Current

• Electric current is defined as the rate of flow charge

o In other words, the size of an electric current is the amount of charge
passing through a component per second
• Current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a cell

Charge flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal

Charge
• The wires in an electric circuit are made of metal, because metal is a
good conductor of electric current
• In the wires, the current is a flow of negatively charged electrons

In metal wires, the current is a flow of negatively charged electrons. This

image shows the electrons flowing through a lattice of metal ions
 Calculating Electric Charge
• The charge, current and time are related by the equation:

• Where:
o Q = charge measured in Coulombs (C)
o I = current measure in amps (A)
o t = time measured in seconds (s)

• This equation can be rearranged with the help of the following formula
triangle:

Worked example

When will 8 mA of current pass through an electrical circuit?

A When 1 J of energy is used by 1 C of charge

B When a charge of 4 C passes in 500 s

C When a charge of 8 C passes in 100 s

D When a charge of 1 C passes in 8 s

ANSWER: B

Step 1: Write out the equation relating current, charge and time

Q = It

•
o This can be rearranged to make current I the subject of the equation:

Step 2: Rule out any obviously incorrect options

•
o Option A does not mention time, so can be ruled out

Step 3: Try the rest of the options by applying the equation to determine the
correct answer

•
o Consider option B:

I = 4 / 500 = 8 × 10–3 = 8 mA

•
o Consider option C:

I = 8 / 100 = 80 × 10–3 = 80 mA

•
o Consider option D:

I = 1 / 8 = 125 × 10–3 = 125 mA

•
o Therefore, the correct answer is B

Exam Tip

Electric currents in everyday circuits tend to be quite small, so it's really common for
examiners to throw in a unit prefix like 'm' next to quantities of current, e.g. 10 mA
(10 milliamperes).Make sure that you are on the lookout for these prefixes and that
you can convert them into standard units, so 10 mA = 10 × 10 -3 A
Measuring Current
• Current is measured using an ammeter
• Ammeters should always be connected in series with the part of the circuit
you wish to measure the current through
o Ammeters measure the amount of charge passing through them per
unit time, so the ammeter has to be in series so that all the charge
flows through it

An ammeter can be used to measure the current around a circuit

Voltage
• The terminals of a cell make one end of the circuit positive and the other negative
• This sets up a potential difference across the circuit
o This is sometimes known as the voltage
• Potential difference is defined as:

The amount of energy transferred per unit of charge passing through the terminals

• This means that one volt (the unit of potential difference) is equivalent to one joule (the unit
of energy) per coulomb (the unit of charge):

1V=1J/C
 Calculating Voltage
• The equation linking the energy transferred, voltage and charge is given below:

• Where:
o V = potential difference, measured in volts (V)
o E = energy transferred, measured in joules (J)
o Q = charge moved, measured in coulombs (C)

• This can be rearranged using the formula triangle below:

Worked example
The normal operating voltage for a lamp is 6 V.Calculate how much energy is transferred in
the lamp when 4200 C of charge flows through it.
Step 1: List the known quantities

•
o Voltage, V = 6 V
o Charge, Q = 4200 C

Step 2: State the equation linking potential difference, energy and charge

•
o The equation linking potential difference, energy and charge is:

E=V×Q

Step 3: Substitute the known values and calculate the energy transferred

E = 6 × 4200

E = 25 200 J

•
o Therefore, 25 200 J of energy is transferred in the lamp

Exam Tip

Don't be confused by the symbol for potential difference (the symbol V) being the same as its
unit (the volt, V). Learn the equation and remember especially that one volt is equivalent to 'a
joule per coulomb'.
Measuring Potential Difference
• Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter, which can be either
•
o Digital (with an electronic read out)
o Analogue (with a needle and scale)
• Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the component being tested
o The potential difference is the difference in electrical potential between two points,
therefore the voltmeter has to be connected to two points in the circuit
 Voltmeters are connected in parallel to the component being tested
Exam Tip

When you are actually building a circuit in class, always save the voltmeter until last.

Make the whole circuit first and check it works.

Only then pick up the voltmeter. Connect two leads to your voltmeter. Now connect the leads
so that they are one on each side of the component you are measuring. This will save you a
LOT of time waiting for your teacher to troubleshoot your circuit!

Calculating Current, Resistance & Potential

Difference
• Resistance is defined as the opposition to current:
o The higher the resistance of a circuit, the lower the current
o This means that good conductors have a low resistance and insulators
have a high resistance

• The symbol for resistance is R

• It is measured in Ohms (Ω)
o Ω is the Greek capital letter ‘Omega’
o An Ohm is defined as one volt per ampere (1 V / A)
• The resistance of a circuit can be increased by adding resistors (or variable
resistors) to it
• Every electrical component has a resistance, even wires
o In exam questions, the resistance of the wires and batteries are
assumed to be negligible

High resistance means there is a lower current and vice versa

• The current I through a component depends on both the resistance R of the

component and the potential difference V across the component
o The greater the resistance R of the component, the lower the
current I for a given potential difference V across the component
o The lower the resistance R of the component, the greater the
current I for a given potential difference V across the component

• The current, resistance and potential difference of a component in a circuit are

calculated using the equation:

• This equation can be rearranged with the help of the following formula
triangle:
 Voltage, current, resistance formula triangle

Worked example

Calculate the voltage across a resistor of resistance 10 Ω if there is a current of 0.3 A

through it.
Step 1: List the known quantities

•
o Resistance, R = 10 Ω
o Current, I = 0.3 A

Step 2: Write the equation relating resistance, potential difference and current

V = IR

Step 3: Substitute in the values

V = 0.3 × 10 = 3 V

Current in Series Circuits

• In a circuit that is a closed-loop, such as a series circuit, the current is
the same value at any point
•
o This is because the number of electrons per second that passes
through one part of the circuit is the same number that passes through
any other part
• This means that all components in a closed-loop have the same current

The current is the same at each point in a closed-loop

• The amount of current flowing around a series circuit depends on two things:
o The voltage of the power source
o The number (and type) of components in the circuit

• Increasing the voltage of the power source drives more current around the
circuit
o So, decreasing the voltage of the power source reduces the current
• Increasing the number of components in the
circuit increases the total resistance
o Hence less current flows through the circuit
 Current will increase if the voltage of the power supply increases, and
decreases if the number of components increases (because there will be more
resistance)

Current in Parallel Circuits

• At a junction in a parallel circuit (where two or more wires meet) the current
is conserved
o This means the amount of current flowing into the junction is equal to
the amount of current flowing out of it
• This is because charge is conserved

• Note that the current does not always split equally – often there will be more
current in some branches than in others
o The current in each branch will only be identical if the resistance of the
components along each branch are identical
• Current behaves in this way because it is the flow of electrons:
o Electrons are physical matter – they cannot be created or destroyed
o This means the total number of electrons (and hence current) going
around a circuit must remain the same
o When the electrons reach a junction, however, some of them will go
one way and the rest will go the other
 Current is split at a junction into individual branches

Worked example

In the circuit below, ammeter A0 shows a reading of 10 A, and ammeter A1 shows a

reading of 6 A.

What is the reading on ammeter A2?

Step 1: Recall that at a junction, the current is conserved

•
o This means that the total amount of current flowing into a junction is
equal to the total amount flowing out

Step 2: Consider the first junction in the circuit where current splits

•
o The diagram below shows the first junction in the circuit
Step 3: Calculate the missing amount of current

•
o Since 10 A flows in to the junction (the total current from the battery),
10 A must flow out of the junction
o The question says that 6 A flows through ammeter A1 so the remaining
current flowing through ammeter A2 must be:

10 A − 6 A = 4 A

•
o Therefore, 4 A flows through ammeter A2

Exam Tip

The direction of current flow is super important when considering junctions in a

circuit.You should remember that current flows from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal of a cell / battery. This will help determine the direction current
is flowing 'in' to a junction and which way the current then flows 'out'.

Voltage in Series & Parallel

• In a series circuit:
o The current is the same at all points ie. through each component
o The total potential difference of the power supply is shared between
the components
 Lamps connected in a series circuit

• In the above circuit:

o The current from the power supply is the same as the current in both
lamps I = I1 = I2
o If the battery is marked 12 V, then the potential difference would be 12
÷ 2 = 6 V across each lamp

• In a parallel circuit:
o The total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents
through the separate components
o The potential difference across each component is the same

Lamps connected in a parallel circuit

• In the above circuit:

o Because the current splits up, the sum of currents in each branch will
equal the current from the power supply I = I1 + I2
o If the battery is marked 12 V, then the potential difference would be 12
V across each lamp
 Advantages & Disadvantages
Series Circuits

• A series circuit consists of a string of two or more components connected in a

loop
• The advantages of a series circuit are:
o All of the components can be controlled by a single switch
o Fewer wires are required
• The disadvantages of a series circuit are:
o The components cannot be controlled separately
o If one component breaks, they will all stop working as well

In the series circuit above, only one switch is needed to control all of the
lamps. This can be seen as an advantage or as a disadvantage

Parallel Circuits

• A parallel circuit consists of two or more components attached

across different branches of the circuit
• The advantages of a parallel circuit are:
o The components can be individually controlled, using their own
switches
o If one component breaks, then the others will continue to function
• The disadvantages of a parallel circuit are:
o Many more wires involved so much more complicated to set up
o All components have the same voltage as the supply, so harder to
control if components need to have different voltages
 In the parallel circuit above, the lamps are connected in parallel and can be
switched on and off by their own switch

Exam Tip

You may have noticed that for a parallel circuit, all of the components can be
controlled by a single switch - like a series circuit. Nevertheless, the exam board still
considers this an advantage of series circuitsNote that the current does not always
split equally in a parallel circuit – often there will be more current in some branches
than in others. The current in each branch will only be identical if the resistance of
the components along each branch are identical. However, the voltage across two
components connected in parallel is always the same

Resistors in Series
• When two or more resistors are connected in series, the total (or combined) resistance is
equal to the sum of their individual resistances
• For example, for three resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3, the total resistance can be
calculated using:

• Where R is the total resistance, in Ohms (Ω)

• Increasing the number of resistors increases the overall resistance, as the charge now
has more resistors to pass through
 • The total voltage is also the sum of the voltages across each of the individual resistors
o In a series circuit, the voltage of the power supply is shared between all components

Three resistors connected in series. The total voltage is the sum of the individual voltages,
and the total resistance is the sum of the three individual resistances

Worked example

The combined resistance R in the following series circuit is 60 Ω.What is the resistance value
of R2?

A 100 Ω B 30 Ω C 20 Ω D 40 Ω

ANSWER: C

Step 1: Write down the equation for the combined resistance in series

R = R1 + R2 + R3

Step 2: Substitute the values for total resistance R and the other resistors

60 Ω = 30 Ω + R2 + 10 Ω
Step 3: Rearrange for R2

R2 = 60 Ω – 30 Ω – 10 Ω = 20 Ω

Worked example

Dennis sets up a series circuit as shown below.

The cell supplies a current of 2 A to the circuit, and the fixed resistor has a resistance of 4 Ω.

(a) How much current flows through the fixed resistor?

(b) What is the reading on the voltmeter?

Part (a)

Step 1: Recall that current is conserved in a series circuit

•
o Since current is conserved in a series circuit, it is the same size if measured
anywhere in the series loop
o This means that since the cell supplies 2 A to the circuit, the current is 2 A
everywhere
o Therefore, 2 A flows through the fixed resistor

Part (b)

Step 1: List the known quantities

•
o Current I = 2 A
o Resistance R = 4 Ω

Step 2: State the equation linking potential difference, resistance and current

•
o The equation linking potential difference, resistance and current is:

V = IR
Step 3: Substitute the known values into the equation and calculate the potential
difference

V=2×4=8V

•
o Therefore, the voltmeter reads 8 V across the fixed resistor

IV Graphs
• As the potential difference across a component is increased, the current also
increases
o This is because potential difference and current are proportional
• The precise relationship between voltage and current is different for different
components and can be shown on an IV graph, including in:
o Fixed resistors & wires
o Filament lamps
o Diodes

Fixed Resistors & Wires

• The current through a fixed resistor or a wire increases as the potential

difference (or voltage) across it increases
• In other words, current is directly proportional to the potential difference for
a fixed resistor (or a wire)
o This relationship is true because the resistance of the fixed resistor (or
wire) stays constant
• An IV graph shows that the line is straight and goes through the origin, as
shown in the image below:
 IV graph for a fixed resistor. The current is directly proportional to the
potential difference (voltage) as the graph is a straight line through the origin

Filament Lamps

• For a filament lamp, current and voltage are not directly proportional
o This is because the resistance of the filament lamp increases as
the temperature of the filament increases
• The IV graph for a filament lamp shows the current increasing at a
proportionally slower rate than the potential difference

IV graph for a filament lamp

• This is because:
o As the current increases, the temperature of the filament in the lamp
increases
o The higher temperature causes the atoms in the metal lattice of the
filament to vibrate more
o This causes an increase in resistance as it becomes more difficult
for free electrons (the current) to pass through
o Resistance opposes the current, causing the current to increase at
a slower rate

• Where the graph is a straight line, the resistance is constant

o The resistance increases as the graph curves
• Reversing the potential difference reverses the current and makes no
difference to the shape of the curve

Diodes

• A diode allows current to flow in one direction only

o This is called forward bias
 • In the reverse direction, the diode has very high resistance, and
therefore no current flows
o This is called reverse bias

• The IV graph for a diode is slightly different:

o When the current is in the direction of the arrowhead symbol, this
is forward bias
▪ This is shown by the sharp increase in potential difference and
current on the right side of the graph
o When the diode is switched around, this is reverse bias
▪ This is shown by a zero reading of current or potential difference
on the left side of the graph

IV graph for a semiconductor diode

Investigating IV Graphs Experimentally

• In order to investigate the relationship between current and voltage different

components, the following equipment is required:
o An ammeter - to measure the current through the component
o A voltmeter - to measure the voltage across the component
o A variable resistor - to vary the current through the circuit
o Power source - to provide a source of potential difference (voltage)
o Wires - to connect the components together in a circuit
• The image below shows the circuits set up to obtain IV graphs for a filament
lamp and a diode
These circuits enable the investigation of current and voltage for a filament
lamp or diode to be investigated

• The current is the independent variable

o The variable resistor is used to change the current flowing through
the filament lamp / diode
• The voltage is the dependent variable
o The voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across the filament lamp
/ diode
• Recording measurements of current and voltage as the current increases
enables an IV graph to be plotted for each component

Resistance
• Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current
o The higher the resistance of a circuit the lower the current
• Resistors come in two types:
o Fixed resistors
o Variable resistors

• Fixed resistors have a resistance that remains constant

• Variable resistors can change the resistance by changing the length of wire
that makes up the circuit
o A longer length of wire has more resistance than a shorter length of
wire

Fixed and variable resistor circuit symbols

 Thermistors & LDRs
Thermistors

• A thermistor is a temperature-dependent resistor

• It is represented by the following circuit symbol:

Thermistor circuit symbol

• The resistance of a thermistor changes depending on its temperature

o As the temperature increases the resistance of a
thermistor decreases and vice versa

The resistance through a thermistor is dependent on temperature

LDRs

• A light-dependent resistor (LDR) represented by the following circuit symbol:

 LDR circuit symbol

• The resistance of an LDR changes depending on the light intensity on it

o As the light intensity increases the resistance of an
LDR decreases and vice versa

Lamps & LEDs

• Lamps illuminate (light up) when a current flows in a circuit
• LEDs are types of diodes
o This means they only allow current to pass in one direction through
them and will only light if the current passes in that direction
• LEDs also illuminate when a current flows in a circuit (provided the LED is
placed in the correct direction)
• Since both electrical components have a visual response to current, they can
be used to indicate the presence of a current in a circuit

LEDs can be used to indicate the presence of a current, because they

illuminate when current flows through them. The same is true for lamps

Exam Tip

Make sure you learn the various symbols mentioned on this page. Many of them are
very similar with small differences denoting what they do:

• Two arrows pointing towards a symbol mean that it is light-dependent

• Two arrows pointing away mean that it is light-emitting

Symbols are sometimes drawn with circles around them (e.g. the LDR). These
circles are often optional (although not in the case of meters and bulbs).

Electrical Power
 • Power is defined as

The rate of energy transfer or the amount of energy transferred per second

• The power of a device depends on:

o The voltage (potential difference) of the device
o The current of the device
• The power of an electrical component (or appliance) is given by the equation:

• The unit of power is the Watt (W), which is the same as a joule per second (J/s)

• This equation can be rearranged with the help of a formula triangle:

Power, current, voltage formula triangle

Worked example

Calculate the potential difference through a 48 W electric motor with a current of 4 A.

Step 1: List the known quantities

•
o Power, P = 48 W
o Current, I = 4 A

Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

P = IV

Step 3: Rearrange for potential difference, V

Step 4: Substitute in the values

Exam Tip

Remember: Power is just energy per second. Think of it this way will help you to remember
the relationship between power and energyYou can remember the unit by the phrase:
“Watt is the unit of power?”
Selecting Fuses
• A fuse is a safety device designed to cut off the flow of electricity to an appliance if
the current becomes too large (due to a fault or a surge)

The circuit symbol for a fuse - take care not to confuse this with a resistor

• Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder which contains a thin metal wire
• If the current in the wire becomes too large:
o The wire heats up and melts
o This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the current
 • This makes sure that more current doesn't keep flowing through the circuit and
causing more damage to the equipment, or, causing a fire

• Fuses come in a variety of sizes, typically 3 A, 5 A and 13 A

o In order to select the right fuse for the job, the current through an appliance
needs to be known

• If the power of the appliance is known (along with mains voltage), the current can be
calculated using the equation:

• Where:
o I = current in amps (A)
o P = power in watts (W)
o V = voltage in volts (V)
• The fuse should always have a current rating that is higher than the current needed by
the appliance, without being too high
o Because of this, the rule of thumb is to always choose the next size up
• If the fuse current rating is low, it will break the circuit even when an acceptable
current is flowing through
• If the fuse current rating is too high, it will not be breaking the circuit in enough time
before damage occurs

Worked example

Calculating Energy Transfers

• Work is done when charge flows through a circuit
o Work done is equal to the energy transferred
 • The amount of energy transferred by electrical work in a component (or
appliance) depends upon:
o The current, I
o The potential difference, V
o The amount of time the component is used for, t

• When charge flows through a resistor, for example, the energy transferred is
what makes the resistor hot
• The energy transferred can be calculated using the equation:

E=P×t

• Where:
o E = energy transferred in joules (J)
o P = power in watts (W)
o t = time in seconds (s)

• Since P = IV, this equation can also be written as:

E=I×V×t

• Where:
o I = current in amperes (A)
o V = potential difference in volts (V)

• When charge flows around a circuit for a given time, the energy supplied by
the battery is equal to the energy transferred to all the components in the
circuit

Worked example

Calculate the energy transferred in 1 minute when a current of 0.7 A passes through
a potential difference of 4 V.
Step 1: Write down the known quantities

•
o Time, t = 1 minute = 60 s
o Current, I = 0.7 A
o Potential difference, V = 4 V

Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

E=I×V×t

Step 3: Substitute in the values

E = 0.7 × 4 × 60 = 168 J

Exam Tip
'Energy transferred' and 'work done' are often used interchangeably in equations,
don't panic, they mean the same thing! Always remember that the time t in the above
equations must always be converted into seconds

Electrical Safety
• Mains electricity is potentially lethal
o Potential differences as small as 50 V can pose a serious hazard to
individuals

Signs, like the above, warn of the risk of electrocution

• Common hazards include:

o Damaged Insulation – if someone touches an exposed piece of wire,
they could be subjected to a lethal shock
o Overheating of cables – passing too much current through too small a
wire (or leaving a long length of wire tightly coiled) can lead to the wire
overheating. This could cause a fire or melt the insulations, exposing
live wires
o Damp conditions – if moisture comes into contact with live wires, the
moisture could conduct electricity either causing a short circuit within a
device (which could cause a fire) or posing an electrocution risk
 • In order to protect the user or the device, there are several safety features
built into domestic appliances, including:
o Double insulation
o Earthing
o Fuses
o Circuit breakers

Insulation & Double Insulation

• The conducting part of a wire is usually made of copper or some other metal
o If this comes into contact with a person, this poses a risk of
electrocution
• For this reason, wires are covered with an insulating material, such as rubber

The conducting part of a wire is covered in an insulating material for safety

• Some appliances do not have metal cases and so there is no risk of them
becoming electrified
• Such appliances are said to be double insulated, as they have two layers of
insulation:
o Insulation around the wires themselves
o A non-metallic case that acts as a second layer of insulation
 • Double insulated appliances do not require an earth wire or have been
designed so that the earth wire cannot touch the metal casing

Earthing

• Many electrical appliances have metal cases

• This poses a potential safety hazard:
o If a live wire (inside the appliance) came into contact with the case, the
case would become electrified and anyone who touched it would risk
being electrocuted
• The earth wire is an additional safety wire that can reduce this risk

A diagram showing the three wires going to a mains powered appliance: live,
neutral and earth

• If this happens:
o The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the earth
o It causes a surge of current in the earth wire and hence also in the
live wire
o The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and break
o This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance, making it
safe

Fuses & Circuit Breakers

• Fuses and circuit breakers are safety devices designed to cut off the flow of
electricity to an appliance if the current becomes too large (due to a fault or
a surge)
 The circuit symbol for a fuse (not to be confused with a resistor)

• Fuses usually consist of a glass cylinder containing a thin metal wire

• If the current in the wire becomes too large:
o The wire heats up and melts
o This causes the wire to break, breaking the circuit and stopping the
current

• A circuit breaker consists of an automatic electromagnet switch that breaks

the circuit if the current exceeds a certain value

The main circuit breaker can quickly shut off electricity to the whole house.
The branch circuit breakers can shut off electricity to specific areas of the
house

• This has a major advantage over a fuse because:

o It doesn't melt and break, hence it can be reset and used again
o It works much faster

• For these reasons, circuit breakers are used in mains electricity in homes
o Sometimes they are misleadingly named "Fuse boxes"
 Electricity & Heat
• When electricity passes through a component, such as a resistor, some of the electrical
energy is turned into heat therefore increasing its temperature
• This is because energy is transferred as a result of collisions between:
o Electrons flowing in the conductor, and
o The lattice of atoms within the metal conductor
• Electricity, in metals, is caused by a flow of electrons
o This is called the current
• Metals are made up of a lattice of ions
• As the electrons pass through the metal lattice they collide with ions
o The ions resist the flow of the electrons

As electrons flow through the metal, they collide with ions, making them vibrate more

• When the electrons collide, they lose some energy by giving it to the ions, which start to
vibrate more
o As a result of this, the metal heats up

• This heating effect is utilised in many appliances, including:

o Electric heaters
o Electric ovens
o Electric hob
o Toasters
o Kettles
 The heating effect of current can be used for many applications such as electric hobs

AC & DC
Direct Current

• A direct current (d.c.) is defined as

A current that is steady, constantly flowing in the same direction in a circuit,

from positive to negative

• The potential difference across a cell in a d.c. circuit travels in one direction
only
o This means the current is only positive or only negative
• A d.c. power supply has a fixed positive terminal and a fixed negative terminal
• Electric cells, or batteries, produce direct current (d.c.)

Circuits powered by cells or batteries use a d.c. supply

Alternating Current
 • An alternating current (a.c.) is defined as

A current that continuously changes its direction, going back and forth around
a circuit

• An a.c. power supply has two identical terminals that switches between
positive and negative
o The current is therefore defined as positive or negative, depending on
which direction it is flowing at that time
• The frequency of an alternating current is the number of times the current
changes direction back and forth each second
• In the UK, mains electricity is an alternating current with a frequency of 50
Hz and a potential difference of around 230 V
• On an oscilloscope, direct current and alternating current are represented in
the following way:

Two graphs showing the variation of current with time for alternating current
and direct current

Comparing AC & DC

• The following table summarises the differences between d.c. and a.c.

Direct Current vs. Alternating Current Table

Exam Tip

If you are asked to explain the difference between alternating and direct current,
sketching and labelling the graphs shown above can earn you full marks.All the
circuits you have studied so far are d.c. circuits. Don't be put off by an exam question
if you are asked to calculate the current, potential difference or resistance in a d.c.
series circuits, you don't have to do anything different from what you have already
learned!
Conductors, Insulators & Electrons

Conductors

• A conductor is a material that allows charge (usually electrons) to flow

through it easily
• Examples of conductors are:
o Silver
o Copper
o Aluminium
o Steel

• Conductors tend to be metals

 Different materials have different properties of conductivity

• On the atomic scale, conductors are made up of positively charged metal ions
with their outermost electrons delocalised
o This means the electrons are free to move

• Metals conduct electricity very well because:

o Current is the rate of flow of electrons
o So, the more easily electrons are able to flow, the better the conductor

The lattice structure of a conductor with positive metal ions and delocalised
electrons

Insulators

• An insulator is a material that has no free charges, hence does not allow
the flow of charge through them very easily
• Examples of insulators are:
o Rubber
o Plastic
o Glass
o Wood

• Some non-metals, such as wood, allow some charge to pass through them
 • Although they are not very good at conducting, they do conduct a little in the
form of static electricity
o For example, two insulators can build up charge on their surfaces and
if they touch this would allow that charge to be conducted away

Core Practical 3: Investigating Charging by Friction

Aim of the Experiment

• The aim of this experiment is to investigate how insulating materials can be

charged by friction

Variables:

• Independent variable = Rods of different material

• Dependent variable = Charge on the rod
• Control variables:
o Time spent rubbing the rod
o Using the same type of cloth
o Using the same length of rod

Equipment List

Method
 Apparatus for investigating charging by friction

1. Take a polythene rod, hold it at its centre and rub both ends with a cloth
2. Suspend the rod, without touching the ends, from a stand using a cradle and
nylon thread
3. Take a Perspex rod and rub it with another cloth
4. Without touching the ends of the Perspex rod bring each end of the Perspex
rod up to, but without touching, each end of the polythene rod
5. Record any observations
6. Repeat for different materials

Analysis of Results

• When two insulating materials are rubbed together, electrons will pass from
one insulator onto the other insulator
• A polythene rod is given a negative charge by rubbing it with the cloth
o This is because electrons move from the cloth to the rod
o Electrons are negatively charged hence the polythene rod becomes
negatively charged
 Electrons are transferred to the polythene rod whilst they move from the
acetate rod

• If the material is repelled (rotates away) from the polythene rod then the
materials have the same charge
• If the material is attracted to (moves towards) the polythene rod then they
have opposite charges

Evaluating the Experiment

• This experiment can be carried out in several different ways

• To improve the outcome of the experiment, consider investigating a variable
with a numerical result
o For example, the independent variable could stay the same (using rods
of different material)
o The dependent variable could change to be the number of paper
circles picked up by each rod
• With numerical data:
o More analysis can be carried out e.g. creating a graph or a chart
o Better conclusions can be drawn e.g. the rod made of ___ picked up
more circles of paper than the other rods, therefore it became the most
charged

Production of Static
• When certain insulating materials are rubbed against each other they
become electrically charged
o This is called charging by friction
 • The charges remain on the insulators and cannot immediately flow away
o One becomes positive and the other negative
• An example of this is a plastic or polythene rod being charged by rubbing it with a
cloth
o Both the rod and cloth are insulating materials

A polythene rod may be given a charge by rubbing it with a cloth

• This occurs because negatively charged electrons are transferred from one material
to the other
o The material, in this case, the rod, loses electrons
• Since electrons are negatively charged, the rod becomes positively charged
o As a result, the cloth has gained electrons and therefore is left with an
equal negative charge

Exam Tip

At this level, if asked to explain how things gain or lose charge, you must
discuss electrons and explain whether something has gained or lost
themRemember when charging by friction, it is only the electrons that can move, not
any 'positive' charge, therefore if an object gains a negative charge, something else
must have gained a positive charge
Did this video help you?
YesNo

Electric Forces Between Charges

• The charge of a particle can be:
o Positive
o Negative
o Neutral (no charge)
 • Electrons are negatively charged particles, whilst protons are positive and neutrons
are neutral
• This is why in a neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of
protons
o This is so the equal (but opposite) charges cancel out to make the overall
charge of the atom zero

The number of negative electrons in an atom balances the number of positive

protons

• Therefore, an object becomes negatively charged when it gains electrons and

positively charged when it loses electrons
• When two charged particles or objects are close together, they also exert a force on
each other
• This force could be:
o Attractive (the objects get closer together)
o Repulsive (the objects move further apart)
• Whether two objects attract or repel depends on their charge
o If the charges are the opposite, they will attract
o If the charges are the same, they will repel

Opposite charges attract, like charges repel

 Attraction or Repulsion Summary Table

• Attraction and repulsion between two charged objects are examples of a non-
contact force
o This is a force that acts on an object without being physically in contact with it

Exam Tip

Remember the saying: “Opposites attract”Materials only become positively charged

because of the loss of electrons, rather than the 'gain' of any positive charge, which
is a common misconception.
Movement of Electrons
• All objects are initially electrically neutral, meaning the negative (electrons) and
positive charges are evenly distributed
• However, when the electrons are transferred through friction, one object
becomes negatively charged and the other positively charged
o The object to which the electrons are transferred to becomes negatively
charged
o The object from which the electrons leave from becomes positively charged

• This difference in charges leads to a force of attraction between itself and other
objects which are also electrically neutral
o This is done by attracting the opposite charge to the surface of the objects
they are attracted to
• In the example below, when the cloth and rod are rubbed together, the electrons
are transferred to the cloth and leave from the rod
 Electrons are rubbed onto the cloth leaving the cloth negatively charged and
the rod positively charged

Uses of Static Electricity

• Electrostatic charges are used in everyday situations such as photocopiers and inkjet
printers

Photocopiers

• Photocopiers use static electricity to copy paper documents, most commonly in black
and white
• An image of the document is projected onto a positively charged copying plate
• The plate loses its charge in the light areas and keeps the positive charge in the dark
areas (i.e the text)
• A negatively charged black toner powder is applied to the plate and sticks to the part
where there is a positive charge
• The toner is then transferred onto a new blank sheet of white paper
• The paper is heated to make sure the powder sticks (hence why photocopied paper
feels warm)
o The photocopy of the document is now made
• Inkjet printers work in a similar way, but instead of the black toner powder, a small jet
of coloured ink is negatively charged and attracted to the correct place on the page
Insecticide Sprayers

• Insecticides are chemicals used to kill pests in order to protect crops

• In order to spray crops effectively whilst using a minimal amount of chemicals, the
sprayer has to deliver the chemicals as a fine mist and cover a large area
• To achieve this, the insecticide is given an electrostatic charge (e.g. positive) as it
leaves the sprayer
• The droplets of insecticide then repel each other since they are the same charge
o This ensures that the spray remains fine and covers a large area
• They are also attracted to the negative charges on Earth, so they will fall quickly and
are less likely to be blown away
• A similar technique is used in the spray painting of cars
 Dangers of Static Electricity
• Static electricity can cause sparking
• There are various situations where static electricity can pose a hazard, for example:
o The risk of electrocution (e.g from lightning)
o The risk of a fire or explosion due to a spark close to a flammable gas or liquid
• There are dangers of sparking in everyday situations such as fuelling vehicles such as
cars and planes
• Earthing is used to prevent the dangerous build-up of charge
o This is done by connecting the vehicles to the Earth with a conductor

Fuelling Vehicles

• A build-up of static charge is a potential danger when refuelling aeroplanes

• Fuel runs through pipes at a fast rate
o This fuel is very flammable
• The friction between the fuel (a liquid insulator) and the pipe causes the fuel to gain
charge
• If this charge were to cause a spark, the fuel could ignite and cause an explosion
 • This is prevented by the fuel tank being connected to the Earth with a copper wire
called the bonding line during the refuelling
• The conductor earths the plane by carrying the charge through to the Earth which
removes the risk of any sparks

Exam Tip

• You could be asked to explain other dangers and uses in your exams
• They may ask you to explain the movement of charge in terms of electrons
• If asked to explain a danger:
o State what the danger is (electrocution? fire?)
o Explain how the charge can be removed to get rid of the risk i.e earthing
(think about which way the electrons have to move)
• If asked to explain a use, think carefully about the forces exerted due to static
electricity and what they will do