TOPIC: COMBINATORIAL CIRCUITS

In a digital computer, there are only two possibilities, written 0 and 1, for the smallest, indivisible object.
All programs and data are ultimately reducible to combination of bits. A variety of devices have been
used throughout the years in digital computers to store bits.

Here is a timeline of some key storage devices used in digital computers:

1. Punch Cards (Late 19th century to mid-20th century): Punch cards were one of the earliest
methods of storing digital data. Each card had holes punched in specific positions to represent
binary digits (0s and 1s). These were used in early computing systems, like the IBM 80 series
machines.

2. Vacuum Tubes (1930s to 1950s): Vacuum tubes were used as electronic switches and for
memory storage in early computers. They could store binary data as on/off states by controlling
the flow of electrons.

3. Magnetic Drum (1940s to 1950s): Magnetic drums were an early form of random-access
memory (RAM) in computers. They used a rotating drum with magnetized spots to store binary
data.

4. Magnetic Core Memory (1950s to 1970s): Magnetic core memory used small magnetized rings
(cores) to store bits. It was a popular form of RAM in early mainframe computers.

5. Transistors (1950s to present): Transistors, particularly in integrated circuits (ICs), replaced

vacuum tubes and became a fundamental component of modern computer memory and
processing units.

6. Magnetic Tape (1950s to present): Magnetic tape was used for data storage and backup. It is
still used in archival storage and data retrieval applications.

7. Floppy Disks (1970s to 2000s): Floppy disks were a common removable storage medium for
personal computers, capable of storing small amounts of data.

8. Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) (1950s to present): HDDs use rapidly rotating disks coated with a
magnetic material to store binary data. They have been a primary form of non-volatile storage in
computers for decades.

9. Solid-State Drives (SSDs) (2000s to present): SSDs use NAND flash memory to store data.
They are faster, more reliable, and have no moving parts, making them the primary storage
medium for modern computers.

10. CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs (1980s to present): These optical discs store data using pits
and lands on their surfaces, and they are commonly used for software distribution, multimedia
storage, and backup.

11. USB Flash Drives (2000s to present): USB flash drives use NAND flash memory and are highly
portable, making them a convenient means of data storage and transfer.

12. Cloud Storage (2000s to present): With the growth of the internet and high-speed connectivity,
cloud storage services like Dropbox, Google Drive, and Amazon S3 have become popular for
data storage and backup.

These devices have evolved over time to provide higher capacities, faster access times, and
greater reliability in storing and retrieving digital information, but they all ultimately rely on the fundamental
binary representation of data as 0s and 1s.
Electronic circuits allow these storage devices to communicate with each other. A bit in one part
of a circuit is transmitted to another part of the circuit as a voltage. Thus, two levels are needed – for
example, a high voltage can communicate 1 and a low voltage can communicate 0.

Combinatorial circuits, also known as combinational circuits or gating networks, are an essential
component of digital electronic systems. They are a type of digital logic circuit that performs a specific
logical operation or function based on the current input values. These circuits are distinct from sequential
circuits, which have memory elements (like flip-flops) and store information about past inputs.

The output of combinatorial circuit is uniquely defined for every combination of inputs. A
combinatorial circuit has no memory; previous inputs and the state of the system does not affect the
output of a combinatorial circuit. Circuits for which output is a function, not only of the inputs, but also of
the state of the system, are called sequential circuits.

Combinatorial circuits can be constructed using solid-state devices, are called gates, which are
capable of switching voltage levels (bits). These are AND, OR, and NOT gates.
Definition 1. An AND gate receives inputs x 1 and x 2 , where x 1 and x 2are bits, and produce output
denoted x 1 ʌ x 2, where

1 if x 1=1∧x 2=1
x1 ʌ x2 =
0 otherwise .
An AND gate is drawn as shown in Figure 1.1

x1
x1 ʌ x2
x2

Definition 2. An OR gate receives inputs x 1 and x 2 , where x 1 and x 2are bits, and produce output denoted
x 1 v x 2, where
1 if x 1=1∨x 2=1
x1 v x2 =
0 otherwise .
An OR gate is drawn as shown is Figure 1.2

x1
x 2122 x1 v x2

Definition 3. A NOT gate (or inverter) receives input x is a bit, and produces output denoted x , where

1 if x=0
x =
0 if x=1
A NOT gate is drawn as shown in Figure 1.3

x x
Combinations of Gates

Combinatorial circuits can be constructed using a combination of inverters, OR gates, and AND
gates. When combinations of circuits are formed, some gates may share inputs. This is shown in one of
two ways in depictions of circuits. One method is to use branchings that indicate all the gates that use a
given input. The other method is to indicate this input separately for each other.

Example 1. Construct circuits that produce the following outputs:

(a) ¿ ¿ ʌ x 2 ¿ v ( x 1ʌ x 2 ¿ (b) (¿ ¿ ʌ x 2 ¿ ʌ x 1

(c) x 1ʌ ( x 2v x 3) (d) ( x 1v x 2 v x 3 ¿ ʌ ¿ ʌ x 2 ʌ x 3)

Example 2. A committee of three individuals decides issues for an organization. Each individual votes
either yes or no for each proposal that arises. A proposal is passed if it receives at least two yes. Design
a circuit that determines whether a proposal passes.