
includes resources from Enciclomedia, takes place over long periods of time,
and cannot be observed or studied without the consideration of the many aspects
that are part of it. For several years we have been involved in research on the
use of Enciclomedia mathematics’ resources by teachers and students. We have
studied students’ learning with some specific resources and some aspects of the
resources themselves. Throughout this time we have observed many lessons where
“Enciclomedia” was used together with other resources, and have been involved in
training programs for different groups of teachers. All these activities have involved
the collection of large amounts of data. Although we have gained knowledge of and
experience about the use of these resources, reviewing our data from the point of
view of documentation framework, and locating interesting examples of documen-
tational genesis, enabled us to highlight some aspects related to the evolution of
teachers’ work that we had not previously considered.
We believe that these new aspects that were brought to our attention are important
in understanding how teachers’ knowledge grows not only through development
programs but also through their own work and interests. This is also relevant and
important for future research.
The use of the new theoretical framework of documentational genesis, in a
context different from the one it had been originally created, may be seen as a con-
tribution of this work to research about teachers, and to provide evidence of its
pertinence and usefulness.
Many questions remain unanswered. For example, in future research it would
be interesting to explore patterns in the resources, their usages and operational
invariants that might be found when investigating documentational genesis with a
greater number of teachers. Additionally, it would be important to deepen our under-
standing of the processes of documentation when using different resources from
“Enciclomedia” and how the students’ use of Enciclomedia and the textbook influ-
ence teachers’ documentation process as Rezat (Chapter 12) explored in his study.
Acknowledgements This project was partially supported by Asociación Mexicana de Cultura
A.C. and the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México.
References
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G. Philippou (Eds.), Proceedings of the fifth congress of the European society for research in
mathematics education (pp. 1339–1349). Larnaca: CERME 5. Retrieved 16, September, 2009,
from http://ermeweb.free.fr/CERME5b/
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Chapter 14
Teachers Transforming Resources
into Orchestrations
Paul Drijvers
14.1 Introduction
Several chapters of this book address the fact that teachers nowadays have access
to a myriad of both material and electronic knowledge resources for mathematics
teaching (e.g. Chapter 1). These resources can be accessed through technological
means and are available on the internet (Bueno-Ravel & Gueudet, 2007).
However, resources do not transform teaching practices in a straightforward way.
Documentational work, as part of the teacher’s process of documentational genesis,
is needed (Chapter 2). Several studies show that teachers may perceive difficul-
ties in orchestrating mathematical situations which make use of technological tools
and resources, and in adapting their teaching techniques to situations in which
technology plays a role (Doerr and Zangor, 2000; Lagrange and Degleodu, 2009;
Lagrange and Ozdemir Erdogan, 2009; Monaghan, 2004; Sensevy, Schubauer-
Leoni, Mercier, Ligozat, & Perrot, 2005). Also, different teachers may adapt the
same set of resources into quite different teaching arrangements (Chapter 9).
As Robert and Rogalski (2005) point out, teachers’ practices are both complex
and stable. Building on this, Lagrange and Monaghan (2010) argue that the avail-
ability of technological resources amplifies the complexity of teaching practices
and, as a consequence, challenges their stability. It is not self-evident that tech-
niques and orchestrations which are used in “traditional” settings can be applied
successfully in a technological-rich learning environment. A new repertoire of
orchestrations, instrumented by the available tools, has to emerge. This involves
professional development of the teacher, in which both professional activity and
professional knowledge may change. This process of transforming sets of techno-
logical and other resources into orchestrations is the topic of this chapter, which
focuses on the question of how teachers orchestrate the use of digital resources in
teaching practice and how these orchestrations change over time.
P. Drijvers (B)
Freudenthal Institute, Utrecht University, PO Box 85170, 3508 AD Utrecht, The Netherlands
e-mail: p.drijvers@uu.nl
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 265
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_14,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
266 P. Drijvers
during it. Exploitation modes may be more flexible, while didactical performances
have a strong ad hoc aspect.
Like every metaphor, the metaphor of instrumental orchestration has its limita-
tions. If one think of a teacher as a conductor of a symphony orchestra consisting
of highly skilled musicians who enters the concert hall with a clear idea on how to
make the musicians play Beethoven the way he himself reads the century-old parti-
tion, one may feel uneasy with it. However, if one thinks of the class as a jazz band
(Trouche & Drijvers, 2010) consisting of both novice and more advanced musicians,
and the teacher being the band leader who prepared a global partition but is open
for improvization and interpretation by the students, and for doing justice to input
at different levels, the metaphor becomes more appealing. It is in the latter way that
we suggest to understand it. We also point out that the metaphor of orchestration
in fact includes multiple roles for the teacher, who may act as a composer, as an
orchestrator, as a director, and as a conductor.
Earlier research focused on the identification of orchestrations within whole-
class technology-rich teaching. Drijvers et al. (2010) identified six types of such
orchestrations, termed Technical-demo, Explain-the-screen, Link-screen-board,
Discuss-the-screen, Spot-and-show and Sherpa-at-work, with the following global
descriptions.
The above categorisation, with three more teacher-centred and three more
student-centred orchestrations, resulted from a study on the use of applets for the
exploration of the function concept in grade 8, and emerged from observation of
three teachers in a relatively guided situation (Drijvers et al., 2010). Of course, from
these limited data from a specific context, we cannot claim completeness. Rather,
we wonder how specific this categorisation is with respect to the type of technology,
the mathematical topic, the whole class teaching format, the level and age of the
students, and the amount of guidance teachers were provided with. Therefore, the
goal of the study presented in this chapter is to investigate in another teaching con-
text in which types of orchestrations teachers transform the available technological
resources and how these results relate to the above categorization.
Also, we are interested in the professional development that takes place while
teachers include technological resources into their teaching. This professional
development is a process of change, which involves both the teachers’ own instru-
mental genesis (Drijvers and Trouche, 2008) as well as documentational genesis
(Gueudet and Trouche, 2009; Chapter 2). Therefore, we want the present study
to shed light on the change processes that occur when teachers engage in an
experimental setting.
The research was carried out in the context of a pilot initiated by the publisher of
the main Dutch textbook series for secondary mathematics education. The publisher,
seeking for ways to improve their product and to integrate technology, decided to
14 Teachers Transforming Resources into Orchestrations 269
Fig. 14.1 Screen shots from book (left) and digital environment (right)
1 See www.fi.uu.nl/dwo/en/.
2 The module (in Dutch) is available through http://www.fi.uu.nl/dwo/gr-pilot/.
270 P. Drijvers
guidelines for the use of the module and with support to create login accounts for
their students, and so the pilot begun.
For the students, the set of resources in this pilot includes the regular textbook,
the online book chapter, digital modules including feedback and video clips, and the
traditional resources such as paper and pencil and calculator. As the work is stored
on a central server, students can access, revise and continue their work at any time
and from any place with internet access.
For the teacher, the set of resources is similar, but provides the additional option
of access to student work. Overviews of whole class results as well as individual
student work can be monitored by the teacher through the internet and can be used
in whole-class teaching settings, which seem appropriate for discussing interesting
or erroneous strategies that students applied in their homework.
14.4 Methods
The research methods include a case study focusing on one teacher, a survey among
all 69 participating teachers, and interviews with five teachers. The case study was
carried out in two classes of one of the pilot schools, a school in a small, prosperous
town in the Netherlands with mainly “white” student intake. Both classes, with 30
and 14 students, respectively, were taught by the same, experienced teacher, who
was close to his retirement. This teacher initially volunteered for the pilot, but later
intended to step back, because, on the one hand, computer facilities in school were
insufficient and, on the other hand, his students objected to the idea of practicing
algebraic skills with the computer, whereas they would need to master them with
paper and pencil in the national central examination. Concerning the first issue,
we were able to offer him a loan set of 30 netbook computers for the period of
the teaching sequence. On the students’ concerns, we convinced the teacher that
practicing skills with computer tools was expected to directly transfer into better
by-hand skills. He spoke again with his students, and they accepted to participate
in the pilot. During the period of the pilot, this teacher had a heavy teaching load,
with twenty-six 50-min lessons a week to teach, and an additional remedial teach-
ing practice at home. A technical assistant was available in school to set-up the
classes with the netbook computers, and to make other practical arrangements such
as charging the batteries, etc..
Most of the lessons (23 out of 36 during an 8-week period) were observed and
videotaped. The video registration was done by a mobile camera person, who fol-
lowed the teacher very closely during individual teacher--student interactions, so
as to capture all speech and screens. Video data were completed with field notes
from observations. A final interview with the teacher took place after the teaching
sequence. Data analysis took place with software for qualitative data analysis3 and
focused on the identification of orchestrational aspects of the teaching.
The case study was set up to enable us to address the research question in a qual-
itative and in-depth manner. To complement the very specific data from the case
study with a more general view on the orchestrations used in this teaching sequence,
a survey among all participating teachers was set up. It consisted of two online ques-
tionnaires, one before and one after the teaching sequence. The response was 49 out
of 69 for the pre-questionnaire, and 41 out of those 49 for the post-questionnaire.
Non-response was caused by the fact that not all teachers who originally volun-
teered for the pilot really started their participation, and that some of the teachers
who filled in the pre-questionnaire did not start either, or stopped the pilot before
bringing it to an end. Some of them sent messages by e-mail, indicating reasons
such as time constraints, lesson cancellation because of illness or other unforeseen
circumstances.
To bridge the gap between the detailed case-study data and the global survey
data, interviews were held after the teaching sequence with five teachers, including
the one engaged in the case study. These interviews had a semi-structured character,
the post-questionnaire providing the backbone of the interview. We will only use
interview results to illustration the findings.
14.5 Results
Then the teacher continued with e log(x) = 5, which was solved by the student
as well. Walking back to her it turned out that her problem was not a mathematical
one, but rather how to enter e, the base of the natural logarithm, into the digital envi-
ronment. The teacher at the end solved this, after consulting another student. Instead
of focusing on the meaning of e log(x), he might have considered the technical issue
at once, which shows that determination difficulties can lead to interactions that are
longer and less efficient than needed.
The previous episode shows that determination in some cases was hindered by
the technical issues the teacher encountered. Some technical problems, such as
students who forgot their login code or the web address of the online module, or
14 Teachers Transforming Resources into Orchestrations 273
netbooks which lack battery power or fail to connect to the wireless internet, were
dealt with by the technical assistant, who attended the classes most of the times,
and always in the first part of the teaching sequence. Technical problems within
the online module, however, often appeared in the individual student–teacher inter-
actions during the Work-and-walk-by orchestration. As the teacher himself was
not familiar with the module, he often was unable to solve students’ problems,
which led to uncertainty about whether it was a mathematical mistake or a tech-
nical problem that caused the technology to report an error. Compared with the
Technical-demo orchestration described earlier, there was little technical guidance
or attention to students’ instrumental genesis, even if he used to “spread the news”
in individual interactions, as soon as one of the students solved a technical issue or
found a convenient technique. The analysis also shows that such technical complica-
tions interfering with the mathematical content of the student--teacher interactions
became less frequent as the teaching sequence advanced.
This Work-and-walk-by orchestration took at least 90% of the lesson time in
the lessons we observed, and remained dominant throughout the pilot teaching
sequence as a whole without much variation; still, some changes over time in its
didactical performance, and in the type of teacher–student interactions in particular,
could be noticed. First, as the teaching sequence advanced and he found out how
it worked, the teacher used the data projector to show the overall advancements of
the students, so that each individual student could monitor if he or she was more
or less on schedule (see Fig. 14.3). Second, as both teacher and students during the
teaching sequence got more familiar with the online module, its technical demands
and its feedback, the student questions and the student--teacher interactions grad-
ually focused more on algebra and less on technical issues. As a consequence, the
character of these interactions changed from technical discussions into “Explain-
the-screen” or “Discuss-the-screen” interactions. Also, the teacher went to the board
less frequently, but instead used the online module more often as an environment to
check algebraic claims or techniques. He encouraged students to type something in
to see if it is correct, and used this as a way to explain the algebra.
As an example of this, one of the students walked to the teacher carrying his
notebook computer. The task on the screen was to simplify a radical expression, and
1
the student ended up with 43 6 a.
Then the teacher explained what to do with the 6/36 as to further simplify the
expressions under the square root sign and asked the student to type this in.
Teacher: You have to remove as much as possible under the square root sign,
and no fraction.
In this interaction, the teacher focused on the mathematical issues, and used
the online module as an environment to have things found out by the student. The
teacher ended with some more general guidelines.
If we relate the findings presented in this section to the six whole-class
teaching orchestrations types identified above, we already noticed some Explain-
the-screen and Discuss-the-screen elements within the didactical performance of
the Work-and-walk-by orchestration. The same holds, to a lesser extent, for the
Technical-demo orchestration: technical issues regularly emerged in the individual
student--teacher interactions, even if the teacher was in many cases not able to solve
them. Elements of the Link-screen-board orchestration could also be observed, as
the teacher regularly walked to the whiteboard to explain the algebra, or used paper
and pencil to do so. The Spot-and-show opportunities that the didactical config-
uration offers were not exploited. The same holds for the Sherpa-at-work, even
if the teacher by the end of the teaching sequence invited students to carry out a
specific technique in the digital environment, which can be seen as an individual
“Sherpa-at-work light”.
All together, the case study reveals a teaching practice which heavily relies on
one single orchestration type, the Work-and-walk-by orchestration. Little variation
was found, and the available resources were exploited to a limited extent. To under-
stand these observations, we reflected on this teaching practice in the interview with
the teacher after the pilot, and we observed two regular lessons taught by this teacher
in different classes. In the final interview, the teacher admitted that he had not had
14 Teachers Transforming Resources into Orchestrations 275
the time to prepare his lessons or to familiarise himself with the online module
and its technical peculiarities: ‘Well, I don’t know much about it [the technology]
myself. I did not invest time in preparation’. In addition to this, he explained his
attitude of leaving much initiative to the students and of giving limited attention
to whole-class teaching: “I refrained from explaining a chapter. The kids are just
listening passively, and at the end of the lesson I learned a lot, and they just said
‘yes’. I prefer the kids act, and raise questions based on their actions.” He admit-
ted that he had to explain some things several times to different students, as he
was moving to the students one by one. Through the use of the board for indi-
vidual explanations, he hoped to make these explanations also accessible to other
students.
To compare the case study teacher’s pilot lessons with his regular teaching,
two ‘normal’ lessons in different classes were observed. Even if his teaching in
this pilot was similar to his regular teaching, the analysis of these lessons sug-
gests that the teacher was more central in his orchestrations in the regular lessons.
For example some whole-class explanations could be observed, and the teacher
seemed more confident, also in guiding the use of technology, in this case graphing
calculators.
As a final remark on the case study, it is worth while noticing that the students’
original objection against using computers to practice by-hand algebraic skills grad-
ually disappeared. More and more, they used the netbooks, and textbooks and
notebooks were hardly seen by the end of the teaching sequence.
Even if the word “orchestration” was not mentioned in the questionnaires, some
of the responses provide insight in the orchestrational choices made by the par-
ticipating teachers. One question on both the pre- and the post-questionnaire was:
which ICT-means were used? In the pre-questionnaire this concerned the use of
technology in the teacher’s lessons preceding the pilot; in the post-pilot question-
naire, this concerned tool use during the pilot. Participants could click on more than
one answer. Table 14.1 summarizes the findings. Data shows that the technological
Data projector 57 46
Teacher’s computer 57 32
Interactive whiteboard 55 37
Computer lab 0 83
Student computers in classroom 0 29
Students’ home computers 0 83
276 P. Drijvers
Table 14.2 Expected and effectuated working formats used during the pilot
Whole-class explanation 0 36 64 32 48 20
Whole-class demonstration 19 62 19 38 47 15
Whole-class homework discussion 4 47 49 40 47 13
Whole-class presentation 57 38 2 100 0 0
Individual work 6 26 66 2 2 96
Work in pairs 9 30 60 28 25 47
Group work 53 38 4 93 5 2
Homework 23 28 47 7 53 40
devices which are most frequently used during the pilot are the computer lab and stu-
dents’ computers at home, which contrasts to the more teacher-driven “regular” use
of ICT before the pilot. Teachers seem to have changed the didactical configurations
for the case of the pilot.
Another question on the pre-pilot questionnaire concerned the working formats
the teachers were expecting to use during the pilot, and a similar one on the post-
pilot questionnaire asking which working formats they used indeed. Table 14.2
summarizes the findings. It shows that individual work, work in pairs and homework
are the most frequently used working formats, whereas whole-class explanations
and whole-class homework discussion occurred less than expected beforehand, in
spite of the opportunities the didactical configuration offers for it.
A follow-up question in the post-pilot questionnaire was whether technology was
used in the mentioned working formats. The results shown in Table 14.3 confirm
the impression from Table 14.2, namely that technology during the pilot was mainly
used for individual work, work in pairs and homework and not so much in whole-
class orchestrations.
Post-pilot (% of N = 41)
Whole-class explanation 58 32 10
Whole-class demonstration 41 24 20
Whole-class homework discussion 61 34 5
Whole-class presentation 98 2 0
Individual work 15 5 80
Work in pairs 51 17 32
Group work 93 5 2
Homework 24 32 44
14 Teachers Transforming Resources into Orchestrations 277
The most interesting outcome in Tables 14.2 and 14.3 is that the option to show
students’ homework by means of a data projector or an interactive whiteboard, and
to use it as a catalyst for whole-class discussion, was hardly used, whereas the teach-
ers usually used such technology in whole-class teaching settings according to the
pre-pilot questionnaire results. Even if the teachers beforehand expected some more
individual work or work in pairs, this seems to have happened to a larger extent,
and opportunities for using ICT in the way they were most familiar with, remained
unexploited.
To summarize the findings from the questionnaires, we conclude that before the
pilot, teachers indicated that they used technology mainly in whole-class teaching
settings, probably with the teacher operating the technology. In spite of this pref-
erence and experience, during the pilot they privileged individual work and work
in pairs, which turn out to be the dominant orchestrations, and thereby neglected
options for whole-class teaching offered by the technology. Even if the orchestra-
tional variety among all teachers seems to be greater than was observed in the case
study, the results point into the same direction by suggesting that student-centred
orchestrations, for example in computer lab and home settings, got more frequent at
the cost of whole-class orchestrations using tools such as a data projector or an inter-
active whiteboard. Compared to the teachers’ previous experiences with technology
in their teaching and their expectations, this is a shift.
It is not clear if the six identified whole-class orchestration types also appear
in the context of this pilot. The questionnaires do not offer enough information.
The focus on individual work and work in pairs is clear, but we do not know what
happened besides that. Spot-and-show orchestrations and Sherpa-at-work orches-
trations, however, do seem to be very rare, even if some teachers in the interviews
reported incidentally using these orchestration types.
While interpreting these findings we should notice that most of the teachers
engaged in this pilot were not experienced, at least not in using the specific tech-
nology, and were left over to themselves with little support. We also observed an
expert teacher, who was the main designer of the online module, in one of his
lessons. As a result of his own instrumental genesis, he was aware that entering
formulas in the digital environment can be laborious, and that shortcut keystrokes
and copy--paste options can help a lot. As an experienced teacher, he knew that stu-
dents initially complain saying that writing down formulas with paper and pencil is
much faster than entering them in a digital environment. Combining the results of
his own instrumental genesis with his pedagogical experience, he set up a Technical-
demo orchestration in which he demonstrated the main editing techniques and
highlighted their importance. He also included this as a suggestion in the teacher
guide that came with the instructional material, but probably many teachers did not
read it, which can be interpreted as a limitation of the preparatory documentational
work.
278 P. Drijvers
14.6.1 Conclusion
What answers to the initial questions do the findings suggest? A first question
was to investigate in which types of orchestrations teachers transform the available
technological resources. The findings from both the case study and the
questionnaires – albeit the first to a greater extent than the second – suggest that indi-
vidual, student-centred orchestrations are dominant when teachers use the resources
that were developed in the frame of this pilot. Teachers tended to privilege students
working individually or in pairs on the online module tasks, and devoted little time to
whole-class explanation or homework discussion, whereas their expectation before
the pilot were different. The case study resulted in the identification of a Work-and-
walk-by orchestration, which in itself is not very surprising one. However, we were
surprised by its dominance and by the fact that other orchestrational opportunities
of the available technology were not exploited, whereas more variation could be
observed in this teacher’s regular lessons.
Several factors may explain these phenomena. The subject, practicing algebraic
skills, probably is more suitable for individual work or work in pairs than for
whole-class teaching. Also, the computer labs, in which many lessons apparently
took place, may be less suitable for whole-class teaching. Individual orchestra-
tion types are probably the easiest thing to do for a teacher, who is not feeling
confident about his or her own technical skills. It may be the technology itself
that invites student work rather than whole-class teaching. The case study results
suggest a clear relationship between the teacher’s orchestrational choices and his
pedagogical intentions (Chapter 4). The interviews with teachers suggest that all
these factors play a role; however, data is insufficient to decide on the impact of each
of them.
A second point of interest is how these results relate to the categorisation of
orchestration types described in Section 14.2. The latter typology emerged from
whole-class teaching episodes, whereas in this pilot mainly individual orchestra-
tions were found. Still, from the case study observations we conclude that the
six whole-class teaching orchestration types identified earlier have their counter-
parts, or at least similar aspects, in the context of the present study. Even if many
teachers seem to prefer individual interactions to whole-class teaching in this case,
at the level of the didactical performance we see elements that are more explic-
itly part of the didactical configurations of the typology found earlier. The overall
conclusion, therefore, is that the six whole-class orchestration types of course are
not exhaustive, but do contain elements that can be observed in other orchestra-
tions as well. As a new orchestration type, the Work-and-walk-by orchestration
was identified. We expect the list of possible orchestrations to be extended in
future, not as to strive for a complete list, but as to provide teachers with a diverse
repertoire of possible orchestrations as source of inspiration to their professional
activity.
14 Teachers Transforming Resources into Orchestrations 279
A third and final point of interest concerns the change processes that occur when
teachers engage in an experimental setting. The conclusion here is twofold. First,
the case study provides insight in the change process during the pilot teaching
sequence. The findings suggest a stable and not so dynamic orchestration, in which
there is not much change, at least not at the superficial level. Meanwhile, at the
level of didactical performance a process of professional development was observed,
showing for example an increased focus on the algebra and on what we might call
“Explain-the-screen”, at the cost of attention to technological issues. Second, the
findings of the questionnaires shed light on the change that takes place when teach-
ers engage in such a pilot, compared with their regular teaching practices before the
pilot. The data suggest that many teachers, who were used to integrating technology
in a teacher-centred way – the teacher using a computer connected to a projector,
or using an interactive whiteboard – in the frame of this pilot switched to student-
centred orchestrations. It seems that most of them during the pilot sequence did
not extend their teaching technique repertoire with, for example a Spot-and-show
orchestration type, even if the technology supports the monitoring of student work
by the teacher anytime and anyplace.
14.6.2 Discussion
The study that we report on here has some important limitations. First, the danger
of presenting one single case study is that the results are too much influenced by the
particular situation and at the particular teacher involved. Second, the additional data
has the weakness of providing just global information on teachers’ use of resources
and the resulting orchestrations and teaching practices. Even if the latter issue is
partially solved by additional interviews, we should be careful with interpretations
from these results. And finally, comparing whole-class orchestrations from Drijvers
et al. (2010) with the more individual orchestration types found here is not a straight-
forward thing to do. In fact, we had not expected such a big shift in orchestration
types for this pilot; to observe this happening is one of the most interesting aspects
of this study, and matches with the observations made by Lagrange and Degleodu
(2009), who claim that teachers do not articulate the use of technology as a working
environment for students and as a teacher resource.
These limitations being noticed, the findings further evidence the difficulties that
teacher may encounter when integrating technological resources into their teaching
practices. Re-sourcing as mentioned by Adler (Chapter 1) does not always seem
to appear, and documentational geneses (Chapter 2) take time indeed. In terms of
semiotic mediation (Bartolini Bussi and Mariotti, 2008; Chapter 3) is not easy for
a teacher to exploit the semiotic potential of resources. Resources invite the pro-
fessional development of a repertoire of appropriate orchestrations. The genesis of
such a repertoire seems to be related to the teachers’ own processes of instrumental
genesis and documentational genesis (Chapter 2). To engage in such a process, a
sense of ownership for the teaching is needed: if teachers are used to just following
the text book, and don’t have the time or don’t see an interest in designing their
280 P. Drijvers
References
Bartolini Bussi, M. G., & Mariotti, M. A. (2008). Semiotic mediation in the mathematics class-
room: artefacts and signs after a Vygotskian perspective. In L. English, M. Bartolini Bussi,
G. Jones, R. Lesh, & D. Tirosh (Eds.), Handbook of international research in mathematics
education, second revised edition (pp. 746–805). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bokhove, C., & Drijvers, P. (2010). Assessing assessment tools for algebra: Design and application
of an instrument for evaluating tools for digital assessment of algebraic skills. International
Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning, 15(1), 45–62.
Bueno-Ravel, L., & Gueudet, G. (2007). Online resources in mathematics: Teachers’ genesis of
use? In D. Pitta-Pantazi & G. Philippou (Eds.), Proceedings of the V congress of the European
society for research in mathematics education CERME5 (pp. 1369–1378). Cyprus: Larnaca.
Doerr, H. M., & Zangor, R. (2000). Creating meaning for and with the graphing calculator.
Educational Studies in Mathematics, 41, 143–163.
Drijvers, P., Boon, P., Doorman, M., Reed, H., & Gravemeijer, K. (2010). The teacher and the tool:
Whole-class teaching behavior in the technology-rich mathematics classroom. Educational
Studies in Mathematics, 75(2), 213–214.
Drijvers, P., & Trouche, L. (2008). From artefacts to instruments: A theoretical framework behind
the orchestra metaphor. In G. W. Blume & M. K. Heid (Eds.), Research on technology and the
teaching and learning of mathematics: Vol. 2. Cases and perspectives (pp. 363–392). Charlotte,
NC: Information Age.
Gueudet, G., & Trouche, L. (2009). Towards new documentation systems for mathematics
teachers? Educational Studies in Mathematics, 71(3), 199–218.
Kendal, M., & Stacey, K. (2002). Teachers in transition: Moving towards CAS-supported
classrooms. ZDM, The International Journal on Mathematics Education, 34(5), 196–203.
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Lagrange, J. B., & C.-Degleodu, N. (2009). Usages de la technologie dans des conditions
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Reaction to Part III
On the Cognitive, Epistemic, and Ontological
Roles of Artifacts
Luis Radford
1 Introduction
Galileo opens his Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two
New Sciences with a remark about the famous 16th century Venetian arsenal, which
he praises for its impressive amount of instruments and machines; this arsenal, he
says, offers an opportunity to wonder and think. With their unprecedented variety
of tools and artifacts, contemporary classrooms may have looked like the Venetian
arsenal to Galileo. True, some of the artifacts that are part of our educational set-
tings have been there for a long time now – for example, textbooks. Others, however,
made their appearance with the digital technological progress during the 20th cen-
tury. And, like the instruments and machines of the Venetian arsenal, they offer new
possibilities for thinking and learning.
Now, for these possibilities to be materialized in the classroom, the conditions
surrounding the use of artifacts in processes of teaching and learning need to be
clearly understood. Indeed, since artifacts are artificial devices, neither the under-
standing of their use nor the best exploitation of their epistemic possibilities is
self-evident. This is why investigating the proper conditions of artifact use in edu-
cational settings constitutes an important research problem. The various chapters
in this part of the book tackle this problem and offer interesting theoretical and
methodological contributions to current debates in the field. Thus, seeing the chap-
ters from a general viewpoint, the various authors inquire about the manner in
which teachers adapt and use specific resources in their own practice – for exam-
ple, CAS (Kieran, Tanguay, and Solares), Enciclomedia (Trigueros and Lozano),
a digital-based algebra environment (Drijvers), material objects and symbolic arti-
facts (Forest and Mercier), and textbooks (Rezat).1 Naturally, the authors tackle the
1 I use the term artifact in its most general sense: as “an object made by a human being, typically
an item of cultural or historical interest,” as defined by The New Oxford American Dictionary. The
category of artifact (or its synonymous term tool) includes the one of didactic resources.
L. Radford (B)
École des sciences de l’éducation, Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON, Canada P3E 2C6
e-mail: Lradford@laurentian.ca
283
284 L. Radford
general research problem from different perspectives and ask questions of different
kinds. Kieran et al. inquire about the adaptations of researcher-designed resources
by teachers. Trigueros and Lozano move along similar lines and try to detect what
they call the ‘operational invariants’ in the teachers’ use of resources. Drijvers
attempts to elicit the kind of ‘instrumental orchestrations’ to which the teachers
resort in their classrooms, while Rezat explores the forms of textbook use undergone
by both teachers and students.
Taken together, the various case studies presented in these chapters show some
of the difficulties that teachers face in the integration of resources in the classroom.
They pinpoint, to various degrees of explicitness, some aspects of a more general
nature that are imbricated in the educational use of artifacts. One of them relates to
changes in our conceptions of classroom practices that result from the use of digital
technologies. Indeed, traditional conceptions of what a good classroom practice is
need to be revisited in light of the teachers’ and students’ use of artifacts. Thus,
in Kieran and coworkers’ study, one of the teachers fails to use CAS to promote
a deep mathematical understanding. The teacher does use the digital artifact, yet
the artifact use seems to remain within the confines of traditional forms of teaching
centered on direct content presentation. The teacher, it seems, fails to notice that the
use of artifacts in the classroom introduces a new division of labor and that, in this
new digital context, his or her role is thereby modified. To be properly exploited,
the cognitive potential that an artifact brings with it requires not only a suitable
understanding of the artifact itself but also of how it modifies the roles of the teacher
and the students.
The manner in which we understand the division of labor that artifacts induce
in the classroom depends on our own theoretical views about cognition. In fact,
the possible roles that we attribute to artifacts or resources derive from the manner
in which we conceive of cognition in the first place. It is only within a specific
view of cognition that artifacts are endowed with particular cognitive, epistemic and
ontological roles. Let me briefly dwell on these roles in the following sections.
this view, artifacts are not only facilitators of knowledge acquisition. They become
part of the way in which we come to think and know.
The first meaning of mediation has been put forward in cognitive psychology
(Cole & Griffin, 1980). The second meaning of mediation is at the heart of
Vygotsky’s view of cognition, where tools are seen as psychological. Within this
conception of cognition, artifacts are considered cultural devices that modify our
cognitive functioning. As Vygotsky put it in one of the foundational texts of the
historical–cultural school of psychology:
By being included in the process of behavior, the psychological tool alters the entire flow
and structure of mental functions. It does this by determining the structure of a new instru-
mental act just as a technical tool alters the process of a natural adaptation by determining
the form of labor operations (Vygotsky, 1981, p. 137).
use. This account fails to make explicit (at the theoretical and methodological levels)
the fact that artifacts embody particular forms of cognition and communication, and
that thinking emerges not out of patterns of actions with artifacts but in joint activity,
out of actions with artifacts carrying social and historical meanings. What is miss-
ing in this account is the fact that knowing is a social and cultural practice. More
specifically, knowing is a historical collective act. As a result, knowing is accom-
plished not only through invariant patterned actions with signs and artifacts but also
in interaction with other individuals against the background of historical and cul-
tural modes of thinking and communicating (Radford, 2010). The question is not,
hence, how artifacts become appropriated or mastered, but how they mediate joint
activity. Naturally, in the case studies presented in the various chapters, this ques-
tion emerges either implicitly or explicitly. It appears in particular when the authors
focus on the way the teachers mediate or orchestrate for the students the histori-
cal intelligence deposited in the artifacts. Cubícula, for example, conveys ideas of
decomposing figures to think mathematically about their measurements. These are
historical ideas that have been refined through centuries of human cognitive activity,
from sand sketches in ancient Greece to 21st century digital representations.
its enactment. In this sense, mathematics is always new and different, in the sense
that each event is always unique and singular. But, at another level, it is similar to
other contemporary and past events, without which we would not distinguish an
activity about geometry from one about algebra. This similarity of events does not,
however, preclude mathematics from living – in an ontological sense – in the event
of its execution.
Considering mathematics from this viewpoint has some implications on class-
room practice and on the ontological role of artifacts and resources. Artifacts
can no longer be considered as a means to access mathematical objects and
mathematical forms of reasoning, as these are not conceived of as transcendental
entities. Artifacts, rather, are considered part of mathematics as material practice.
Within this context, mathematics appears as a collective activity, spatially situated,
which unfolds in a certain span of time, where the historical voices embedded in
artifacts and the voices of students and teachers merge. Let us note, en passant, that
in this perspective, the discussions about mathematical proofs assisted by computers
(Devlin, 1992) take a different turn. The computer is not helping the mathe-
matician carry out some calculations. Both become part of one chorus singing a
polyphonic song.
This conception of mathematics as enactment or performance does not mean,
however, that all performances are equally good. Each will be more or less success-
ful depending on the historical–cultural understanding of mathematics. But because
mathematics is something that is in the making, performances will also be consid-
ered to be more or less good depending on how teachers and students understand
and coordinate their coemerging and evolving sense of involvement in the collec-
tive endeavor in which all of them participate. It is against this polyphonic context
that the question of the artifacts and the division of labor that they induce reap-
pear. If thinking mathematically is an artifactual mediated collective endeavor where
each participant learns to critically situate herself within cultural and historical
constituted modes of thinking (Radford, 2008), the question of responsibility and
orchestration must then be seen in a new light. It appears as a voix à trois: the
teacher’s, the students’, and the artifacts’.
To end this short commentary, I come back to Rezat’s interesting chapter. Rezat’s
chapter shows the tensions that are caused in some classrooms by the presence
of a textbook, particularly when the textbook brings a perspective that is dif-
ferent from the teacher’s. If the teacher considers her voice as the official one,
the artifact has little room to operate. If, in contrast, the teacher considers her
view as one of various possible views on a same problem, she can take advan-
tage of the textbook to add its differing and subverting voice to hers and invite
the students to reflect on the differences and nuances so that they can end up
with a more polyphonic understanding of the matter under scrutiny. The making
of mathematics would consist precisely in the understanding of differences and
similarities that are brought to the fore by the students’ understandings as they are
interwoven with the voices of the teacher and the historical intelligence deposited in
artifacts.
288 L. Radford
References
Cole, M., & Griffin, P. (1980). Cultural amplifiers reconsidered. In D. R. Olson (Ed.), The social
foundations of language and thought, essays in honor of Jerome S. Bruner (pp. 343–364). New
York/London: W. W. Norton & Company.
Devlin, K. (1992). Computers and mathematics. Notices of the American Mathematical Society,
39(9), 1065–1069.
Lektorsky, V. A. (1995). Knowledge and cultural objects. In l. Kuçuradi & R. S. Cohen (Eds.), The
concept of knowledge. The Anakara Seminar (pp. 191–196). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Pea, R. D. (1993). Practices of distributed intelligence and designs for education. In G. Salomon
(Ed.), Distributed cognitions (pp. 47–87). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Radford, L. (2008). The ethics of being and knowing: Towards a cultural theory of learning. In
L. Radford, G. Schubring, & F. Seeger (Eds.), Semiotics in mathematics education:
Epistemology, history, classroom, and culture (pp. 215–234). Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Radford, L. (2010). The anthropological turn in mathematics education and its implication on
the meaning of mathematical activity and classroom practice. Acta Didactica Universitatis
Comenianae. Mathematics, 10, 103–120.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1981). The instrumental method in psychology. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), The concept
of activity in Soviet psychology (pp. 135–143). Armonk, NY: Sharpe.
Part IV
Collaborative Use
Chapter 15
A Comparative Perspective on Teacher
Collaboration: The Cases of Lesson Study
in Japan and of Multidisciplinary
Teaching in Denmark
Carl Winsløw
C. Winsløw (B)
Department of Science Education, University of Copenhagen, 1350 København K, Denmark
e-mail: winslow@ind.ku.dk
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 291
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_15,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
292 C. Winsløw
in Japan, and that of Danish high school teachers’ collaboration in the setting of
multidisciplinary modules. The two cases have been chosen both for their intrinsic
interest but also because the comparison of them illustrates the importance of infras-
tructure (while it is almost always ignored in studies of single or similar contexts
for teacher work).
The basic unit of teaching and learning in school institutions is that of a didactic
system (DS) (Brousseau, 1986; Chevallard, 1991). It is constituted by a group G of
people studying some object or organisation O of knowledge (in a broad sense to be
further specified) while making use of a set A of artefacts (non-human objects like
texts, signs, media and so on – cf. also Chapter 3). To say that the system (G, O, A) is
a DS usually requires more structure on G, to identify among one or more members
of G an intention for other members of G to study (or learn) O. This, in normal
school settings, corresponds to the partition of G into teachers and students. Of
course, more precise models for G as well as for the other elements are also possible
and usual. In particular, O may be modelled as praxeological organisation in the
sense of Chevallard (1999), and to study the kinds and uses of artefacts one may
want, for instance to identify semiotic systems, such as languages and codes, which
could support our interpretation of observations of how G makes use of A.
While teachers work to prepare, regulate and evaluate the work of students in a
DS, they assume different positions with respect to the DS: inside (as participants
in the DS) and outside (as constructors and observers of the DS). These positions
and roles are defined by their relation to the DS. We propose the following simple
model of them:
We subsume these three kinds of systems under the name paradidactic system (as
all have teachers as the human agents, G), abbreviated PS. A paradidactic system is
thus a triple (G, O, A) where G is a group of teachers, O their shared practice and
knowledge about one or more DS and A the set of artefacts they use to develop and
mediate O. A PS can be clearly situated relatively to a DS by the temporal position,
as shown in Fig. 15.1.
This temporality of the different parts of PS, relatively to DS, is central to our
model. The group G of teachers may be the same in PrS and PoS, while the organ-
isation O is likely to develop in time; the sets of artefacts could be different but are
15 A Comparative Perspective on Teacher Collaboration 293
Fig. 15.1 Graphic representation of the main components of our theoretical framework, show-
ing the distribution in time of the systems in which teachers (may) work: pre-didactic (PrS),
observation (DoS), didactic (DS) and post-didactic (PoS)
still likely to contain some common elements (like a text book). Researchers may
find that to study paradidactic systems presents a number of practical and method-
ological challenges, which are not necessarily smaller in the “simplest” case of an
individual teacher who prepares, delivers and reflects upon her own teaching (cf.
Chapter 2).
Now we simply define the paradidactic infrastructure (in a school system, or in a
single school) as everything which conditions and constraints the PS in its different
phases and in the interplay between the phases. For instance the absence of work
facilities for teachers in a school (desks, computer access and so on) may be an
important element of the pedagogic infrastructure. The actually available physical
elements of the school environment could also be important artefacts in all phases
of the PS (and, of course, in DS) and they could therefore also be significant ele-
ments of the paradidactic infrastructure in a particular school. Traditions, habits and
policies pertaining to the organisation of teachers’ work (in PS) are more ephemeral
elements of the paradidactic infrastructure, some of which may be less local (e.g.
be valid for an entire school system, within a discipline or across disciplines). This
fact makes them particularly interesting to identify and analyse, and makes a com-
parative perspective particularly pertinent, as they would have a tendency to appear
as “natural” within a given school system.
As the finality of PS is to produce the DS, it is clear that paradidactic infrastruc-
tures must be studied along with the DS they lead to produce. This is another reason
for the pertinence of a comparative perspective: considering two very different para-
didactic infrastructures and the resulting didactic systems we can say more about
the implication of the first on the latter than if we considered just minor variations
within a single teaching system.
lower secondary school teachers and which have existed – and, of course, devel-
oped – for at least a century (cf. e.g. Isoda, Stephens, Ohara, & Miyakawa, 2007;
Chapter 2). Using our model, we first analyse the general form of these practices,
and we then illustrate this analysis by observations of a concrete paradidactic system
(from a lesson study).
1. Study and planning (PrS). Meetings in group and individual study, with the aim
of:
– choosing a lesson to develop, called the study lesson, and to identify and
formulate the general and specific objectives of this lesson;
– study of a collection of artefacts (a kind of resources, in the sense of
Chapter 2): texts books and their accompanying material for the teacher,
lesson plans (cf. below), national programme, etc.;
– elaborate a plan for the study lesson, including both instructions about the
teaching and about the observation (by the teachers not teaching), related to
explicit hypotheses of the group (the resulting document is the lesson plan,
to be further described below).
2. Test and observation (DS and DoS). A member of the lesson study group teaches
the study lesson in her class, according to the lesson plan (DS). The other mem-
bers of the group observe the lesson, but usually do not intervene. There are
two main forms of teaching which correspond to two different behaviours of the
observing teachers:
– during whole class teaching, the observing teachers remain in the back or to
the sides of the classroom, where they take notes either freely or according
to a scheme prepared beforehand (included in the lesson plan);
– as the students work individually or in group (and the teacher circulates
among the tables to answer questions and observe the students), the other
members of the group also circulates in the class to observe the work of
individual students.
3. Evaluation and revision (PoS). The group meets soon after the test and observa-
tion session (normally on the same day) to discuss:
– Experience and observations: normally, the teacher who taught the lesson
first presents his impressions and reflections about the lesson, taking into
296 C. Winsløw
account his personal acquaintance; then the other group members present
their observations and reflections;
– Appropriate revisions of the lesson are also discussed.
Notice that, with the indications given above for the phases, Fig. 15.1 represents
rather well the lesson study cycle, with the realised study lesson as the DS on which
the whole PS centres. Whether or not the three phases are repeated in a cycle (this
is not always the case!) the lesson plan remains an artefact in all subsystems of the
PS, as indeed is a shared and emerging document in the sense of Chapter 2. We now
describe it in more detail.
Miyakawa and Winsløw (2009) analysed, from the point of view of two paradigms
of design research (French “didactical engineering”, Japanese “open approach
method”), a case of lesson study from an ordinary school in Tsukuba, Japan, involv-
ing a group of 13 teachers. The study lesson took place in grade 6 and forms part of
a lesson sequence on ratio and proportion.
In the preparatory work, teachers study and discuss different approaches to pro-
portionality, and an outline of their reflections is included in the first section of the
lesson plan. The teachers distinguish “basic approaches” to proportions of two mag-
nitudes A and B. In the most basic approach, taught from the first years of elementary
school: A is measured in terms of B (e.g. A is three times B). Here B plays the role
of a unit. In the second approach, some number or expression (like 1:3, 1/3, 0.33)
is used to indicate the proportion. The teachers have conducted a small test in the
class to gauge the status of students’ knowledge of the first approach. They have also
examined a number of concrete phenomena previously used to introduce students to
expressions for proportionality, such as the taste of salad dressings (made of vine-
gar and oil in different proportions). Because of various problems experienced with
these, the teachers decide to use a simple geometry task: find out whether two given
rectangles are of the same form, and justify the answer. In this case, proportionality
may of course occur in several ways, involving proportions of the lengths of bases
and heights.
In a preparatory meeting, which was videotaped and analysed in detail, the
teachers discuss the study lesson on the basis of this idea. One important variable
in the design of the task is the dimensions of the two rectangles, to enable a rich
discussion. To confront at the same time the erroneous idea of “magnification by
adding the same to each side”, they decide to introduce first one rectangle, then
another larger one in which the base and height are increased by the same length
relatively to the smaller rectangle. Two candidates for the pair of rectangles are
discussed: (1) 3 cm × 6 cm and 5 cm × 8 cm, (2) 3 cm × 5 cm and 5 cm × 7 cm.
While (2) could lead to some confusion due to the equality of base in one and
height in the other (both 5 cm), this could also enrich the discussion. And (1) is
15 A Comparative Perspective on Teacher Collaboration 297
discarded because the fact of being a “double square” (3 cm × 6 cm) could be used
as an easy explanation why the two rectangles are not of the same form, without
taking into account the lengths.
Once the basic “problem” (hatsumon, in Japanese) to be posed in the lesson is
decided upon, the discussion focuses on the dynamics between hypotheses on stu-
dent strategies and details of plans for the teacher’s action during the lesson. On the
basis of their experience and imagination, the teachers propose possible answers of
the students – both justifications of “same form” and of “different form”. To pro-
mote the presence of the answer “same form because the height and base both differ
by two centimetres” they decide to introduce a “warm up problem” with squares
(3 cm × 3 cm, 5 cm × 5 cm): asked if they are of the same form, students will
surely answer “yes”, and some will generalise the reasons to rectangles. The mate-
rial form of presenting the “warm up problem” and the “main problem” is also
discussed. The idea of providing the figures on Xeroxed handouts is discarded as it
might lead to students superposing and folding the figures rather than reflecting on
the proportions of their lengths.
To maximise the students’ attention to the figures and their dimensions, they
should be asked to draw consecutively, in their notebooks, the small and large
square, before being asked the question about same form. It is anticipated that all
students will agree the two squares have the same form, and so this question is
treated through whole class interaction. Next, the students are asked to draw, below,
the small and the large rectangle, and then to write their immediate impression as
to whether the rectangles are of the same form. During a 5-min period of personal
work, each student must then write a justification of his answer in the notebook.
The main part of the lesson is a discussion of students’ different solutions, begin-
ning with the explanation of those students who have answered “same form”. Here,
the teacher should maximise the variety of explanations put forward and to do so,
he will circulate during the 5-min personal work to identify students with different
solutions. This method (kikanshido in Japanese, cf. Clarke, 2004) is very common
in Japanese lessons and it is not even mentioned in the lesson plan.
The lesson plan consists in this case, and also more generally (Isoda et al., 2007,
p. 87), of the following elements:
– Short description of the teaching unit (here, seven lessons): its overall goals and
the theme of each lesson.
– Reflections on the challenges of the lesson: past experiences and designs,
students difficulties.
– Goals of the lesson.
– Detailed “script” for the teaching process, shown in a table (cf. Shimizu,
1999, p. 113), the hypothetical action by the students (strategies for solving the
problems proposed), and important points for evaluating the students’ work.
Notice that the “script” included in the lesson plan is far from being complete
in the sense of specifying everything the teacher should do or say. Its main focus is
on the goals (ultimately for student learning) and the ways in which they could be
reached.
298 C. Winsløw
The lesson plan is of course an important artefact in the predidactic system that
involves all teachers of the team. It is crucial also for the other parts of the paradi-
dactic system (cf. Fig. 15.1): to guide and focus observations of the teachers during
the lesson (an artefact of the DoS) as well as the evaluation and revision of the les-
son during post-lesson discussions and study (PoS). While the group splits between
DS and DoS during the “lesson phase” of the lesson cycle, the lesson plan ensures
a common focus of the activity of the group – before, during and after the lesson.
More precisely, the lesson plan helps the group develop a common and explicit
organisation of their knowledge about the lesson (contents and goals), about the
various strategies for teaching it, about knowledge and strategies of the students and
so on.
This organisation of knowledge develops through all three main phases of the
lesson study. In the lesson study we consider here, important details of the les-
son (including anticipating students’ action) were identified in the planning meeting
referred to above. As the lesson unfolds, the teacher focuses very strongly on mak-
ing the students’ express their ideas and understanding those of others. The main
part of the lesson (about 25 min) consists of this whole-class exchange of ideas,
orchestrated by the teacher who calls upon individual students to give their answer
and justification, without explicitly assessing them. This strategy is a general one
(related to the so-called “open approach” method of teaching, cf. Nohda, 1991;
Tsubota, 1977), and it maximises the possibility for observing teachers to identify
strategies among the students and hence to support the post-didactic evaluation and
revision of the lesson plan.
Lesson plans do not contain anything like theorems about teaching. Nevertheless,
their public character – that is the possibility of sharing them with colleagues –
show that lesson plans constitute a potential for documentation processes (in the
sense of Chapter 2) that goes beyond the group and institution in which they were
produced.
It is well known that lesson study plays a significant role in the in-service induction
of new teachers in Japan (Howe, 2005; Padilla & Riley, 2003; Shimizu, 1999). In
fact, teachers can experience this form of work already in the practice part of their
pre-service education. Winsløw (2004) present a study of this aspect of lesson study.
The experiences of novice teachers with lesson study and other forms of konaiken-
shuu is an important explanation why these are so widely established parts of the
paradidactic infrastructure in Japanese schools.
At present, we know of a lot of experiences with transplanting these infrastruc-
tures – particularly lesson study – to other countries (e.g. Fernandez, 2002). Among
the obstacles found to such “transplants” we find conditions which are relatively
easy to change (like teachers’ schedule or lack of habit to observe and be observed as
teachers) but also more deeply rooted constraints in the paradidactic infrastructure,
such as the lack of a precise, shared language about didactic phenomena.
15 A Comparative Perspective on Teacher Collaboration 299
– The so-called “modules of general study preparation”, which occupy 10% of the
total student time after the reform, and where the students work on broad themes
constructed to draw on at least two of the three principal “faculties” of the upper
secondary school (natural, human and social sciences).
– The final project to be done individually by each student in the third year of
upper secondary school (corresponding to 12th grade), and in which two of the
majors of the student’s study line should be combined (e.g. mathematics and
history, or mathematics and physics).
The modules of general study preparation occupy about 90 class hours in each of
the 3 years of upper secondary school. They are organised in clusters of between 5
and 30 h (10–15 h on average) unified by a theme and by a set of (upper secondary
school) disciplines which should contribute, in various ways, to the students’ work
with the theme. Here are some examples of themes:
In many respects, the final “study line projects” represent a challenge to teachers
which is similar to the general study preparation modules. The common necessity
of two teachers is again dictated by the combination of disciplines, which in this
case can be from the same faculty. But in this case the DS to be organised contains
only one student, and the study process is not one of class teaching but of individual
and relatively autonomous work on a set of questions given by the teachers. After
receiving these questions, the student has two weeks entirely reserved for the work
on his project, resulting in a 15–20 page report which is graded with the participation
of external examiners. The teachers can only give very limited direction to the work
of the student during the two weeks.
The DS itself is therefore only partially “observable” to researchers, as is (also in
other contexts!) the PS. However, a meaningful didactic analysis of the interaction
can be made on the basis of the formulations of questions together with the report of
the students, and it has led to interesting results. For instance, Hansen (2009) studied
15 A Comparative Perspective on Teacher Collaboration 301
Fig. 15.2 Graphic representation of the typical organization of parallel disciplinary teaching with
no DoS, a collaborative PrS0 and PoS0 (each with at least two teachers) and mono-disciplinary DSs
prepared and evaluated by one teacher (and with the same students in both DS). The knowledge
organisations of the collaborative and individual paradidactic systems have very limited overlap
hundreds of critical comments from teachers about the reform. While it would be
difficult to summarise all of the criticism in a few lines, the following comment can
be taken as relatively typical:
The reform now (. . .) enforces a collectivization of the teaching. Team work and cross dis-
ciplinarity are the new fashions, echoing the seventies. (. . .) we, the members of the new
teacher teams, did not choose a teaching career to become consultants or teamworkers, but
because we wanted to teach. Yes, let’s say it the way it is: we want to be masters in our own
classrooms – because we believe that’s what we are good at. (Dahl, 2004, our translation)
References
Brousseau, G. (1986). Fondations et méthodes de la didactique des mathématiques. Recherches en
didactique des mathématiques, 7(2), 33–115.
Chevallard, Y. (1991). La transposition didactique: du savoir savant au savoir enseigné (2ème
édition). Grenoble: La pensée sauvage.
Chevallard, Y. (1999). L’analyse des pratiques enseignantes en théorie anthropologique du
didactique. Recherches en didactique des mathématiques, 19(2), 221–266.
Chevallard, Y., & Cirade, G. (2010). Les ressources manquantes comme problème profession-
nel – (Missing resources as a professional problem). In G. Gueudet & L. Trouche (Eds.),
Ressources vives: Le travail documentaire des professeurs en mathématiques (pp. 111–128).
Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes et INRP.
Clarke, D. (2004). Patterns of participation in the mathematics classroom. In M. J. Høines &
A. B. Fuglestad (Eds.), Proceedings of the 28th conference of the international group for
the psychology of mathematics education (vol. 2, pp. 231–238). Bergen: Bergen University
College.
Dahl, E. (2004). Den politisk ukorrekte privatpraktiserende. Letter to the editor, Gymnasieskolen
4–04.
EVA (Danish Evaluation Institute). (2006). Almen studieforberedelse og studieområdet.
Copenhagen: Danmarks Evalueringsinstitut.
EVA (Danish Evaluation Institute). (2009). Gymnasiereformen på HHX, HTX og STX. Cop-
enhagen: Danmarks Evalueringsinstitut.
Fernandez, C. (2002). Learning from Japanese approaches to professional development. The case
of lesson study. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(5), 393–405.
Fernandez, C., & Yoshida, M. (2004). Lesson study: A Japanese approach to improving mathemat-
ics learning and teaching. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hansen, B. (2009). Didaktik på tværs af matematik og historie. Master Thesis, University of
Copenhague, May 2009. Retrieved from http://www.ind.ku.dk/publikationer/studenterserien/
studenterserie10/
Howe, E. (2005). Japan’s teacher acculturation: Critical analysis through comparative ethnographic
narrative. Journal of Education for Teaching, 31(2), 121–131.
Isoda, M., Stephens, M., Ohara, Y., & Miyakawa, T. (2007). Japanese lesson study in mathematics.
Its impact, diversity and potential for educational improvement. Singapore: World Scientific.
Lewis, C., & Tsuchida, I. (1997). Planned educational change in Japan: The case of elementary
science instruction. Journal of Educational Policy, 12(5), 313–331.
Ma, L. (1999). Knowing and teaching elementary mathematics. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Miyakawa, T., & Winsløw, C. (2009). Didactical designs for students’ proportional reasoning: An
“open approach” lesson and a “fundamental situation”. Educational Studies in Mathematics,
72(2), 199–218.
304 C. Winsløw
16.1 Introduction
This chapter can be considered as following Chapter 2, which has presented the
foundations of the documentational approach of mathematics didactics.
We try in this chapter to deepen this theoretical approach by emphasizing the impor-
tance of social aspects of teachers’ documentation work. Human work always takes
place in an institution (Douglas, 1986), which encompasses a cultural, historical
and social reality (Engeström, 1987). A teacher’s documentation work is both sup-
ported and constrained by curriculum resources (Chapter 6) and more generally by
a resource system (Chapters 2 and 5). Thus, the French Dictionary of Pedagogy1
claims that “Teaching is collaborating”. In some cases, for example the case of
Japanese lesson studies (Chapter 15), collective aspects of teachers’ work are readily
identified. In other cases, collective aspects are less visible, but we argue that they
are always present: each teacher necessarily has relationships with her colleagues,
and further, teachers are related through their documentation work.
We chose the word “collective” to represent this complex and diverse social real-
ity. At some points in this chapter, we use it as an adjective to qualify something
done by several people together. We also use it as a noun to name the most general
social form: a group of persons doing something together. Note that we take the
notion of “a collective” as not necessarily implying cohesion or involvement in a
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 305
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_16,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
306 G. Gueudet and L. Trouche
common project. Each teacher takes part in a variety of collectives. Some of these
are institutional collectives that are compulsory (such as a school team) or chosen
(e.g. a training session). Others are associations, which can be large (e.g. a national
association, open to every mathematics teacher), or more restricted (e.g. Sésamath
in France, see Section 16.3). Moreover, some collectives correspond to experimental
contexts associating teachers and researchers, as described in Chapter 17.
2 Our translation.
16 Communities, Documents and Professional Geneses 307
her classes, within the grade-level team, within the mathematics department, etc.);
complexity of time (a collective of teachers working together is subject to strong
schedule constraints). Describing (as far as possible) this complexity necessitates
making conceptual and methodological choices.
A CoP is not a fixed entity, it emerges and develops naturally because of the dynamic
of the joint enterprise. Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder (2002, p. 68–69) distinguish
five possible steps for what we will name a community genesis: potential, coalesc-
ing, maturing, stewardship and transformation (we elaborate on these notions in
Section 16.3). This conceptualization fits our objective of studying the documenta-
tion work of teachers in a collective, in describing a variety of teachers’ collectives
at various steps of development. It does not mean that each collective of teachers is
308 G. Gueudet and L. Trouche
fully characterized as a CoP, even at a first step of potential: for example the set of
mathematics teachers working in a same school does not, generally, gather the three
features of mutual engagement, joint enterprise and shared repertoire. Our theo-
retical choice thus lies on two hypotheses: (1) a teachers’ CoP constitutes a good
case study for understanding collective aspects of teacher documentation and (2)
what we learn from this case study sheds light on what happens in other types of
collectives.
The evolution of the community goes with the evolution of its members’ identi-
ties: the identity is defined by Wenger (2002, p. 149) as “the profound issue of how
to be a human being”, and thus is a process of becoming. And so, Wenger indicates
that “Identity in practice arises out of an interplay of participation and reification”
(p. 153). The identities “form trajectories, both within and across communities
of practice” (p. 154). Wenger distinguishes four types of trajectories: peripheral
trajectories (never leading to full participation), inbound trajectories (joining the
community to become full participants), insider trajectories (full membership and
continuous evolution of practice) and boundary trajectories (spanning boundaries
and linking communities of practice). A CoP is not an isolated entity, either; Wenger
(1998, p. 117) states that “CoP can connect with the rest of the world by provid-
ing peripherical experiences [. . .] to people who are not on a trajectory to become
full member. This kind of peripherality can include observation, but it can also go
beyond mere observation and involve actual forms of engagement”. According to
his/her trajectory, each member may have a particular role, integrated in an explicit
or implicit division of labour (Engeström, 1987) within the community. We will
illustrate these notions further.
The rapid growth of teachers’ online associations, designing and sharing resources,
appears as a result of digitalization and of a larger accessibility of Internet. We stud-
ied three of teachers’ associations,3 asking their leaders and a sample of members
to explain how their associations worked (their history, the problems they met, the
solutions they have built and with what results, etc.).
The responses allow us (Gueudet & Trouche, 2009) to see these associations
as instantiations of CoPs, as defined earlier. This opens a view on the community
geneses, which seem to have common features: the more active members of these
associations describe their geneses as a rolling stone (Fig. 16.3), with three main
stages of development. These stages could be related to the first Wenger’s steps:
This dynamic is fostered by a permanent reflection of the kernel about the orga-
nization and the ways to cultivate (Wenger et al., 2002) the CoP. Propositions are
permanently sent to the members of the successive peripheries (Fig. 16.2), to sup-
port their progression towards the centre, favouring inbound trajectories. The kernel
is neither closed, nor invariant: it is always renewed (“old” members quitting, new
members arriving), resulting from different members’ trajectories. The development
of an association is probably linked to its openness.5
Fig. 16.2 The genesis of a teachers online association, seen as a rolling stone (Gueudet &
Trouche, 2009)
4 Dillenbourg (1999) distinguishes cooperative and collaborative work: “In cooperation, partners
split the work, solve sub-tasks individually and then assemble the partial results into the final
output. In collaboration, partners do the work ‘together’”.
5 The name of the association itself, Sésamath, is certainly revealing, as a wink to “Open sesame”,
the famous phrase from the Arabian Nights.
312 G. Gueudet and L. Trouche
Sésamath was created in 2001. Its growth, since, has been rapid. Today, Sésamath
gathers 100 subscribers (the kernel, see Fig. 16.2), 5,000 teachers participating in
various documentation projects (the cooperation crown), and sends a letter each
month to 30,000 teachers (the sharing crown). One reason for this growth could be
the existence of the French network of IREM,6 which has, in some sense, paved the
way since 1970. Sésamath (http://www.sesamath.net/) essentially gathers in-service
mathematics teachers, aiming to “freely distribute resources for mathematics teach-
ing”. Its website front page claims “mathematics for everybody”, “working together,
supporting one another, communicating!”.
Its shared repertoire consists in resources for teaching: online exercises
(Mathenpoche), digital textbooks (also with printed copies available at half of the
price of other books), a dynamic geometry system (TracenPoche, TeP), simulated
geometry instruments (InstrumenPoche, IeP),7 etc. All these materials are free. The
audience of Sésamath is very large: about one million visits, each month, to its web-
site. The community documentation exceeds this shared repertoire: Sabra (2009),
by way of a questionnaire proposed to 30 of the most active members of the asso-
ciation,8 evidences that knowledge is produced by the community documentation
work (knowledge on mathematics, on mathematics teaching and on teaching).
Let us have a closer look at the so productive documentation work in this com-
munity. What allows this productivity, and fosters the Sésamath genesis, is the
development of tools favouring collaborative work. The main tool consists in a plat-
form for collaborative work (Sésaprof), which gathers thousands of teachers, for
achieving a given project (e.g. the design of a textbook). Each project concerns about
50 teachers, a reasonable number for a real collaboration. We hypothesize that a CoP
emerges as the project takes form, and we have found evidence for this hypothesis in
the groups we have studied. The development of Sésamath appears thus as strongly
linked to digitalization (Gueudet & Trouche, 2009): rapid technological evolution
brings needs and means for creating new resources, and digital environment allows
the organization of a collaborative work at a large scale. Borba and Gadanidis (2008)
consider “virtual environments and tools both as factors mediating teacher collab-
oration and as co-actors in the collaborative process” (p. 182). The use of digital
tools permits collective documentation work; it also shapes this work.
9 Pierre’s quotations, in Sections 16.3.3 and 16.3.4, are extracted from a questionnaire (October,
2008) and an interview (November, 2008).
10 Which means responsible for computer and software equipment, for giving his colleagues advice
for use (website, software. . .). Hard work, his logbook shows that it is time consuming (6 h in 3
weeks), for a limited financial reward of the institution (1 h paid each month).
314 G. Gueudet and L. Trouche
At the top of this representation, appear Sésamath resources: textbooks, exercises (Mathenpoche) and software designed by
the association. Different arrows appear, allowing to distinguish different types of activity: thick for preparing lessons, medium
for preparing exercises, thin for preparing activities. Most of the arrows concern activities (i.e. problem solving, open ended
questions, which constitute the heart of Pierre’ teaching). Pierre does not renew his personal resources: actually, he
essentially contributes to feed Sésamath repertoires. Apparently no interactions with his own colleagues.
6 textbook”. It is actually this last project, which appeared as fostering Pierre’s doc-
umentation. For all the duration of the project (2 years), Pierre decided to have only
grade 6 classes (three classes, for 6 h teaching in it), to “align” his documentation
work with the community documentation. Thus, the documentation work that Pierre
accomplished in 2008–2009 for the grade-6 level concentrated his main efforts, and
connected individual and community documentation.
It is possible to analyze Pierre’s trajectory, related to Sésamath, from two points
of view. To the kernel of the association, it was clearly, an insider trajectory during
our follow-up period, and it was both fed and guided by his Sésamath documen-
tation work. It appears also as a boundary trajectory, spanning several collectives
(collectives in Pierre’s school, Sésamath board, grade 6 textbook). For example
when proposing to his colleagues to choose the Sésamath textbook for their own
classes, Pierre appears as a go-between for the two collectives.
The interplay between Pierre’s and community documentation appears also
through the schematic representation of his resource system (SRRS, Chapter 2),
as depicted in Fig. 16.3. For Pierre, Sésamath’s repertoire (textbooks, exercise
books, software), constitutes the main reference of his system. What is described
as “personal resources” (down right) are archives and seem to be congealed (no
arrow comes to renew them); what seems to be evolving (“lived”, with the mean-
ing conveyed by the title of this book) are resources of the shared Sésamath
repertoire.
Pierre’s explanations on “how it works” help to understand his documentation
work:
16 Communities, Documents and Professional Geneses 315
• In the first direction (from Sésamath resources to his own resources) he “digs up”
what he needs, and “customizes” it (“generally, I pick up an exercise, I keep its
main idea, and I rephrase its questions”);
• In the second direction, Pierre acts as a “brocanteur”11 : he “bargain-hunts”
resources (on the web as well as in old books found in libraries or bookstores),
captures them in his computer. The space dedicated to his documentation work
on his computer has an important role. Pierre gave it a name, Piwosh, standing for
“Pierre’s workshop”.12 Piwosh looks like an incubator of resources. Pierre jots
down his ideas on Piwosh as they come (Pierre sometimes has difficulties finding
them again). He develops them when the need occurs, and tests them with his
students. The resources thus follow a path, from test phases to revision phases,
until they are good enough (according to Pierre’s judgment) to be added in the
shared Sésamath repertoire.
There is not only an interplay between Pierre’s and Sésamath resource systems:
it is a more complex interplay, where other members of the textbook project act
as active partners: Pierre proposes his ideas for discussion on Sésamath discussion
lists, and he also discusses the resources proposed by the members of the project
group, which we regard as an emerging community of practice. The Sésamath
resource system therefore appears as both a result of Pierre’s documentation work,
and as one of its essential sources. This situation constitutes a culmination of the
collaborative process within Sésamath. This is not only the resource content that is
shared (“sharing the same exercises”), this is not only the type of material resources
that is shared (“sharing the same type of textbook”), it is, physically, the same
resources which are shared, on the same remote host, and which are available, from
anywhere, for each member of the project.
To this collaborative documentation corresponds a collaborative form of teach-
ing, which we portray in the following section.
11 French word standing for “secondhand goods dealer”. The English expression is interesting,
evidencing that a resource is never a firsthand one, but always inherits from some older ones.
12 Our translation from French TafPi, literally “Taf de Pierre”; Taf is a slang French word, meaning
“work”.
316 G. Gueudet and L. Trouche
use: the teacher exploits Google to do any arithmetic operation exceeding students’
capacities of mental computation (it was amazing to observe that handheld calcu-
lators remain in students’ schoolbags!). For continuing to interact with his students
outside of the classroom, he developed a collaborative website on which he reg-
ularly uploads mathematics problems (that he calls enigma). Students try to solve
them and write their solutions on a forum.
Sésamath resources are widely used during each lesson, and they contribute to
Pierre’s instrumentation processes. For example the simulated geometrical instru-
ments (Sésamath IeP) allow students to visualize geometrical constructions. It
clearly contributes to the development by Pierre of a scheme for “teaching how
to draw a geometrical construction corresponding to a mathematical text.” Firstly,
he expects his students to work without any help; then, when the construction is
almost complete, he shows the construction process on the IWB. Finally, he shows
the construction as if it were a film, playing in a loop, which helps the students who
have not succeeded in completing their figure. Pierre explains why this method is
important:
Fig. 16.4 Pierre’s classroom configuration (drawn by Pierre), and Pierre in his classroom, showing
something on the IWB
In 2009–2010, Pierre’s situation within Sésamath has deeply evolved. The work on
the grade 6 textbook is finished, and Pierre is no longer a member of the Sésamath
board. He explains: “After a strong investment, it is necessary to take a step back”.14
14 Pierre’s quotations, in Section 16.3.5, are extracted from his interview in November, 2009
318 G. Gueudet and L. Trouche
This step back is certainly an effect of the completion of the textbook (“the work
has been done”), but also a consequence of a personal event (Pierre has had a new
child). Pierre is still a Sésamath member, but involved in a single project (mathe-
matics files for primary school), which is not as time consuming as the previous
one (instead of 10 h a week for the association the previous year, he now spends
about 1 h a week). This enlightens the possible variations of trajectories (Wenger,
1998) inside the association’s rolling stone (Fig. 16.2). Even in the association’s ker-
nel, complex trajectories take place due to both community documentation geneses
and personal stories. After having been an insider one, Pierre’s trajectory became a
peripheral one.
This evolution goes with a greater care by Pierre about what could be collectively
done within the school: for example the website that Pierre developed for communi-
cating with his students migrated from a private host to the school common website,
for sharing with colleagues. The new SRRS (Fig. 16.5) that Pierre draws evidences
this phenomenon.
When discussing with Pierre about the data collected 1 year before, he notices
also the interest of the classroom arrangement (Fig. 16.4) in relation with this col-
laboration with his colleagues: he sometimes exchanges his classroom with his
neighbour’s one, for organizing small groups work, which fits well in this room.
This exchange yielded an introduction of this neighbour (who teaches French) to
the interest of IWB, then to some ideas about how to use it, etc. This re-evaluating
of the existing collaboration within the school is certainly a consequence of Pierre’s
refocusing on his school, but also an indirect effect of our methodology of reflective
investigation (Chapter 2) itself: Working with researchers (Fig. 16.5: “after our
Fig. 16.5 New SRRS made by Pierre in February 2010 (our translation)
16 Communities, Documents and Professional Geneses 319
reflection, I thought . . .”) on his own documentation work makes Pierre more aware
of his colleagues as part of “the sources of his resources.” Pierre also distances
himself from Sésamath resources (Fig. 16.5 is to be compared with Fig. 16.3 from
this point of view). Sésamath is not only Pierre’s horizon, but also emerges as an
important external resource through his new SRRS (films, readings, . . .).
Once the textbook design was finished, Pierre takes up a more critical stance:
the whole Sésamath resources are no more directly applied from the association’s
website. When they seem to be not as relevant, they are modified, and saved in
Pierre’s personal repository for future usages.
There is a sort of balance between Pierre’s investment in his association and
in his school, not only as communicating vases (less in the association, more in
his school and vice versa), but also the various types of community documenta-
tion work that feed each other. We could say, extending a formula we met twice in
this chapter: documenting is collaborating. The case of Pierre evidences also the
interplay between documentation geneses and professional geneses. Pierre’s draw-
ings (Fig. 16.6), representing the evolution of his classroom configurations, are very
interesting from this point of view:
– First configuration: the beginning (4 years ago), when the IWB entered the class-
room, he “put it in a corner, on its feet”, and the students “in front of the boards,
as looking at a film”.
– Second configuration: this new tool, and the discussions in Sésamath about the
resources to be designed for this purpose (Pierre wrote, with a colleague, a paper
on this theme, for the journal of the association15 ) led him to a new configura-
tion. The IWB is now installed on a wall (“it is now part of the classroom”), the
students’ desks faced both the blackboard and the IWB (necessary to compare
the information “without privileging one of them”). Implementing new resources
Fig. 16.6 Evolution of equipment and classrooms configurations (drawings from Pierre)
15 http://revue.sesamath.net/spip.php?article21
320 G. Gueudet and L. Trouche
creates new needs for writing: a white board appears on the side of the black-
board, to keep the memory of what appears on the IWB without changing its
current display.
– Third and last configuration: the “chevrons” (already seen Fig. 16.4) appearing
for encouraging debates around problem solving.
We conceptualize this professional growth as a professional genesis, encompass-
ing several documentational geneses. The collectives, under various forms, foster
these processes. This occurs in the context of associations, and in the context of
“natural life” of schools. Is it possible that the schooling institution takes profit also
of this dynamic of collectives for teacher professional development programs? We
examine this question in the next section.
16.4 Discussion
We have argued in this chapter that the collective is everywhere in teachers’ docu-
mentation work and that it takes very different forms. The notion of communities of
practice is useful to grasp the dynamics of teachers collectives sharing a project of
documentation. It has often been used in the context of teacher training (Krainer &
Wood, 2008), with cultivated communities of teachers. But each community is both
spontaneous and cultivated (Wenger, 1998), we observed it here for the teacher asso-
ciation on line – Sésamath – that we have studied in this chapter. Teachers freely
join this association, and the board of Sésamath takes care of its development. Each
community is a tumultuous aggregation of members – tumultuous in several differ-
ent senses: some teachers enter the community while other ones get out; teachers’
roles inside the CoP permanently change, sometimes suddenly; as a rolling stone, a
community gathers in successive crowns various groups attracted in some way by
the practice of the community and its shared repertoire.
Paraphrasing Lave and Wenger (op. cit.), saying that each community of practice
is a community of learning, we could say that each teachers’ community of practice
is a community of documentation, which means that community geneses and docu-
mentation geneses act in concert. The documentation work leads to the production
of temporary objects, as “lived” resources, always engaged in new evolutions.
We assume that these phenomena are not specific to local situations, but concern,
at different levels, each teacher, involved in various collectives. No collective is
an isolated one. Pierre, for example, is member of Sésamath, member of various
collectives within his school. These collectives are acting as co-stimulating agents.
Following the work of a teacher means following interrelated stories: stories of the
collectives she is part of, stories of their documents, and stories of her professional
growth. Instead of story, we have used, both in Chapters 2 and 16, the term genesis to
underline the idea of development boosted by itself, fed by an environment, directed
towards a higher level of organization.
Our study proceeded by successive levels of investigation. We described
(Chapter 2) how studying a teacher’s activity requires encompassing documen-
tational geneses, considering activities outside of and inside school, and sets of
16 Communities, Documents and Professional Geneses 321
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(pp. 309–330). Rotterdam/Taipei: Sense Publishers.
Krainer, K., & Wood, T. (Eds.). (2008). Participants in mathematics teachers education:
Individuals, teams, communities and networks (Vol. 3). Rotterdam/Taipei: Sense Publishers.
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education (pp. 133–153). Rotterdam/Taipei: Sense Publishers.
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322 G. Gueudet and L. Trouche
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l’association Sésamath. Petit x, 81, 55–78.
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to managing knowledge. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Chapter 17
Mathematics Teachers as Instructional
Designers: What Does It Take?
17.1 Introduction
J. Visnovska (B)
School of Education, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
e-mail: j.visnovska@uq.edu.au
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 323
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8_17,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
324 J. Visnovska et al.
standards to which the teachers are held accountable). The products of this work at
a given point in time are characterized as documents (e.g., records of the mathemat-
ical ideas that are the goals of an instructional unit; a sequence of tasks along with
a justification of their selection). These documents can in turn become resources in
teachers’ subsequent documentation work. The process of documentational gene-
sis therefore foregrounds interactions of teachers and resources, and highlights how
both are transformed in the course of these interactions (see also Chapters 2 and 16
of this book).
Although teachers necessarily make changes in their documentation work when-
ever they use new instructional materials for the first time, the challenge of
designing resources to proactively support specific changes (e.g., toward practices
that the research on student learning indicates are effective) remains nontrivial
(cf. Chapters 10 and 6). This is in part due to the complexity of resources involved
in a productive instructional design. Our purpose in this chapter is to both acknowl-
edge this complexity and to present a case in which a group of mathematics teachers’
documentation work was guided in productive directions over an extended period
of time. We outline some of the resources that the teacher group used routinely in
the last year of a 5-year study, and draw contrasts with ways that these resources
were used in the group’s documentation work several years earlier. In doing so, we
draw on the documentation genesis framework described by Gueudet and Trouche
(2009) to explain how the use of the same material resources (e.g., an instructional
sequence in statistics) came to have significantly different meanings in the group
activities over time. We thus illustrate and substantiate the argument that teachers
themselves, in working with and reworking different resources, play a central role
in developing the sophisticated documents that are needed to facilitate their instruc-
tional improvement efforts (cf. Rabardel & Bourmaud, 2003; see also Chapters 7
and 5). We also stress that the productive use of social resources (e.g., the copar-
ticipating teachers) followed a similar pattern in that these resources, central to the
teachers’ effective documentation work, were not readily available from the out-
set but were instead developed in the course of sustained professional development
(Dean, 2005).
1 Presented study was a part of a larger research project. The research team included the authors,
Kay McClain, Teruni Lamberg, Qing Zhao, Melissa Gresalfi, Lori Tyler, and Jose Cortina.
17 Mathematics Teachers as Instructional Designers 325
2 The first of the instructional sequences focused on supporting students to reason about univariate
distributions and the second about bivariate distributions.
326 J. Visnovska et al.
on specific teacher moves, but instead pressed the teachers to justify the moves and
actions that they chose by considering opportunities for student learning. We conjec-
tured that professional development activities in which instructional decisions came
to be justified explicitly in terms of student learning opportunities would constitute
an effective means of supporting the learning of the teacher group.
Fig. 17.1 The timeline of the professional development activities in year 3. Each whole-day ses-
sion is depicted by a vertical rectangle. The rectangle is subdivided into four sections that represent
the foci of the main activities on that day. The 3 by 4 array depicts the 3-day summer workshop.
The single square in August depicts an informal session organized by the continuing teachers for
the newcomers to the group
17 Mathematics Teachers as Instructional Designers 327
analyzed, they are constantly compared with currently conjectured themes or cat-
egories, eventually resulting in the formulation of empirically grounded claims or
assertions that span the entire data set.
The basis upon which the teachers came to make instructional judgments became
explicit when they reviewed, critiqued, and proposed adaptations to statistics tasks
in the later half of year 5 of our collaboration. To illustrate the documentation work
of the group at the time, we first discuss one of the task adaptations that the teachers
proposed and then outline how they reasoned about the ‘big ideas’ of the statistics
sequences.
The first episode comes from the group discussion of the instructional task
in which the students were to analyze the T-cell counts of AIDS patients who
had enrolled in two different treatment protocols (186 patients in traditional and
46 patients in experimental treatment) to advise hospital personnel about which
treatment was more effective (Fig. 17.2).
Fig. 17.2 Data for the AIDS task: T-cell counts per mm3 of blood. The data are represented in
second of the three computer tools designed to support students’ comparisons of univariate data
17 Mathematics Teachers as Instructional Designers 329
During the discussion, the teachers proposed that the distribution of the ‘tradi-
tional treatment’ data should look more like a hill – the term that students often
use when they first focus on shape of data distributions. The teachers also pointed
out that once the distribution of the data had been smoothed out, it would be
important that a break point in the data that splits each data set into two groups
should be selected so that students who used the additive argument would arrive
at a different conclusion than students who reasoned about the data proportionally
(see Fig. 17.3).
During the classroom design experiment in which this task was developed, the
researchers had purposefully constructed data sets with significantly different num-
bers of data points so that the contrast between absolute and relative frequency might
become explicit. The teachers’ comments indicated that they were aware of (a) the
kinds of arguments that their students might make as they engage in the AIDS activ-
ity, (b) how characteristics of data sets influenced students’ arguments, and (c) the
value of comparing different arguments during classroom discussions to support all
students in coming to interpret data sets in proportional rather than additive terms.
For the teachers, reasoning proportionally about data was both a sophisticated way
of identifying patterns in data and a big mathematical idea that the AIDS task could
help them pursue.
The second episode comes from the summer institute at the end of year 5, when
we asked the teachers to outline the main instructional goals in each phase of teach-
ing univariate data analysis. The purpose for this activity was to reach consensus
about major goals and then use these goals to orient the design of an instructional
Fig. 17.3 ‘Smoother’ shape of AIDS data sets proposed by the teachers. The datasets were
designed to facilitate the contrast between additive and proportional comparison of subgroups with
T-cell count above 550 (i.e., although a greater number of patients in the traditional treatment have
T-cell counts above 550 than in the experimental treatment, greater proportion of patients in the
experimental treatment improved when compared to the traditional treatment)
330 J. Visnovska et al.
sequence that they could use in their classrooms. The teachers first spent about
20 minutes making notes individually while reviewing tasks. In the subsequent
discussions, each of the teachers stated one goal and a researcher typed-up their pro-
posals. The following excerpt is representative of the entire discussion and concerns
the comparison of data sets with unequal number of data points.
Muriel: [One of the goals for the class is] seeing the shape without the
numbers, going from the absolute to the relative [comparisons].
Researcher: Not without the numbers, without the data, like when you’ve
hidden the dots (see Fig. 17.4.)
Muriel: Yes, the middle 50%.
Researcher: Are you thinking about four equal groups?
Muriel: [describes a specific graph, using AIDS task as an example]
Researcher: Being able to see what the graph looks like.
Lisa: Comparing the different partitions in the data, not just the
middle 50%, but each quartile.
Researcher: If we compare the entire data set, how the entire thing is
distributed.
Lisa: Yeah, but you are comparing different pieces.
...
Erin: We were always talking about using percentages, using propor-
tions [not just counts of absolute frequencies].
Bruno: Unequal groups leads to concepts like histograms, [relative]
frequency.
Researcher: We talked about shapes before, now that we have unequal data
sets, we need to have ways to make comparisons explicit so
Fig. 17.4 AIDS data organized into four equal groups with the data hidden
17 Mathematics Teachers as Instructional Designers 331
The ways in which the teachers used each other as resources3 in their documen-
tation work changed substantially in the course of our collaboration with them.
Dean (2005) analyzed the development of the teacher group during the first 2
years of the collaboration and reported that, initially, the participation structure
within the group could be characterized as turn taking with the teachers directing
comments to the researchers rather than each other. The group was a pseudocom-
munity (Grossman, Wineburg, & Woolworth, 2001) in that the teachers treated
challenges and conflicts as violations of established norms. In addition, they ini-
tially kept their classroom practices private: they did not allow other teachers to
observe their instruction and did not share their instructional challenges during pro-
fessional development sessions. These types of interactions were not conducive to
substantial pedagogical learning because the rationale for specific instructional deci-
sions remained implicit, private, and uncontested. They were also not conducive to
collaborative documentation work.
The ongoing and retrospective analyses revealed that the ways in which the teach-
ers initially participated in the professional development sessions, and in particular
how they interacted with their colleagues, were influenced to a significant extent by
the school settings in which they worked. The school administrators monitored their
instruction on content coverage and student behavior, and assistance to improve
instruction was limited (Cobb, McClain, Lamberg, Dean, 2003). As a result, the
teachers worked in almost complete isolation. Given that school settings of this type
are relatively typical in the United States and in a number of other countries, it is
unreasonable to assume that mathematics teachers who work in the same school, or
who engage in a professional development program together will necessarily serve
as a useful resource for one another.
One of our major goals during the first two years of the collaboration was there-
fore to support the development of more effective forms of participation in the
professional development sessions. As Dean (2005) documented, it was not until
19 months into the collaboration that the group finally became a genuine profes-
sional teaching community (cf. community of practice, Wenger, 1998; Chapter 16).
The joint enterprise of the community centered on ensuring that students came to
understand central mathematical ideas while simultaneously performing more than
adequately on high-stakes student assessments. The norms of mutual engagement
that were key to the teachers’ documentation work included building on others’
3 We specifically attend to the relationships and methods of communication among the group of
teachers engaged in joint activities that serve as a social resource (cf. Carpenter et al., 2004; Cobb,
McClain, Lamberg, & Dean, 2003).
17 Mathematics Teachers as Instructional Designers 333
4 The activities designed to support these changes included conversations about the supports and
constraints available to teachers in their schools, principals’ understanding of effective mathemat-
ics teaching, and how the group could support principals in developing more productive views and
in valuing teachers’ professional judgment.
334 J. Visnovska et al.
Muriel: My class, when we went to the computer lab, they were dividing
it [data] like into thirds. And we did that. Didn’t we do that at
first? Thirds?
[Wesley nodding]
Muriel: But they, none of them divided into the 4 equal groups.
Researcher: No, that’s fine.
Muriel: Which did not lead to box and whisker plots at all [laughs].
Researcher: No, that’s fine. That’s actually kind of what we expect, by
the way.
Muriel: Ok.
Researcher: Ok? Let’s be clear about this. . . . None of your kids are gonna
just invent box and whiskers plots. . . . That’s not what we are
aiming for. What we are aiming for is, I think it’s just fine to
introduce stuff to kids. Not that they just create it out of nothing.
But it’s at a point when they see a need for it. And it’s gonna
make sense when they can see it as a useful tool.
Wesley: And the “industry standard” is to divide it into 4ths.
Researcher: Yes.
Wesley: And if they’re dividing into the thirds, they’ve got the idea in
their head, to divide. And then you’d say: “Well, you know,
most people talk about it in terms of 4ths” and they’re not gonna
have a hard time making that leap to there.
(Year 4, Session 2, Nov 2003)
With support from a researcher, the teachers responded to Muriel’s account of an
instructional problem by proposing explanations and suggesting possible courses of
action that built on students’ solutions (e.g., Wesley’s suggestion). By the fourth year
of the collaboration, problems that the teachers shared were routinely constituted as
cases in which to talk through broader instructional issues (e.g., inventing versus
telling). Moreover, the teachers viewed instructional improvement as the collective
responsibility of the group, and valued collaboration as a means of understanding
and improving instruction.
Once the group had established productive norms of mutual engagement, other
teachers proved to be an invaluable resource for effective documentation work.
However, the collective development of productive norms was a nontrivial accom-
plishment. Although structures that facilitated collaboration were necessary (e.g.,
time, space, group leaders), it was as the teachers worked together with considerable
guidance that effective social resources developed in the group.
(or collections of meanings) that the teachers produced in the process, changed
substantially in the course of our collaboration.
Resource for statistical learning. Prior to the professional development col-
laboration, the teachers had limited experience in conducting statistical analyses
and thus in dealing with variability and distribution. There were clear indications
that they recognized the sequences as resources for their statistical learning rela-
tively early in the collaboration (Dean, 2005). As the teachers engaged in activities
from the instructional sequences as learners, they became increasingly competent
in analyzing data, developing data-based arguments, and providing justifications
for their solutions. By the end of year 2, all the teachers reasoned about distri-
butions multiplicatively (i.e., in terms of relative rather than absolute frequency),
developed increasingly sophisticated strategies for comparing how data sets were
distributed, and could infer the shape of these distributions from a variety of
statistical representations.
However, the ways in which the teachers initially used instructional activities
from the sequences with their students indicated that the teachers assimilated the
sequences to their current instructional practices. In other words, the teachers’ use
of the sequences did not lead them to reorganize their instructional practices: the
sequences were not, by themselves, effective resources for the teachers’ pedagogical
learning.
Source of benchmarks and prescriptions. During years 1–3 of the collaboration,
the teachers repeatedly requested explicit prescriptions for how they should enact
statistics activities in their classrooms. Despite our repeated attempts to reorient dis-
cussions toward the bases for making informed instructional decisions, the teachers
typically focused on what they were supposed to do when they used the instructional
activities. It appeared that, from the teachers’ point of view, it ought to be possible to
script what they should do irrespective of the ways in which their students engaged
in the activities.
As an illustration, in the first session of year 2 the researchers attempted to sup-
port the teachers in identifying the ‘big ideas’ of the statistics sequence in an activity
similar to the one that we reported from the summer session at the end of year 5. In
contrast to their responses at the end of year 5, the teachers created a list of bench-
marks that they should ensure students ‘got’ as they went through the sequence.
They also requested that the benchmarks be worded as objectives similar to those in
state mathematics standards for student achievement, and asked whether the partic-
ular objectives (e.g., ‘developing data-based arguments’) should be written on the
board prior to lessons or told to the students after the lesson (Dean, 2005).
The meanings of the instructional sequences that were collectively reconstructed
in this session (i.e., documents produced by the group) differed significantly from
those established in later years. As the discussion of Muriel’s concern about
three equal groups illustrated, by year 4 the teachers focused on how they could
proactively support the emergence of specific forms of student reasoning (e.g., par-
titioning data into four equal groups, reasoning about comparisons proportionally).
In contrast, in year 2, the teachers generated benchmarks to be used retrospectively
336 J. Visnovska et al.
to assess student learning. The activities in which the teachers engaged in the inter-
vening 2 years were explicitly designed to support the teachers’ development of
more productive views of classroom instruction that went beyond benchmarking
students’ solution methods.
Resource for supporting students’ statistical interests. Throughout year 3, we
pressed the teachers to adopt a student’s point of view when they examined class-
room situations and attempted to make sense of students’ statistical analyses and
explanations. In designing the three-day summer institute conducted at the end
of year 3, we planned to continue supporting the teachers in shifting their focus
from the teacher’s performance to ways in which students might be making sense
of classroom activities. However, because our prior attempts to support this shift
by focusing directly on students’ reasoning had been repeatedly unsuccessful,5 we
instead chose an issue that was already instructionally important to the teachers,
student motivation.
An analysis of the teaching sets collected before the summer institute of year 3
to document the teachers’ classroom practices revealed that all the teachers consid-
ered student motivation to be a major determinant of both students’ engagement in
classroom activities and their mathematical learning (Zhao, Visnovska, Cobb, &
McClain, 2006). However, the process by which teaching resulted in students’
learning was largely a black box for the teachers. Whether students learned or
not depended to a great extent on their motivation, which the teachers attributed
to societal and economical factors beyond their control. Student motivation and
engagement were thus highly problematic issues for the teachers.
These analyses oriented the design of a series of professional development activ-
ities in which we supported the teachers in reconceptualizing students’ motivation
in terms of cultivating students’ disciplinary interests (Dewey, 1913/1975). We have
documented elsewhere (Visnovska, 2009; Visnovska & Zhao, 2010) that the teach-
ers came to view students’ motivation as being within their control to influence,
and found it meaningful to investigate how they might support the development
of students’ interest in analyzing data. Commencing with the summer institute at
the end of year 3, the teachers began to use the statistics instructional sequences
as a means of supporting students’ development of statistical interests (Visnovska,
2009). They initially did so by focusing on task scenarios and the opening phase
of statistics lessons in which the task was introduced. It was as they attempted to
envision which types of task scenarios were likely to be of interest to their students
that the teachers began to adopt a student’s perspective.
Resource for supporting students’ statistical reasoning. Once it became nor-
mative in the group to adopt a student’s perspective when considering students’
interests (session 4, year 4), most of the teachers came to view the whole class
discussions of different student solutions as a source of students’ continued inter-
est. With support from the researchers, the teachers started to attend to the
To summarize, the same colleagues and the same statistics instructional sequences
functioned as very different resources in the teachers’ work at different points dur-
ing the professional development collaboration. The teachers’ initial interactions in
the professional development group reflected their daily experiences in school envi-
ronments characterized by monitoring and control but little assistance. The group
became a professional teaching community in which genuine conversations about
problems of instructional practice were possible only after the teachers developed
insights into the institutional context of their work and how it influenced both their
practices and their relations with each other. These insights were a precursor to the
development of new and more productive ways of working together.
Even though the teachers readily recognized the statistics sequences as a resource
for their statistical learning, they did not initially reorganize their instructional prac-
tices when they used the sequences in their classrooms. We illustrated that the
reorganization of planning practices involved a series of shifts in the ways that the
group used the statistics sequences when addressing the problems that the teach-
ers viewed as relevant to their teaching. Importantly, the teachers did not simply
choose to use the sequences in new ways or for new purposes. Rather, the evolu-
tion of normative ways of interpreting and using the sequences was closely related
to the teachers’ development of increasingly sophisticated forms of mathematical
and pedagogical reasoning. Conversely, the teachers’ guided participation with the
statistics instructional sequences supported the development of their mathemati-
cal and pedagogical reasoning. In this process, the teachers collectively developed
shared repertoire of resources that enabled them to (re)construct a rationale for the
instructional sequences and to adapt the sequences to their classrooms in ways that
were consistent with underlying design principles.
We conclude this chapter by expanding on the two aspects of teachers’ collective
documentation work on which we have focused in the illustrative case: the develop-
ment of social resources and of material resources. Our first observation relates to
338 J. Visnovska et al.
the frequent calls that have been made to establish collaborative teacher communi-
ties as a resource for supporting teachers in improving their instructional practices
(Ball & Cohen, 1996). The illustrative case indicates that professional teaching
communities cannot be legislated into being merely by providing time, space, and
instructional leadership (see also Chapter 15). Instead, the teachers became social
resources for each other as a result of engaging in professional development activ-
ities with considerable guidance. As the case illustrates, the ease or difficulty with
which teachers can become social resources for each other depends to a considerable
degree on the school contexts in which they work. In absence of proactive guidance,
teacher groups might merely perpetuate the patterns of interaction that are typical
in their schools (i.e., engage in pseudo-agreement to protect themselves from being
negatively evaluated) and fail to become effective social resources.
As a related observation, the ways in which teachers initially use new instruc-
tional materials are likely to involve assimilation to current instructional practices.
Although use of the new materials might result in some teachers reorganizing their
practices significantly, the extent to which they do so is influenced by whether and
how teachers’ use of the new materials is supported as well as by the school contexts
in which they work. In school contexts in which teachers’ instructional performance
is monitored and where they receive little assistance to improve their teaching,
the introduction of new instructional materials is unlikely to support substantial
improvements in teachers’ instructional practices. As our case illustrates, sustained
proactive guidance as the teachers’ engaged with the instructional sequences was
crucial in supporting the development of new instructional planning practices (e.g.,
anticipating students’ solutions to particular tasks). Two characteristics of the pro-
fessional development activities proved to be important in this regard: (a) the
teachers had to view the new ways of engaging with the instructional sequences as
relevant to their classroom instruction, and (b) the activities had to challenge some
of the teachers’ existing assumptions about classroom instruction, thereby giving
rise to opportunities for them to develop new instructional insights. It, therefore,
seems unlikely that teachers will reorganize their instructional practices when they
are required to meet for common planning while using new instructional materi-
als, but are left to their own devices to determine how this planning work should
proceed unless some of the teachers have already developed relatively sophisticated
practices.
In the framework proposed by Gueudet and Trouche (Chapters 2 and 16), the
resources include both the social resources and the proactive role of facilitators
in supporting substantive learning of teacher communities. This is adequate for
the purpose for which the framework was developed – to capture documenta-
tion genesis as a phenomenon. However, it is important to add that the types of
resources on which we have focused cannot necessarily be provided externally,
but instead have to be developed locally with ongoing support and guidance. We
raise this issue because frameworks developed by educational researchers are often
appropriated by others and translated to policy recommendations, resulting in re-
commendations and requirements that are frequently counterproductive to efforts
17 Mathematics Teachers as Instructional Designers 339
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learning (pp. 371–404). Reston, VA: NCTM.
McClain, K., & Cobb, P. (2001). Supporting students’ ability to reason about data. Educational
Studies in Mathematics, 45, 103–129.
McClain, K., Cobb, P., & Gravemeijer, K. (2000). Supporting students’ ways of reasoning about
data. In M. Burke (Ed.), Learning mathematics for a new century (2001 Yearbook of the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics) (pp. 174–187). Reston, VA: National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics.
Rabardel, P., & Bourmaud, G. (2003). From computer to instrument system: A developmental per-
spective. Special Issue “From computer artifact to mediated activity”, Part 1: Organisational
issues, Interacting With Computers, 15(5), 665–691.
Remillard, J. T. (1999). Curriculum materials in mathematics education reform: A framework for
examining teachers’ curriculum development. Curriculum Inquiry, 29(3), 315–342.
Simon, M. A., & Tzur, R. (1999). Explicating the teacher’s perspective from the researchers’
perspective: Generating accounts of mathematics teachers’ practice. Journal for Research in
Mathematics Education, 30, 252–264.
Visnovska, J. (2009). Supporting mathematics teachers’ learning: Building on current instruc-
tional practices to achieve a professional development agenda. Unpublished Dissertation,
Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN.
Visnovska, J., & Zhao, Q. (2010, May). Focusing on interest in professional development of math-
ematics teachers. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association Conference, Denver, CO.
Visnovska, J., & Zhao, Q. (2011). Learning from a professional development design experiment:
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(Eds.), Proceedings of the 34th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research
Group of Australasia. Alice Springs, NT: MERGA.
17 Mathematics Teachers as Instructional Designers 341
Barbara Jaworski
The title of this book, “Mathematics Curriculum Material and Teacher Develop-
ment: From Text to “Lived” Resources” is fittingly brought to a conclusion in this
final part which focuses on the collaborative aspects of teacher documentation. The
three chapters in this part offer a range of theoretical perspectives as well as spe-
cific practical insights to issues in developing mathematics teaching for the effective
learning of students. Each of the chapters addresses a tension/dilemma for teachers:
that is, the engagement of self within the collective of institutionalized practice and
an exciting panorama of resources and their associated challenges.
In his seminal discussion of “self”, Harré (1998) adapts the terminology of Apter
(1989, p. 75) to speak of “personhood” as having characteristics as follows:
In displays of personhood, of our singularity as psychological beings, we express
“a sense of personal distinctness, a sense of personal continuity, and a sense of
personal autonomy” (p. 6).
In what we read in this part we gain a sense of how teachers’ personhood, in terms
of distinctness, continuity and autonomy, relates to the panorama of resources within
which they make sense of their teaching role, in which they become the teacher they
are. All three chapters build on Gueudet and Trouche’s Chapter 2 (Part I) to make
reference to “documentational genesis”, in which genesis means becoming: becom-
ing a mathematics teacher; becoming a professional user of resources; becoming a
knowledgeable professional. In his book Communities of Practice, Wenger (1998)
talks of learning as “a process of becoming” (p. 215). On the one hand, this, he
claims, is “an experience of identity” (p. 215), where identity “serves as a pivot
between the social and the individual, so that each can be talked about in terms of
the other” (p. 145). Harré, on the other hand, sees a person’s identity “not their sin-
gularity as a unique person, but the group, class or type to which they belong” (p. 6).
He sees this as being the opposite of the characteristics of singularity, distinctness,
continuity and autonomy. In his terms, identity and personhood are opposites.
B. Jaworski (B)
Mathematics Education Centre, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire
LE11 3TU, UK
e-mail: B.Jaworski@lboro.ac.uk
343
344 B. Jaworski
My brief references here to the writings of Harré and Wenger draw attention to
a philosophical grounding to these chapters, which juxtaposes ideas of self, identity
and agency. Harré speaks of agentive power as “power [of the individual] to initiate
action” (p. 116). Wenger juxtaposes agency with knowledgeability, and suggests
a dichotomy between theories of social structure that deny agency to individual
actors, and theories of situated experience that emphasise agency and intentions,
and address “the interactive relations of people with their environment” (pp. 12–13).
Wenger suggests a middle ground, that of “learning as participation” which “takes
place through our engagement in actions and interactions” and “embeds this engage-
ment in culture and history” (p. 13). Documentational genesis, a term which
captures the process of the mathematics teacher becoming a professional user of
resources and, concomitantly, a knowledgeable professional, navigates the ground
between the personhood of the teacher and the teacher’s belonging (Wenger, 1998)
to social structures and communities in which resources take meaning. Gueudet and
Trouche suggest an associated community genesis including five steps potential,
coalescing, maturing, stewardship and transformation as distinguished by Wenger,
McDermott and Snyder (2002); they write: “This conceptualization fits our objec-
tive of studying the documentation work of teachers in a collective, in describing a
variety of teachers’ collectives at various steps of development” (p. 307).
Winsløw (Chapter 15) uses the concept of documentational genesis to introduce
his theory of paradidactic systems; for him this concept is “clearly an enterprise
that goes much beyond the individual teacher’s domain of action and responsi-
bility”. He emphasizes that even in a context where teachers work mostly alone,
peer learning and team work can be crucial factors for teachers’ development.
Gueudet and Trouche (Chapter 16) write of teachers’ documentational geneses
and professional geneses with particular reference to community and collabora-
tion, drawing on Wenger’s theory of community of practice. For them the idea of
teacher-in-community seems central to their conceptualization.
Visnovska, Cobb and Dean (Chapter 17) discuss teachers’ documentation work
with a helpful rephrasing of the concept of documentational genesis: they write,
with reference to Gueudet and Trouche, that
“teachers’ documentation work includes looking for resources (e.g., instructional materials,
tools, but also time for planning, colleagues with whom to discuss instructional issues, and
workshops dedicated to specific themes) and making sense and use of them (e.g., planning
instructional tasks and sequences, aligning instruction with the objectives and standards to
which the teachers are held accountable). The products of this work at a given point in
time are characterized as documents (e.g., records of the big mathematical ideas that are
the overall goals of an instructional unit; a sequence of tasks along with a justification of
their selection). These documents can in turn become resources in teachers’ subsequent
documentation work. The process of documentational genesis therefore foregrounds inter-
actions of teachers and resources, and highlights how both are transformed in the course of
these interactions” (pp. 323–324).
Winsløw (Chapter 15) develops the idea of a didactic system, the basic unit of
teaching and learning in school institutions (drawing on theories from Brousseau
and Chevallard), to offer a threefold collaborative process which he calls a para-
didactic system. The components are the predidactic system (PrD) involving
design and planning, the observation system (DoS) in which classroom teaching
is observed and documented and the postdidactic system (PoS) in which the didac-
tic system is evaluated and its design may be revised. He goes on to apply this model
to examples of practice: firstly an example of Japanese lesson study and secondly an
implementation of interdisciplinary modules in Danish schools. While Japanese les-
son study is historically and culturally rooted, the Danish project was imposed onto
the existing culture and systems and proved problematic for teachers to accept and
implement. The challenge posed by the specific requirement for teachers to work in
teams cut across what teachers saw as their motivation for becoming teachers.
Gueudet and Trouche expand on the ideas of Wenger and illustrate community
documentational genesis in practice through the case of a teacher Pierre and his
activity within the digital network Sésamath. Their case study shows how the many
facets of Pierre’s documental work coalesce, mature and transform to contribute to
the teacher that Pierre has become. They contrast the activity of Pierre with that of
Myriam, detailed in Chapter 2. The two teachers navigate differently between the
resources offered in Sésamath and their own use of these resources. We might say
that their patterns of instrumentation/intrumentalisation are different, and hence also
their personal agency in designing teaching.
Visnovska et al. (Chapter 17) discuss documentational and professional genesis
in a project involving teachers as instructional designers – a 5-year developmental
programme with mathematics teachers in which teachers developed knowledge of
statistical concepts and associated pedagogical knowledge to grow into more prin-
cipled modes of practice with their students. The authors emphasise the complexity
of resources, including social resources, and point to key shifts in teachers’ partic-
ipation in the project relate to their co-participating teachers and the pre-designed
instructional sequences. In some cases it was clear that school norms influenced
teachers more than project goals. It was pointed out that the teachers would not
have developed the desired ways of working central to the innovation if left to their
own initiative; the innovation was of central importance to teachers’ mediation of
reform effort.
In all these cases, relative to the particularities of the case, we see three key
dimensions, in one case, four. As Gueudet and Trouche point out, each teacher
takes part in a variety of collectives, sometimes institutional compulsory and some-
times chosen by themselves. They are a part of an institution which imposes norms
and expectations into which the personal activity of the teacher must fit or “align”
(Wenger, 1998). They use a variety of resources of different kinds: curricular, col-
legial, text and Internet, classroom interaction, for example. So we see a teacher’s
agency in relation to these collectives:
These dimensions are of course deeply inter-related, but we can see different
emphases in the activity portrayed in these chapters. For example, we might see
Japanese lesson study as emphasizing points 1 and 2, the Danish reform as empha-
sising 2; Myriam and Pierre as emphasizing points 1, 2 and 3, and the teachers in
the Visnovska et al. study as emphasizing points 1, 2 and 4.
In making these observations and thinking about theory and practice as portrayed
here, I have unsurprisingly been challenged to draw my own recent developmen-
tal research with teachers into this complexity of teacher agency. In the project
Learning Communities in Mathematics in Norway, didacticians from the university
formed communities with teachers in schools from lower primary to upper sec-
ondary to develop inquiry-based activity with students in classrooms and inquire
into the teaching design process that this involved (Jaworski, 2008). The project
sought to create communities of inquiry between didacticians and teachers to
encourage teacher agency in developing inquiry in schools (in collaboration with
colleagues) and in mathematics in classrooms with students. Didactician agency
was also a central focus of research. We analysed relationships between teachers
and didacticians, recognizing the knowledge and experience brought by each group
as a resource for the other. We extended Wenger’s notion of alignment, which he
characterizes (along with engagement and imagination) as one of the key elements
of belonging to a community of practice, to one of “critical alignment” as being cen-
tral to a community of inquiry. Essentially, critical alignment through inquiry allows
questioning of established practices, their norms and expectations, while aligning
institutionally with them.
Unsurprisingly, there were many issues arising for teachers and didacticians in
this collaboration, in some cases leading to tensions and potential conflict. We found
activity theory, rooted in Vygotsky and Leonte’v, as detailed also by Gueudet and
Trouche, valuable to analyse situations and make sense of the tensions in relation to
the full sociocultural complexity of institutions, project and relationships. Gueudet
and Trouche say little about how they have used activity theory and I do not have
the space either to do so here. However, it seems to me to be well worth further con-
sideration as to how activity theory can throw light onto the complexities inherent
in these projects. Such consideration can illuminate teachers’ professional activity
and make sense of what we see and experience in classrooms against the panorama
of practical and theoretical possibilities on which this book throws light.
I end with a return to notions of teacher agency and its relation to concepts
of personhood and identity: that is, bringing personhood and identity to teaching
development. I have been struck in these chapters by the different examples of
how teachers’ “personal distinctness, a sense of personal continuity, and a sense
of personal autonomy” (Apter, 1989, cited in Harré, 1998) sit alongside teachers’
Reaction to Part IV 347
navigation of resources within social and cultural settings in which they develop
identity. What we see in classrooms has to be interpreted in this full sense. I see the
concept of critical alignment as offering teachers, as well as the didacticians who
work with them, a way of dealing themselves and with their colleagues knowingly
with the issues and tensions involved.
References
Apter, M. (1989). Negativism and the sense of identity. In G. Breakwell (Ed.), Threatened identities
(75). London: Wiley.
Harré, R. (1998). The singular self. London: Sage.
Jaworski, B. (2008). Building and sustaining inquiry communities in mathematics teaching
development: Teachers and didacticians in collaboration. In K. Krainer & T. Wood (Eds.),
Participants in mathematics teacher education: Individuals, teams, communities and networks.
Volume 3 of the International Handbook of Mathematics Teacher Education (pp. 335–361).
Dordrecht: Sense Publishers.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Wenger, E., McDermott, R. A., & Snyder, W. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide
to managing knowledge. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Afterword: Using and Designing Resources
for Practice
Closing Reaction
The chapter authors in this volume examine and theorize about the nature, role, and
use of resources in instruction. The range of “resources” they investigate is vast—
from commercial to teacher-made curriculum, to videos, to technology-based tools
and environments, to artifacts—and generated by a range of creators, from teachers
to professional designers and researchers.
Certainly textbooks remain a mainstay of mathematics instruction. Research
on modal mathematics classrooms suggests that much teaching is “text-driven.”
Reformers often turn their attention to the design of text materials as a means of
leveraging teaching and thus improving learning. Others praise teachers who do
not “follow” curriculum materials, but who invent their own curriculum, lessons,
and examples. At the same time, the range of resource material used for instruc-
tion is expanding to many other forms. That said, understanding resources-in-use,
or “lived” resources, matters across these forms. Both the concepts of resources and
use are fundamental to the inquiry.
The improvement of learning depends on many factors, but clearly, the resources
used by learners and their teachers form a vital medium of instruction. At their
best, resources are both attentive to learners’ ideas and responsible to mathemati-
cal learning goals. Not all curriculum resources are created by outsiders: In highly
responsive and interactive teaching, teacher-invented materials constitute the perti-
nent resources. The authors of this volume consider what counts as a “curriculum
resource” for mathematics instruction and examine how design and use interact in
real-time teaching and learning.
As the chapter authors make visible, “using a textbook”––or any curriculum
resource––is a process that is both interpretive and dynamic. Teachers read and make
sense of curriculum developers’ ideas, adapting them to their own ideas and con-
texts. Learners, too, interpret and use textbooks, not necessarily as writers intended
G. Gueudet et al. (eds.), From Text to ‘Lived’ Resources, Mathematics Teacher 349
Education 7, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1966-8,
C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012
350 D.L. Ball
or envisioned. The difference between the text as written and the text as enacted
is significant. The chapters in this book support an important direction in the field,
toward curriculum resources that are designed for reasoned and responsive use, not
for control or for loose and unspecified improvisation. This is the heart of the notion
of curriculum as “lived resources.”
Three questions stand out to which the authors of this book make vital
contributions:
of individual and collective and mutual interpretation. As such, as the authors of this
volume make clear, curriculum tools are converted in real-time use from potential
to actual resources. Consequently, design produces material with potential for use;
it cannot determine actual use.
What then does this conception of curriculum resources, and this understand-
ing of their use in practice, suggest about their design? The chapters in this book
reveal many subtleties inherent in the crucial work of design. First, for curriculum
resources to support and guide deliberate use as envisioned for learning, design-
ers must have a sensitivity for practice and its demands. For example, in real-time
teaching, teachers cannot read detailed instructions as they listen to and interpret
learners and manage the trajectory of content through the discourse and activity
of the class. How then can their decision-making be supported? Further, how can
additional examples, questions, and guidance be designed in ways that are usable
in practice? Another concern regards learners: they say and do many things that are
predictable and patterned; they also produce unexpected and novel ideas and con-
ceptions. Designers can seek to provide forecasts and guidance for the predictable
and open teachers’ readiness for the unanticipated. Thoughtfulness here can increase
the support provided through design. And other issue pertains to the content: the
mathematics itself is often also complex, and support for teachers’ learning often
weak. Designers can develop usable opportunities for teachers’ own learning, but
how can this be done well? Building curriculum resources with an eye toward their
potential to support teachers’ development requires a multifocal approach, with an
eye on the mathematics, on learners, on teachers, and on their learning and inter-
actions. Such demands point to the importance of educationally oriented design,
based on backward mapping from an understanding of practice and of resources-
in-use, or “lived resources,” in order to support resource use for improved learning.
Figure 2 proposes an expansion of the instructional dynamic represented in Fig. 1,
which affords a view of the dynamics of supporting instruction and of teachers’
352 D.L. Ball
professional learning of and from practice. This learning occurs through interaction
with resources and with other professionals, as well as in and from practice itself.
At the heart of improving learning is to understand instruction as the complex
weave of interactions and interpretations. It is on this foundation that this volume
provides rich analyses and examples for the development of curriculum resources
designed to be used, or “lived,” and from which both teachers and their pupils can
learn. Bringing together such sophisticated design with a detailed understanding of
practice can contribute to both better research on curriculum and its use, as well as
better resources for use, and better outcomes for learners. This volume is itself a
wonderful resource for this important agenda.
References
“An organised being is then not a mere machine, for that has merely moving power, but
it possesses in itself formative power of a self-propagating kind which it communicates
to its materials though they have it not of themselves; it organises them, in fact, and this
cannot be explained by mere mechanical faculty of motion.” Immanuel Kant (in “Critique
of judgment”)
Reading through the 17 chapters and reactions in the book, we are impressed
by the rich and varied perspectives provided by the authors and reactants. This
underlines the fruitfulness of the position proposed at the beginning of this
book: viewing teachers as designers and creative users of their own resources,
considering the implications of teacher ‘interactions’ with resources for teacher pro-
fessional development and hence the deepening of our understanding of ‘teacher
documentation’.
The authors have considered a great variety of resources, encompassing and re-
conceptualising artefacts and tools: from clay tablets, to textbooks and websites,
including student work, and language; to name but a few. They have explored these
resources in a creative and encompassing way, and their findings evidence the rich-
ness that lies in seeing resources as ‘lived resources’, when teachers work with
them in their resource systems, and how these processes become part of teacher
professional development.
In this respect the use of digital resources raises particular questions. For exam-
ple, some software is difficult to integrate into a teacher’s resource system, whilst
other online resources are widely used and contribute to create new networks and
G. Gueudet (B)
CREAD, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, IUFM Bretagne site de Rennes, 35043 Rennes
Cedex, France
e-mail: ghislaine.gueudet@bretagne.iufm.fr
353
354 G. Gueudet et al.
In the following, we will attend to the four themes in turn, giving and relating to
examples from the book’s chapters, before providing the conclusive remarks.
Here the resources, the master and the tablet (including the text), may have different
affordances and intentions (as defined in Chapter 4), depending on who has writ-
ten the tablet and for what purpose (e.g. mathematics teaching, providing cultural
background). Interestingly, Remillard (Chapter 6) uses the notion of ‘positioning’ to
analyse affordances of curriculum materials. She contends that curriculum materials
have particular ‘modes of address’, ways of ‘talking’ to teachers, and that these pre-
scribe particular roles for teachers. This links to Sensevy’s contention (Chapter 3)
that documents have particular ‘pedagogic intentions’. The question remains where
the agency of the teacher lies.
This theme is at the heart of the documentation process and runs through most of the
book’s chapters. It relates to the instrumental approach introduced by Verillon and
Rabardel (1995) where the subject (in our case, the teacher) plays a crucial role in
creating, modifying and using tools as instruments. Verillon and Rabardel claim that
instruments are created when they are used and integrated into the subject’s activi-
ties – this process, the instrumental genesis, is linked to the tool’s characteristics and
affordances (or constraints) and to the subject/teacher’s knowledge and principles of
practice. According to this approach, there is an inter-relationship between the tool
and the subject/teacher: the subject/teacher uses the tool and in the process evolves
and develops, and in turn the instrument evolves. Two processes are crucial here:
instrumentation, that is the implicit modes of actions and knowledge, and instrumen-
talisation, that is how the subject/teacher shapes the tool. In Chapter 2, Gueudet and
Trouche develop these ideas in their documentational genesis approach where teach-
ers interact with resources, select and work with/on them. The work in Chapter 4
(by Mariotti & Maracci) is sensitive to the semiotic aspects and potential of an arte-
fact, and the authors explore how such an artefact (e.g. ICT tool) can be a resource
for the teacher. In Chapter 13 Trigueros and Lozano describe a case of documenta-
tional genesis when working with teachers in ‘Enciclomedia’: teachers analysed and
transformed texts in particular ways due to the resources affordances. In Chapter 7
by Pepin teachers’ work with the tool changed the tool, to become a ‘catalytic tool’,
and in the process it changes its character, from tool as artefact to ‘epistemic object’
at the interface between task design and enactment. Kieran et al. (Chapter 10) theo-
rise how teachers adapt ‘researcher-designed’ resources considering teachers’ own
beliefs, knowledge and principles of practice.
confers a particular status to the classroom and leads us to focus on the orchestration
of resources as a central part of the documentation process. Originally introduced
by Trouche (2004), orchestration can here be at different levels: at the level of doc-
uments, or sets of documents, or at the level of the participant (e.g. teacher) working
with, and relating to, the documents/sets of documents. In Chapter 14 Drijvers
reports on teachers privileging orchestrations where students work individually or
in pairs, and he contends that teacher beliefs and agency play an important role in
the development and enactment of the processes involved in transforming resources
into orchestrations. The collaborative use of resources relates to collaborative work
of teachers in terms of resources and in the larger frame of scaling-up of the process
of documentation and use of resources. In terms of teacher learning, collaborative
use of resources is illustrated when groups of teachers work together on documents
(likely to be important for their teaching) to analyse, search for understanding and
meaning, and to create a common resource of their learning. Sensevy (Chapter 3)
develops an understanding of collective thought (influenced by the institutional
thought style) by identifying ‘patterns of didactic intentions’ which in fact are said to
lie in the documents (used by teachers) and the positioning of teachers towards these
documents. Linking this to ICT communication, collaborative learning networks can
develop, via electronic dialogue, and where participants share a common purpose
of/for documentation. In Chapter 16 (Gueudet & Trouche) the common ‘purpose’
is Sésamath, both an individual and a collective resource. The processes involved in
collective documentation are exemplified by Gueudet and Trouche, when ‘sharing’
turns into ‘cooperation & sharing’, into ‘collaboration & cooperation & sharing’
before another cycle develops. The scaling-up collaborative process is evident in
Chapter 17 (Visnovska, Cobb, & Dean), where the authors drew on a five-year-long
interventionist professional development study where teachers collectively (e.g. in
a professional development group) designed resources for teaching of a statistics
unit and at the same time made meaning of the objectives prescribed by the State.
Interestingly, Winsløw (Chapter 15) compared two very different genres of teacher
collaborative work (using the frame of paradidactic infrastructure): the Japanese les-
son study and the Danish teacher collaboration in ‘multidisciplinary modules’. He
concludes that collaborative work forms, also for documentation work, are influ-
enced by the cultural and educational traditions of the country concerned and that
particular practices would be ‘unthinkable’ in certain environments, whereas in oth-
ers they are common practice – hence the importance and influence of the context
in which the documentation process is taking place.
respect to particular resources, and they may adopt new roles in their interactions
with the resources initiating or constructing new processes in terms of learning situa-
tions, or indeed they may communicate and interact in particular collaborative ways
with their colleagues – all acts of teacher learning that are connected to the docu-
mentation process. In Chapter 1, Adler argues for ‘professional knowledge in use’,
and in her study illuminates ‘knowledge resources in use’ in two different pedagogic
practices. Pepin (Chapter 7) claims that the task analysis ‘tool’ provided feedback to
teachers, at four different levels, and in turn helped them to develop deeper under-
standings. Interestingly, Forest and Mercier (Chapter 11) provide evidence for using
video as a tool for professional development, in particular considering the teacher’s
attitudes and gestures as resources and connecting them with the use of language in
the mathematics classroom.
Whilst these four themes capture most of the authors’ work, there is a permeating
strand that runs through all of the chapters: the pupils’ influence and involve-
ment in the documentation process. As an example, Rezat’s work (Chapter 12)
considers the orchestration of resources in and outside the classroom when explor-
ing pupil/student use of the textbook as resource, which in turn is said to have
an influence on teacher use. Interestingly, Sensevy (Chapter 3), as well as Forest
and Mercier (Chapter 11), conceptualise the teaching processes as the joint didac-
tic action of the teacher and the students. Schmidt (Chapter 8) develops a way to
quantify student curricular experiences in different courses, their exposure to par-
ticular curriculum materials, which in turn is likely to have an influence on their
opportunities to work with and learn from mathematics resources.
Considering the issues raised by authors and reactants, one wonders what makes a
‘documentation system’, and how does such a system evolve? It seems that the key
factors that can be argued to explain the ‘workability’ of a documentation system are
the nature of the system, its constituents and the feedback ‘loops’ that characterise
and shape such a system. In each study an important step to develop a documen-
tation system appeared to have been when reflective capacity was built, such as
between teachers and resources, and/or amongst peers, and/or between teachers and
academics. With this reflective capacity, the participants of the system had infor-
mation about the nature of the resources and their potential dynamics (also with
participants). However, it is not evident that this reflective capacity develops as a
matter of course. As Visnovska et al. (Chapter 17) point out, teachers need sup-
port to design and implement ‘coherent instructional sequences’. Moreover, the
participants of such a ‘workable’ documentation system need a shared purpose (see
Kieran et al.’s Chapter 10), and it appears to develop more ‘easily’ in collectives
(see Chapters 3 and 16). It can be argued that the documentation system needs a
‘minding of the system’ (Vickers, 1995) in order to be workable.
358 G. Gueudet et al.
(1) Many resources are available for mathematics teachers, but which resources
do they crucially need for their work? Are there resources that could be
regarded ‘universal’, as ‘resources of the (mathematics teaching) profession’?
What are the national and cultural differences among resources, what are the
individual differences? In which ways could such resources be designed, and
differences catered for? How could they be made available to all teachers
(e.g. ‘broadcasted’)?
(2) Considering Shulman’s (1986) major categories of teacher knowledge in con-
nection with Ball, Thames, & Phelps’s (2008) categories, one wonders where
the ‘documentation process knowledge’ is situated. In particular its dynamic
and creative nature, in addition to its ‘position’ at the interface between design
and enactment, does not make it ‘fit in easily’. We contend that an additional
teacher knowledge category (perhaps ‘hors categorie’) may be necessary, which
we call documentation knowledge and which would include knowledge about
resources/materials in use, individually or collectively, and their interaction
with the teaching/learning process of both teachers and learners (including the
teacher as learner).
(3) All the book’s chapters focus on the teaching of mathematics. In mathematics
the documentation work of teacher educators, or of mathematicians (Chapter 9),
may be similar, or different, to teachers’ documentation work. Turning to other
subject areas, similar (or different) phenomena may be evident for teacher doc-
umentation work in other domains. Investigating these is likely to deepen our
understandings of the documentation process.
In conclusion, closing the cycle and linking to the book’s title, we have devel-
oped deeper understandings about mathematics curriculum materials as ‘lived’
resources – which points to their use in the past. We now suggest viewing them as
‘living resources’ emphasising their present and continuous use in teachers’ work.
Teacher documentation, we have learnt, is a creative and dynamic process where
participants work in a collaborative system and with the aim of teacher learning –
this provides challenges, and at the same time a positive outlook both for teachers
and reformers.
Conclusions 359
References
Ball, D. L., Thames, M. H., & Phelps, G. (2008). Content knowledge for teaching –
What makes it special? Journal of Teacher Education, 59(5), 389–407.
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching.
Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14.
Trouche, L. (2004). Managing complexity of human/machine interactions in
computerized learning environments: Guiding student’s command process
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Index
361
362 Index
Semiotic mediation, x, 59–74, 78, 242, 279 being shaped by, 190, 197, 208
Semiotic potential, x, 60–64, 68, 74, 279 resources, xiii, 80, 250, 310, 312–313
Standards-based curriculum materials, 105, Technology, xi, 25, 37–38, 78–80, 84, 88–94,
114 100, 184, 190–197, 203, 206–209,
Strategic rules, 44, 50, 53, 55 211, 225, 247–248, 250–251, 259,
Students’ use of textbooks, xii, 232–233, 235, 265, 267–268, 273, 275–279, 313,
237–238, 240 349, 354
Textbooks as implemented curriculum,
T 145–146, 148, 182
Teacher Theories of cognition, 284, 286
action, x, 78 Thinking, mathematical, 6, 9, 19, 48, 51, 86,
education, v, xii, 4–7, 10, 20–21, 74, 78, 92–97, 99, 117, 124, 132, 134–136,
215–228, 243, 306 138–139, 194–195, 197–199, 202,
learning, xi, 112, 123–140, 184, 225, 208–211, 255, 260, 283, 285–287,
353–354, 356–358 330–331, 346, 350
professional development, x, xii–xiii, 127,
Thought style, 44, 51, 55–56, 356
248, 320, 353
Tracking in US Schools, 144, 155
Teacher-curriculum interactions, 106
Teachers’ Transaction, 106, 114
activity, 23, 38, 211
associations, 306, 310 U
beliefs and goals, 209 Usages, 248, 251–252, 255, 259–261, 319
task design, 74
professional growth, 23–24, 26, 37 V
resource, 35, 37–38, 272, 353
Video analysis, 226
shaping of resources, 208
use of textbooks, 231–232 Vygotsky, L. S., 60, 114, 137, 242, 285, 306,
Teaching 346
with CAS tools, 193
practice, vi–vii, 105, 118, 173–174, 177, W
189–212, 259–260, 265, 270, 274, Written texts, 62, 64, 66–69, 72, 74, 78, 173,
279–280, 294, 333 286, 313