Trees and Shrubs of Maldives

RAP Publication No.
2007/12
Trees and shrubs of the Maldives
V. Selvam
Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture FAO Regional Office for

and Marine Resources Asia and the Pacific
Maldives Bangkok, Thailand
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this
publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on
the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author alone
and do not imply any opinion whatsoever on the part of FAO.
First edition: 2007
ISBN: 978-974-7946-94-9
© FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
Printed by Thammada Press Co.,Ltd., Bangkok
For copies of the book, write to:

Patrick B. Durst
Senior Forestry Officer
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific
39, Phra Atit Road
Bangkok 10200
Thailand
Tel: (66-2) 697 4000
Fax: (66-2) 697 4445
Email: Patrick.Durst@fao.org
CONTENTS
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
1 Int roduct ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. 1 The Maldives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 How t o use t his book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2. 1 How t his book is organized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2. 2 Technical t erms relevant f or

ident if icat ion of t rees and shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 Broadleaved t rees and shrubs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4 Mangrove t rees and shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5 Palm t rees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6 Pandanus t rees and shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7 Narrow leaved t ree - Casuarina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8 Ref erences, f urt her readings and
import ant websit es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9 Index of scient if ic and common names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
10 Index of Dhivehi names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

v
Foreword
The Maldives is endowed with blue seas, green forests and rich island vegetation
of which every Maldivian is proud. These forests and trees are used by the
islanders primarily as a source of timber but also for medicinal and culinary
purposes amongst many others. For their effective conservation and sustainable
management it is essential for relevant information on the identity, ecology and
use of each species to be catalogued and disseminated. The ’Forestry programme
for early rehabilitation in Asian tsunami effected countries’, which is supported
by the Government of Finland and coordinated by the FAO Regional Office for
Asia and the Pacific, took the initiative to publish this important book and we
are sure it will be welcomed and used both by the people and residents of
Maldives and by the many visitors the country receives each year.
The FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific with funding from the
Government of Finland, are particularly proud to have played a role in supporting
production of this book and, more widely, to have provided support for the
advancement of forestry and conservation in the Maldives. Recognition of the
values of trees and forests and the environment is climbing the global agenda
and through this publication we hope that awareness will be raised amongst
Maldivians and others interested in studying the wide range of trees and shrubs
present in this picturesque group of islands.
We would like to thank the author , Dr. Selvam Vaithilingam, for his meticulous
and hard work and Dr. Ravishankar Thupalli, Chief Technical Advisor of the
Maldivian component of the FAO Forestry tsunami programme, for his guidance
and assistance in bringing this important book into being. Thanks are also due
to Mr. Abdul Majeedh Mahir, Mr. Mohamed Naseem and Mr. Hussain Faisal
of the Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources for their
contribution.
This work is the first of its kind in Maldives and contains information on 100
species including broadleaves, mangroves, pandanus, palms and casuarinas.
We believe this book, with its abundant and colorful pictures, will serve as a
stimulus for Maldivian people and conservationists alike and will further promote
the propagation and conservation of ‘Forests and Trees for a Green Maldives’.
He Changchui Abdhullah Kamaludeen

Assistant Director-General and Minister for Fisheries, Agriculture
Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific and Marine Resources
Food and Agriculture Organization of Government of Maldives
the United Nations
vi Trees and Shrubs of t he Maldives
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Mr. Abdullah

Kamaludeen, Honourable Minister, Mr. Mohamed Zuhair, Deputy
Minister, Mr. Mohamed Naseem, Ms. Michelle Ahmed and Mr. Hussain
Faisal, all of the Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources
of the Maldives for lending their experience, knowledge and general
support in preparing the book. Thanks are given to Mr. Mahir for assistance
in collecting information on the traditional uses of plants listed in the
book and to Mr. Mohamed Abubakuru and other staff of the Agriculture
Research Centre, Hanimadhoo for hosting visits of the author. Thanks
are also due to Mr. Nabeel and Mr. Ali Nishaman for assistance in
collecting literature and field data.
This publication would not have been possible without the contributions
of the Chiefs of atolls and islands visited during data collection and the
community members who readily and generously shared their knowledge
and experience relating to the sustainable utilization of the forest resources
of the Maldives.
The author also thanks Dr. Ravishankar Thupalli, Chief Technical Advisor
for the Maldives component of the Forestry Programme for Early
Rehabilitation in Asian Tsunami Affected Countries (OSRO/GLO/502/
FIN), for extending advice and support during the planning and
preparation of this book. Ms. Susan Braatz and Mr. Jeremy Broadhead of
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific provided guidance and
editing of inputs, and Mr. Winston Rudder and Mr.Yon Fernandez Larrinoa
of FAO, Maldives gave support throughout the preparation period.
Dr. Simmathiri Appanah and Mr. M. Kashio of FAO Regional Office
for Asia and the Pacific, and Mr. Oudara Souvannavong and
Mr. Jim Carle of FAO Headquarters, Rome are acknowledged for reviewing
and commenting on the manuscript. Dr. Narasimhan Duvuru, Madras
Christian College, Chennai and Dr. N.Rama Rao, Botanical Survey of
India are also thanked for their review of the nomenclature.
Thanks are given to Dr. M. S. Swaminathan, Chairman, Dr. M. Velayutham,
Executive Director at the M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation,
Chennai, India for extending their full support.
Finally, gratitude is owed to the Government of Finland for providing the
necessary funding support through the Forestry Programme for Early
Rehabilitation in Asian Tsunami Affected Countries (OSRO/GLO/502/FIN).
Trees and Shrubs of t he Maldives vi i
vi i i Trees and Shrubs of t he Maldives
Trees and Shrubs of the Maldives
Introduction
The human race depends on forests, trees and other vegetation for its
survival and well-being. Women, men and children are attracted and
attached to trees, shrubs, herbs and other vegetation for various reasons
and purposes. Some trees are culturally valuable and some others are
important in terms of social norms and beliefs as well as traditional
systems but many of them are essential to satisfy basic human needs such
as food, shelter, clothing and employment. They also play an important
role in safeguarding environmental integrity. In an atoll environment
like the Maldives, they are also important for reasons such as stabilization
of sand and protection against salt spray. Trees and shrubs also play a
critical role in reducing the impact of natural calamities, such as tidal
waves and tsunamis on human lives and properties (Danielsen et al.,
2005; Selvam, 2005).
As in many small islands, vegetation in the Maldives has changed both

quantitatively and qualitatively over time due to overexploitation by
increasing human populations, unsound land use practices, poor land
tenure policies and intentional and unintentional introduction of exotics
and commercial species (Wills and Gardiner, 1901; Zuhair, 1997). Such
changes have made the islands of the Maldives, their ecosystems and
human populations more vulnerable to natural calamities such as
cyclones, tidal waves and tsunami and man-made calamities such as
rising sea levels.
Taking these facts into consideration, this book on “Trees and Shrubs of
the Maldives” aims to improve awareness of the trees and shrubs of the
Maldives and their ecological importance; provide an overview of their
local uses and potential role in increasing the economic security of
Maldivian communities; and outline propagation and management
techniques for their cultivation.
The Maldives
Geography
The Maldives is a large archipelago of 1190 coral islands, spreading over
860 km in a north-south direction in the Indian Ocean and covering an
Int roduct ion
area of 90,000 sq km. Only 202 of these islands are inhabited. The islands
are grouped into 26 natural atolls and 19 atolls for administrative
purposes (Fig. 1). These atolls are situated atop a 1600 km long undersea
mountain range called as Laccadive-Chagos Ridge, which extends into
the Central Indian Ocean from the south-west coast of the Indian
subcontinent. Most of the atolls consist of a ring-shaped live coral reef
supporting numerous islands. Most of the islands are small and vary in
size between 0.5 and 5 sq km. They are flat and without hills or rivers.
Nearly 80% of the land area is less than 1 m above mean high tide level
(MHAHE, 1999).
Climate
The climate of the Maldives is equatorial, warm and humid with two
pronounced monsoon seasons, the south-west and the north-east monsoon
seasons. The temperature is fairly constant throughout the year with a
mean annual temperature of 28oC. The average summer temperature
ranges between 26.3 and 31.8oC and winter temperature between 25.1
and 30oC. The diurnal variation is very small, rarely exceeding 6oC. April
is the hottest month with an average temperature of 30.8oC and October is
the coolest with an average of 25oC. Relative humidity is high throughout
the year, ranging from 73 to 85%.
The annual average rainfall in Maldives is 1890 mm. The rainfall in the
southern atolls is greater with an annual average of 3050 mm, whereas it
is only 1520 mm in the northern atolls. The south-west monsoon, which
extends from the end of April to the end of September, brings heavy rain to
the entire archipelago. The rainfall decreases considerably during the
north-east monsoon season that prevails from December to March and
during this season periods of drought may be experienced, particularly
in the northern group of islands. However, the weather patterns of the
Maldives do not always confirm to the monsoon patterns of South Asia.
For example, heavy rain over the whole country has been known to occur
continuously for up to one week even during the midst of the dry season.
The Maldives is outside the main area of tropical cyclones and therefore
gales are uncommon and cyclones are very rare. However, during the south-
west monsoon season strong winds and storms may hit the archipelago
and can cause severe damage. On average, it is reported that thunder storms
hit the Maldives on 23 days per year and strong winds on 12 days per year.
In May 1991 tidal waves, created by violent monsoon winds, caused damage
to thousands of houses, jetties and piers and flooded arable land with
seawater. The damage caused was estimated at US $30 million.
Trees and Shrubs of t he Maldives 3
Fig. 1. Map of the Maldives

Technical t erms
Soil
The soils of the Maldives are geologically young and consist of substantial
quantities of the unweathered coral parent material, coral rock and sand.
In most of the places, soils are coarse in texture and shallow in depth with
a top layer of brown soil (0 to 40 cm in depth) followed by a transition
zone on top of the underlying parent material of coral reef limestone
(MFAMR, 1995). In some low-lying areas and areas subjected to significant
mechanical breakdown from human activity, fine deep soils are found
with accumulated deposits of clay. In a lagoon environment (locally called
kulhi) the depth of the clay may be substantial due to the accumulation of
material from marine and biological sources over a long period of time
(MEEW, 2006). In many places, top layers of the soils have a weakly
developed structure and at times a 30 cm thick hard-pan layer cemented
with calcium carbonate is present, preventing penetration of the roots of
most plants except large trees. The water-holding capacity of the soil is
very poor due high porosity and very high infiltration rates.
The soils of the Maldives are generally alkaline with pH values between
8.0 and 8.8. This is mainly due to the presence of excess calcium and, soils
containing higher levels of humus, as in depressions and lagoons, are
less alkaline. The soils are generally poor and deficient in nitrogenous
nutrients, potassium and several micronutrients particularly iron,
manganese and zinc. Though the phosphorus content of the soils is high
it is present mostly in the form of calcium phosphate and, thus, remains
unavailable to plants.
Plant communities
Though the climate of the Maldives provides ideal conditions for luxuriant
growth of tropical trees and shrubs, other factors such as salinity, the
highly calcareous nature of soils and the salt-laden winds create harsh
environmental conditions. This is one of the main reasons why the number
of species in the Maldives, either native or naturalized, is limited.
The islands of the Maldives can, in general, be divided physiographically

into three zones namely, i) the foreshore or lower beach, ii) the beach crest
(beach top) and iii) the inner island. The foreshore can be further divided
into high tide and high-storm levels. The high tide level is normally
located at an elevation of 0.5 m above mean sea level and high storm level,
which is beyond the reach of normal tides, is located at about 0.8 to 0.9 m.
The storm level is affected by storm waves and is composed of gravel or
shingle. The average elevation of the beach crest is about 1.2 m and the
inner islands are at about 1.45 m above mean sea level (Morner et al.,
2003). Each of these zones provides relatively uniform environment
with its own associated plant community. Plant community found in
different physiographic zones of the Maldives is more or less similar to
plant association reported in Nukunonu Atoll of Western Samoa
(Parham, 1971).
i) Plant communities of the foreshore
The foreshore or lower beach zone, which includes the beach area between
the high tide line and the beach crest, is totally exposed to wave action,
wind and salt spray. It is unstable and composed mainly of coarse coral
sand in the lower portion and shingle. As a result of the harsh
environmental condition, this zone supports no vegetation except
occasional creeping sand-binders such as Ipomoea littoralis and I. biloba
along with a few individuals of Launaea pinnatifida and Portulaca alata in
the upper portion.
ii) Plant communities of the beach crest
The beach crest or beach top rises gradually and sometimes abruptly to a
height of 0.8 to 1 m above the high tide line and includes a stable beach
frontage composed of coral sand and rubble. Like the foreshore
environment, it is also exposed to winds and salt spray and its lower
margin is occasionally or, in the case of an eroding beach, regularly
inundated by seawater during spring tides. The beach crest may extend 5
to 20 m inland and provides a suitable environment for strand plant
communities including a distinct association of trees and shrubs and a
few sand-binding creepers and herbaceous plants. These strand plant
communities include:
a) the Scaevola taccada scrub community, which forms an effective

windbreak of about 3 to 4 m height on the seaward side of the islands
immediately above spring tide level. It is normally found on sandy
soils or soils dominated by coral rubble. It is the most common scrub
community found on beach crests of both northern and southern
islands of the Maldives.
b) the Pemphis acidula scrub community, which is commonly found on
elevated reef rock, coral conglomerate beach rock or hard pan coral in
open sites at or above the high tide level. Pure stands of closely
growing Pemphis acidula trees, which are impenetrable, can be seen in
Technical t erms
these areas and it is usual for the roots of these trees to be regularly
wetted by seawater during high tide. In sandy areas Pemphis acidula
can also be seen growing in association with a similar looking plant,
Suriana maritime. These areas may have coral rock at very shallow
depths.
c) the Tournefortia argentea community is found as a dominant strand
community of the beach crest particularly in drier places in some of
the northern islands. It is located very close to or just above the high
tide line and may not form an effective windbreak as the trees do not
grow closely together. It is sometimes associated with Pandanus tectorius
and Scaevola taccada.
d) the Guettarda speciosa community is normally found only on highly
elevated beach crests and is characterized by the presence of other
species such as Scaevola taccada, Pandanus tectorius and a scattering of
Pisonia grandis and Cordia subcordata trees.
iii) Plant communities of the inner island
The microclimate of the inner islands, protected by the beach-crest

communities, supports the growth of a number of trees and shrubs, which
occur either in pure stands or as a mixed forest (Forsberg, 1957). In many
islands coconut plantations are present immediately adjacent to beach-
crest vegetation and in moist areas the shelter provided by a complete
coconut tree canopy supports the growth of under story tree species such
as Morinda citrifolia and Guettarda speciosa. In some places, Pandanus
odoratissimus, Calophyllum inophyllum and Hibiscus tiliaceus are also found
in low numbers within coconut groves (Forsberg, 1957). In some other,
particularly moist, areas small pure stands of Hernandia nymphaeifolia,
Cordia subcordata and Barringtonia asiatica are present. In drier places
including the northern group of islands, pure stands of Hisbiscus tiliaceus
and Premna serratifolia are also seen. Where extensive coconut plantations
are not present mixed species forest is the most common vegetation
type found next to beach-crest scrub community. The principal tree
species in these forests are Pandanus, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Cordia subcordata,
Hernandia nymphaeifolia, Calophyllum inophyllum, Barringtonia asiatica, Ochrosia
oppositifolia, Guettarda speciosa, Adenanthera pavonina and Terminalia catappa.
These mixed forests also support good growth of under story species
such as Allophylus cobbe, Morinda citrifolia etc. No regular features in terms
of the dominance, frequency or density of tree and shrub species are
prominent in the mixed forests. In many islands the original distribution
of trees and shrubs has been greatly disturbed by the establishment of
extensive coconut plantations. As a result, beach-crest scrub communities

and mixed forests are only found up to a short distance from the shoreline
in many of the islands before merging into coconut plantations. As
described in the species fact sheets, most of the trees and shrubs present
in the beach scrub community and mixed forests are tolerant of salt-laden
winds, salt spray, soil salinity and shallow nutrient-poor soils.
The above description of the plant communities of the Maldives islands

and the overview of the ecology, propagation, management and economic
uses of different species given in the following fact sheets provide a
background to the opportunity that exists for the establishment of multi-
tiered multispecies coastal bioshields or green belts. Such bioshields are
essential for the ecological security of the Maldives islands and the
economic security of the Maldivian people in light of future coastal hazards
and predicted increases in sea levels.
How to use this book

How this book is organized
In this book 100 species selected on the basis of wide consultation are
grouped as a) Broad leaved trees and shrubs, b) Mangrove trees and shrubs,
c) Palm trees, d) Pandanus trees and shrubs and e) Narrow leaved tree
- Casuarina. The fact sheets for each species include the following
information:
i) Scientific name
ii) Synonyms
iii) Family name
iv) Common name(s) and Dhivehi name(s)
v) Species description
vi) Uses and
vii) Ecology, propagation and management.
Each species is illustrated with a combination of colour photos and
drawings showing habit, bark, leaf structure, inflorescence, flowers, fruits
and other characteristic features useful in identification. Under the
heading ‘uses’, information on how the Maldivian community utilize
different parts of the tree or shrub is given together with details relating to
potential commercial use. Information on the soil types in which particular
Technical t erms
trees and shrubs flourish and their tolerance to various environmental

conditions such as salt spray, soil salinity, drought and wind, etc., is also
given. Trees and shrubs useful in creating coastal bioshield are indicated
and major methods of propagation are given for each species along with
management information. References providing additional information
on ecology, propagation and management of different species are given at
the end of the book.
Technical terms relevant for the identification of trees and shrubs

To assist identification of featured trees and shrubs, plant physical
attributes have been described with the minimum usage of technical terms.
Some traditional botanical terms that may not be familiar to users have,
however, been included and are explained here with illustrations provided
to assist simple identification.
Leaves
Simple leaf: A leaf with a single leaf blade is called a simple leaf or a
solitary leaf. The leaf blade may be entire or dissected into lobes or divided
pinnately or palmately as shown below.
Entire: simple leaf that has no incisions
Pinnately lobed: simple leaf that has many lobes that are
arranged on either side on the midrib
Palmately lobed: simple leaf that is divided into three or

more distinct lobes, like the fingers of a hand
Bi-lobed: simple leaf that is divided into two lobes
Compound leaf: A compound leaf is a leaf where the incisions are such
that the leaf is cut into distinct separate blades called leaflets. All the
leaflets of a compound leaf are oriented in the same plane. When the
compound leaf falls from the tree, it falls as a unit. In a compound leaf, the
midrib is the rachis on which the leaflets are borne.
Pinnately compound leaf: leaf that has many leaflets, which are arranged
in pairs on either side the rachis (looks like a feather)
Paripinnately compound leaf: pinnately compound leaf

with no terminal leaflet
Imparipinnately compound leaf: pinnately compound leaf

with a single terminal leaflet
Bipinnately compound: compound leaf that is twice pinnate

with compound leaflets arranged on both sides of a central
stalk
Palmately compound: compound leaf with many leaflets

diverge from a common point (like the fingers of a hand)
Trifoliate: compound leaf that has only three leaflets, one

at the tip and two below
Leaf shapes
Leaf shape refers to the outline of the leaf blade. The following are the
main types of leaf shapes:
Linear: leaf that is long and narrow, with parallel or nearly

parallel sides. Length of the leaf is generally more than
ten times the width.
Lanceolate: leaf that looks like a lance, very long but

narrow blade, widening about the base and tapering
at the top, broadest point below the middle
Oblanceolate: leaf that is shaped like an inverted lance,

broader at the top end than at the middle and tapering
towards the base
Technical t erms
Ovate: leaf that looks like a hen’s egg, broadest point of

the leaf is below the middle
Obovate: leaf that has an inverted egg shape
Elliptic: leaf that is longer than wide, narrow to round

ends and widest at or about the middle. Leaf length is at
least two times the width
Oblong: leaf that is longer than broader with the sides

more or less parallel for most of the length of the leaf. The
length is usually less than ten times the width
Cordate: leaf that looks like a heart, having two equal more
or less round lobes at the base
Peltate: leaf like a shield with a flat leaf blade and a central
leaf stalk
Leaf apices
This refers to tip of the leaves. The following are some of the major types of
leaf tips:
Acute: sharply pointed tip
Acuminate: tapering to a long point
Apiculate: tip with a short, sharp, but not stiff, point
Obtuse: blunt, rounded tip

Emarginate: tip with a swollen notch at the apex
Mucronate: terminating abruptly by a short sharp point

at the apex
Leaf bases
The following are the common types of bases noticed in many of the plants:
Attenuate: tapering gradually
Acute: pointed, forming less than a right angle
Obtuse: blunt, usually more than a right angle
Truncate: appearing as if the base is cut off, nearly straight

across
Auriculate: having an ear shaped part at the base
Leaf margins
The following are the common types of margins found in leaves.
Entire: even and unbroken margin
Sinuate: margin with deep and rounded incisions
Serrate: margin toothed like a saw, with fine teeth

pointing outwards
Undulate: margin which is wavy

Technical t erms
Crenate: margin with shallowly round teethed
Leaf arrangement
Alternate: only one leaf is present at a node and leaves

are on the same plane
Opposite: two leaves inserted opposite to each other on

the stem
Spiral: leaves arranged singly but they arise all around

the stem facing different planes
Whorled: three or more leaves radiating from a single

point facing different planes
Flowers
Flowers are the most remarkable feature of angiosperms (flowering plants).
They show striking variations in colour, shape and smell and therefore
are considered as an important external feature of a plant that can be
used for the identification of a plant species. The following is the cross
section of a flower showing the different parts (Fig. 2):
anthar stigma
style
filament
sepals - calyx
petals - corolla
pedicel
Fig. 2. Longitudinal section of a flower

Inflorescence
An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers on a plant. It is otherwise
called a flower head or flower cluster. The stalk of the inflorescence is
called the peduncle and the stalk of an individual flower is called the
pedicle. Flowers arise in the axils of reduced leaf-like structures called
bracts and a cluster of bracts is known as involucre.
An inflorescence is single when all the flowers are gathered in the same
single pattern and it is called compound when a complex pattern is formed
from other single patterns.
Single inflorescences
Main types of single inflorescences are as follows:
Raceme: a simple elongated inflorescence with stalked

flowers; length of the stalk is equal in all the flowers
Spike: it is similar to raceme but flowers attached directly

to the peduncle
Spadix: a thick fleshy spike, surrounded or subtended by

a spathe (a large, often showy bract); flowers usually
unisexual and minute
Corymb: it is similar to raceme but length of the stalk is

unequal. It is flat topped with the oldest flower at the
end of the main axis
Cyme: it is similar to corymb and flat topped with the

youngest flower at the end of the main axis
Umbel: flowers are with equal stalk length and they arise
from a single point from the top of the peduncle
Technical t erms
Compound inflorescence
The following are the main types of compound inflorescences:
Panicle: it is formed by several racemes clustered together
Compound umbel: it is formed by several umbels clustered

together
Fruit s
Fruits are the seed-bearing organ of a plant, which display a wide range
in size, shape and colour. It is another external feature that is used for
identifying plants.
Pod: long dry fruit consisting of a seedcase, which splits

open to release its seeds
Drupe: fleshy fruit having a single hard stone that encloses

a seed
Berry: small, juicy fruit having the whole wall fleshy
Capsule: dry fruit that develops from two or more carpels

(female reproductive unit of a flower comprising stigma,
style and ovary)
Broad leaved trees and shrubs
Adenanthera pavonina - Madhoshi
Adenanthera pavonina L. MIMOSACEAE

Synonym: Adenanthera gersenii
Common names: Red bead tree, coral wood, red sandalwood
Dhivehi name: Madhoshi
Status: Common; found as a component of the closed forests of Barringtonia asiatica

and coconut forests; occasionally grows amidst shrubs of Hibiscus tiliaceus
Description: A medium to large sized deciduous tree that grows up to 20 m tall.

Trunk is straight with round but uneven and spreading crown. Multiple stems are
common. Bark smooth with fissures, is brown or greyish in colour and has large
number of lichens. Leaves are bipinnate with two to seven pairs of leaflets, which are
pale green in colour, oval-oblong in shape with blunt tip and alternate in arrangement
along the branches. Leaves turn yellow with age. Flowers are small, star shaped with
five petals, yellow in colour, fragrant and are borne in slender, dense racemes,
which look like rat tails. Fruit is a pod, curved, with slight constriction between seeds,
black when ripen and twist upon drying to show seeds. Eight to twelve seeds are
present in a pod. Each seed is about 0.9 cm wide, dark to bright red, shiny, lens
shaped and extremely hard. Ripened pod remains attached to the tree for a long
time.
Uses: Timber is hard, strong reddish and durable. In Maldives it is used to build any
part of a boat (dhoni). It is also used in carpentry. Although raw seeds are toxic and
may cause intoxication, roasted seeds are commonly eaten and are also powdered to
make coffee. Young leaves are eaten as vegetables. Children love to collect the seeds
to use them in two of their games, namely, Ohvalhugondi and Thinhama. According to
some of the elders, seeds were used in the past to weigh gold since nearly all the seeds
have a uniform weight of 0.25 grams. The species is a nitrogen fixer so can improve
soil nitrogen content.
Ecology, propagation and management: Adenanthera pavonina is found growing on a

variety of soils from deep, well-drained to shallow and rocky soils, but prefers neutral
or slightly acidic soil. It is capable of quickly forming large colonies in moist closed
forests, where the trunk grows very straight. It can be propagated from seed and the
seedlings have epigeal germination. Since the seed coat is extremely hard, scarifying
the seed surface or immersing the seeds in boiling water for one minute is required
to increase the rate and reduce the time of germination, which otherwise may take up
to 12 months. Nursery stock out-plants well. Growth rate is fast after the first year.
Albizia saman - Bodu gas
Albizia saman (Jacq. ) F. Muell MIMOSACEAE

Synonyms: Samanea saman, Entrolobium saman
Common names: Rain tree, monkey pod
Dhivehi name: Bodu gas
Status: Occurs occasionally in nature; now it is widely planted
Description: A fast growing, semi-deciduous tree, which normally grows to 15 to

25 m in height but is capable of reaching up to 50 m. Crown is umbrella shaped; in
open places the horizontal spread is greater than the height of the tree. Trunk is short
and stout with grey, rough and fissured bark. Bark on younger tree is pale grey and
smooth. Leaves are compound, arranged alternately along twigs with two to six
pairs of pinnae. Each pinna has 6 to 16 pairs of leaflets, which are diamond shaped,
shiny green on the upper surface and pale and finely haired on the lower surface.
Leaflets are larger at apical end of the pinna. Leaflets fold during the night and
sometimes on cloudy days. Flowers are pink in colour, numerous and clustered. Long
stamens, which are red in the upper half and white below, give the whole flower head
the appearance of a powder puff. Flowers bear honey. Fruit is a large pod, 10 to 20 cm
in length, thick, black-brown in colour and filled with a sticky brownish sweet pulp.
Each fruit contains 15 to 20 fatty, shiny, smooth and dark brown seeds.
Uses: Widely grown as shade providing and ornamental tree. Timber is light weight,
durable and resistant to termites. It is used for carving, furniture, paneling and as
veneer and plywood. It can be used for framing in boat building. It makes fairly good
firewood but smokes a lot when burned. Tree yields a low-grade gum when wounded.
Honey is also harvested from the tree. Pulp of the pod is edible but too astringent. In
Maldives, it is mainly grown as an ornamental and shade tree. It is a nitrogen fixer.
Ecology, propagation and management: Rain tree grows on light, medium and heavy
soils and also adapts to acidic and alkaline conditions. It can tolerate water logging
for a short period and light salt spray but is intolerant to shade. It is propagated
easily and commonly by seed but also by stem cuttings, root cuttings and stump
cuttings. Seeds are placed in hot water for about three minutes and then soaked in
cold water for 24 hours before sowing. Seedlings of about 15 to 30 cm can be used for
outplanting. Seedlings of more than 1 cm stem diameter hold up better in wind and
rain.
Allophylus cobbe - Dhon’moosa
Allophylus cobbe ( L. ) Bl. SAPINDACEAE

Synonyms: Allophylus rheedii, Allophylus serratus
Common name: Wild berry
Dhivehi name: Dhon’moosa
Status: Common in shrublands
Description: An evergreen, low branching small tree to shrub about 3 to 4 m tall.

Trunk is straight with open canopy. In some old and larger trees buttress roots are
found at the base of the trunk, which provide mechanical support to the tree. Bark is
grey or brown in colour and rough and has a number of small swollen spot (pustular)
and air pores. Outer layer of the bark is strongly aromatic and inner layer is fibrous.
Branchlets are greyish brown in colour, slightly tapering and with numerous small
orbicular air pores. Branchlets are hairy when young. Leaves are compound with
three leaflets and each leaflet is 9 to 14 cm in length and 3 to 5 cm in breadth; upper
surface is green and lower surface is pale green in colour. Terminal leaflet, which is
larger than the lateral ones, is elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate in shape whereas lateral
leaflets and ovate-lanceolate in shape. Leaf margin is sparsely curled. Leaves are
arranged spirally along the branches and internodes are clearly visible. Inflorescence
is axillary (between leaf base and branch), unbranched and its length is almost equal
to that of the terminal leaflet. Flowers are small and white. Fruit is a small berry,
round, fleshy and red in colour.
Uses: Fruit is edible and the flesh of the berry is eaten raw and tastes very sweet.
Wood was occasionally used in the past for building traditional houses and to make
bows. Leaves of the shrub, with other ingredients, are used in the treatment of bone
fractures and other like ailments. The juice of the leaves is used to relieve rashes.
Leaves ground with quicklime is applied with heat to relieve stomach aches. Roots
are used to check diarrhoea.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is well adapted to grow in coarse and fine
sandy and nutrient poor soil but prefers sandy loam with slightly high moisture
content for better performance. It performs well in shade too. Its tolerance to draught
is high. It is also tolerant to saline soil and salt spray. It is sometimes found growing
as a minor constituent of strand vegetation. It is not cultivated but grows well in the
wild. Seeds are normally dispersed by fruit-eating birds. According to some elders, it
can be propagated by seeds. Seeds can be removed easily from mature fruits by
squeezing them in water. Viable seeds will sink. These seeds are washed again and
broadcasted on to the field. However, no attempt has been made so far to raise
seedlings in the nursery.
Annona glabra - Kalhuthumeyvaa
Annona glabra L. ANNONACEAE

Synonyms: Annona australis, Annona chrysocarpa, Annona peruviana
Common names: Pond apple, bullock’s heart
Dhivehi name: Kalhuthumeyvaa
Status: Common in home gardens. It has also become wild and naturalized
along the border of open wetlands as in Fuvamulah Island.
Description: A semi-deciduous tree about 10 to 15 m tall. Normally with a single trunk

but seedlings can grow in clumps giving the appearance of a multi-stemmed tree. Bark
is grey, thin and fissured with prominent lenticels (involved in gas exchange and
appear as raised spots). Mature trees have slightly buttressed roots. Leaves are leathery,
simple, alternate in arrangement along the branches and oblong-elliptical in shape;
upper surface of the leaf is dark green and underneath is pale. Foliage contains yellow
leaves during the summer. Flowers are single, large, 2 to 5 cm in diameter, pale yellow
to cream-white in colour and attractive with three leathery outer petals and three
smaller inner petals with a red inner base. Fruit is mostly spherical in shape and looks
like smooth-skinned sweetsop and mango in shape; some fruits look like bullock’s
heart. Fruit is green in colour when young but after falling from trees turn yellow and
then black. Pulp is fleshy, pinkish-orange or orange, aromatic and pungent. Each
fruit contains about 100 light brown coloured seeds, which are about 1 cm in length.
Uses: Fruits are delicious and eaten raw. They are also used in the preparation of a
sweet drink. There is heavy demand for ripened fruit during the Ramzan season.
Softwood and roots are used as fish floats. Bark is an excellent home for orchids and
other air plants. Seedling can be used as a rootstock for custard apple and sweetsop.
Ecology, propagation and management: Pond apple requires ample soil moisture
and sunlight. It can tolerate prolonged freshwater flooding but is intolerant to
permanent inundation. Propagation is by seeds and stem cuttings. Both fruit and
seeds can float and remain viable in fresh, brackish and seawater for many months.
Once seeds settle in fresh or saline wet soil, they germinate quickly and growth is
rapid initially. This species is suitable for coastal agroforestry because both seedlings
and adult trees can tolerate high salinity and can survive root immersion by high
tide. However, it can be an aggressive invader in open and disturbed wetlands where
moisture and sunlight are plentiful.
Annona muricata - Anoanaa
Annona muricata L. ANNONACEAE

Synonym: Annona bonplandiana
Common names: Soursop, guayabano
Dhivehi name: Anoanaa
Status: Common in northern islands and found occasionally in southern

groups. Grown in home gardens as a fruit tree.
Description: A small, low-branching (at the base of the tree), evergreen tree about 5 to
9 m tall. Trunk is straight. Bark is grey or greyish-brown, rough and fissured. Twigs
bear large number of minute lenticels. Leaves are leathery, simple and arranged
alternately; oblong, elliptic or narrow obovate in shape and pointed at both ends.
Leaves are shiny, dark green on the upper surface, light green beneath; they produce
a strong pungent smell when crushed. Flowers are large and single; emerge anywhere
on the trunk, branches and twigs. Flowers are short stalked, plumb, triangular to
conical in shape; have three outer petals that are fleshy, green or yellow-green and
three inner petals that are pale yellow in colour. Fruit is covered with a reticulate,
tender, inedible bitter skin with many stubby, curved, soft spines, whose tips break
off easily when the fruit is fully ripe. Skin of the immature fruit is dark green in colour,
becoming slightly yellowish-green in mature fruit. Flesh is whitish, fibrous and very
juicy, smells like pineapple and subacid to acid in taste. Each fruit contains a few
dozen to 200 or more seeds, which are shiny, hard, oblong and dark brown or black
in colour.
Uses: Mature fruit, which is fragrant and delicious, is eaten fresh or used to make
juices and sherbets. Fruit and fruit juice is taken to increase mother’s milk after
childbirth. Along with guava and passion fruit, soursop is considered promising for
large scale marketing in the form of preserved pulp, jelly and syrup. Barks, leaves
and roots are used in traditional medicine.
Ecology, propagation and management: A. muricata grows well in loose, fairly rich,
and deep and acidic soil and can tolerate dry soil conditions and a coastal environment.
It is commonly raised from seeds. Seeds may be sown directly in the field, nursery bed
or containers and should be kept moist and shaded. Germination takes place with 15
to 30 days and seedlings can be planted out after six to eight months. Selected types
can be propagated by cuttings or shield-budding. As a small and early-bearing fruit
tree, it can be grown as intercrops with larger fruit trees.
Annona reticulata - Dhan’digandu atha, vilaathu atha
Annona reticulata L. ANNONACEAE

Synonyms: Annona humboldtiana, Annona humboldtii
Common name: Custard apple
Dhivehi names: Dhan’digandu atha, vilaathu atha
Status: Occasional; grown as fruit tree in home gardens.
Description: An erect, deciduous tree of about 4 to 10 m height with round or

spreading crown. Bark is smooth, thin and grey in colour. Leaves are quite pretty,
larger and darker than that of Annona muricata, alternate in arrangement and
oblong or oblong-lanceolate in shape. Flowers are in groups of two or three on lateral
peduncles, drooping and fragrant; there are three narrow, fleshy outer petals which
are light green in colour externally and pale yellow inside with a red or purple spot at
the base. Flowers never open fully. Fruits are pulpy of various shapes, ovoid,
symmetrically heart shaped, lopsided, or irregular with deep or shallow notch at the
base. Skin is thin and in ripened fruit it is yellow or brownish in colour with a pinkish,
reddish or brownish-red blush and has a reticulate pattern of clear indentation on
the surface. The flesh is creamy-white, thick and divided into juicy segments around
a pointed, fibrous central core. Each fruit contains many seeds, which are hard,
smooth, shiny and dark-brown in colour.
Uses: Fruits are edible; flesh may be scooped from the skin and eaten as is or served
with a sprinkling of sugar. It is added to milkshakes to make a delicious drink. Fruit
should be picked from the tree after it has lost all green colour and ripens without
splitting. Leaves, bark and green fruits are all boiled together to prepare extremely
potent decoction to cure severe cases of diarrhoea and dysentery. Decoction of leaves
is used to relieve toothache. Seed kernels are very toxic.
Ecology propagation and management: It grows well in deep, rich soil with ample
moisture and good drainage. It is also capable of growing in light sand but less
drought-tolerant and prefers more humid atmosphere. Propagation is mainly by
seeds. It can also be propagated by inarching, or by budding or grafting onto its own
seedlings or onto soursop, sweetsop or pond apple rootstocks. Its seedlings are often
used as root stock for soursop and sweet sop.
Annona squamosa - Dhivehi atha
Annona squamosa L. ANNONACEAE

Synonyms: Annona asiatica, Annona cinerea, Annona glabra
Common names: Sweetsop, sugar apple, custard apple
Dhivehi name: Dhivehi atha
Status: Common; grown in home gardens.
Description: A small, deciduous tree about 3 to 6 m tall with open crown of irregular
branches. Bark is light brown in colour with visible leaf scars, smooth or slightly
fissured into plates. Leaves are single; alternate in arrangement; oblong, oblong-
lanceolate or narrowly elliptic in shape; thin; dull green on the upper side, pale blue-
green and covered with bloom underneath. Young leaves are slightly hairy and are
aromatic when crushed. Flowers emerge on slender branches singly or in groups of
two to four and are oblong in shape. Sepals are hairy and pointed. There are three
outer petals, which are fleshy, yellow-green on the outside and pale-yellow inside
with a purple or dark-red at the base and there are three inner petals, which look like
minute scales or are absent. Fruit is compound; round, ovoid or heart shaped; soft
but with thick rind composed of knob-like segments; pale-green, grey-green or
yellowish-green in colour and always with a bloom. Ripe fruit consists of conically
segmented, creamy-white, glistening, and fragrant, juicy, sweet, delicious flesh. Each
segment has an oblong, shiny and smooth, black or dark-brown seed.
Uses: Fruits are eaten fresh. Fruit flesh is also pressed through a sieve to remove seeds
and is then added to ice cream or blended with milk to make a beverage. Seed kernels
contain a whitish to yellowish, non-drying oil, which can be used as a substitute for
peanut oil in the manufacture of soap. Bark and roots are highly astringent. Seeds
are poisonous.
Ecology, propagation and management: Grows both in wet and dry soil but requires
adequate moisture during the growing season. It is highly tolerant to drought, but
requires adequate moisture during the growing season. It is intolerant to water logging.
It grows on a variety of soils, including rich, well drained, deep rocky soils, but
performs better on loose, sandy loams. It is shallow rooted and does not need deep
soil. Trees are generally grown from seeds, which germinate better a week after removal
from the fruit. Germination may take two to four weeks or more and the seedlings
are ready for outplanting after six months. It is generally a slow growing tree.
Vegetative propagation is preferred when sweetsop is grown as a commercial crop.
Cleft-grafting, shield-budding, inarching are the common methods used. Trees grown
by cuttings and air-layering have low rates of success.
Artocarpus altilis - Ban’bukeyo
Artocarpus altilis (Z. ) Fosb. MORACEAE

Synonyms: Artocarpus communis, Artocarpus incisa
Common name: Breadfruit
Dhivehi name: Ban’bukeyo
Status: Abundant; found in all places, except very near to beaches.
Description: A massive evergreen or semi-evergreen tree reaching a height of 30 m

with often a clear trunk up to 4 to 6 m from the base. Bark is thick, smooth and light
coloured. Branches are spreading, thick with lateral foliage bearing branchlets. Leaves
are arranged alternately and they are thick, leathery and deeply cut into 5 to 11
pointed lobes; upper side is dark green and shiny with conspicuous yellow veins and
underside is dull with elevated midrib. Flowers are tiny and clustered together. Female
and male inflorescences are present separately on the same tree. Male flowers are
arranged densely on drooping, cylindrical or club-shaped spike, which may reach a
length of 25 cm. Female inflorescence stands upright, is round or cylindrical and
about 8 to 10 cm in length with numerous green flowers embedded. Fruit is compound,
ovoid to oblong in shape, may be 10 to 35 cm in length. Outer skin of the fruit is thin
and patterned with irregular, four-six sided faces each of which has in the centre a
sharp, black pointed, minute but flexible spine. Fruit is green in colour when young,
turning to yellowish-green or yellow when ripe. All parts of the plant contain latex.
Uses: Breadfruit is a staple in the Maldivian diet. It can be cooked and eaten at all
stages of its development. It can be eaten raw, boiled, steamed and roasted. Boiled
breadfruit with fish broth of tuna and coconut forms an appetizing traditional food.
A traditional delicious sweet, bondibai, is also made from breadfruit. Breadfruit can be
roasted and made into chips, and both the traditional sweet and the chips have good
market. Wood is very light, soft and durable and widely used in making doors, door
and window frames and boats. Wood is also good for making surfboards. Gum from
the tree is used for caulking boats.
Ecology, propagation and management: The cultivar found in Maldives has adapted
to shallow, calcareous sandy soil but drainage is essential to avoid shedding of fruits.
It is normally propagated vegetatively. It is often propagated by transplanting root
suckers, which spring up naturally. Trees grown from root suckers will bear fruit in
five years and will be productive for more than 50 years. Seedlings are also produced
from root cuttings but it takes a long time to produce a seedling of about two feet to
be outplanted. Other methods of propagation are air-layering, inarching, budding,
stem cuttings and marcotting.
Artocarpus heterophyllus - Sakkeyo
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. MORACEAE

Synonym: Artocarpus integrifolia
Common name: Jack fruit
Dhivehi name: Sakkeyo
Status: Occasional; grown in home gardens.
Description: A gorgeous evergreen tree, 10 to 20 m tall with a straight large trunk.

Canopy is dense and mostly dome shaped. Bark is greyish-brown, rough and
somewhat scaly. Leaves are leathery, shiny and smooth; oblong, oval or elliptical in
shape; and flat or wringled with sides curled upwards. In young plants leaves are
lobed whereas in mature trees leaves are entire with pointed tip. Top of leaves is dark
green, underside is pale green. Male and female flowers are borne in separate flower
heads. Male spikes with tiny flowers are on new wood among the leaves. They are
elongated, oblong, cylindrical or elliptical in shape and are hanging or drooping.
Female spikes are solitary or paired, oblong or cylindrical and appear on short, stout
twigs or even from the soil covered base of very old trees. Fruit is the largest of all tree-
borne fruits; it may reach 90 cm in length, 45 cm in width and exceed 50 kg in weight.
The outer skin of this compound fruit is green or yellow when ripe and is characterized
by the presence of numerous hard, cone-like points. The interior contains large bulbs,
which are golden-yellow or yellow-orange in colour, waxy, firm or soft, aromatic and
sweet. Each bulb has a smooth, oval, light-brown seed covered by a thin white
membrane. All parts of the tree, including fruits exudes copious, white, sticky latex.
Uses: Pulp, which smells pineapple and banana, is eaten fresh. The seeds are eaten
boiled or roasted, are used to make curries, and sometimes dried and salted as table
nuts. Timber is medium hardwood, resistant to termite attack and fungal and bacterial
decay. It is lustrous when sanded and varnished. In Maldives, it is used in carpentry
and sometimes for boat building. Latex can be used for caulking boats. Heartwood
produces a rich yellow dye. Leaves, roots and sap are used in traditional medicine.
Ecology, propagation and management: Grows on a variety of soil but does not
tolerate drought and flooding. It is moderately tolerant to saline soils and can be
planted closely as windbreaks. It is propagated mainly from seeds; large seeds are
selected, are washed thoroughly, the outer skin is removed, and seeds are sown fresh.
Cuttings and air-layering can also produce seedlings. The seedlings should be planted
by the time four leaves have appeared, after which it is difficult to plant out
successfully due to the long and delicate tap root.
Averrhoa bilimbi - Bilamagu, bilimagu
Averrhoa bilimbi L. OXALIDACEAE

Common names: Bilimbi, cucumber tree
Dhivehi names: Bilamagu, bilimagu
Status: Common in home gardens.
Description: An attractive, strong but small tree about 4 to 7 m tall with a few
upright branches. Bark is thick and brownish-red in colour. Leaves are compound,
arranged alternately, have single terminal leaflet. Leaves are about 30 to 55 cm long
and are clustered mainly at the branch tips. Each leaf has 15 to 21 leaflets, which are
arranged alternately or slightly oppositely along a rachis. They are ovate or oblong in
shape with rounded base and pointed tip and are medium green on the upper
surface and pale on the under surface. Flowers are small with five red to dark red
petals. Flowers emerge directly from the stem and on oldest branches. Fruit, “bilimbi”,
is 5 to 10 cm long, cylindrical and slightly five-sided with hair-like floral remnants at
the lowest end. It is bright green when unripe and turns ivory or white when ripe;
skin is very thin, soft and tender. Fruit is juicy and highly acidic.
Uses: Bilimbi is too acidic to be eaten raw but is used to make curry, chutney and
salad. It is also cooked with chilli, which can be kept for a long time. To reduce acidity
bilimbi is prickled and soaked in water overnight or boiled with salt for a few minutes.
Fruit is also used to make jam and jelly. The fruit juice is used as a refreshing beverage
and also used to clean metals and remove stain.
Ecology, propagation and management: It requires full sun for fast growth and
prefers seasonally humid climates. It grows well in rich, moist, slightly acidic, well-
drained soil but also grows and fruits well on sand and limestone. It does not tolerate
flooding and salinity. Bilimbi is grown mainly from seeds. Stem cuttings are also
used. It is a vigorous tree that requires no horticultural treatment. In Maldives attempts
have been made to cultivate bilimbi on a commercial scale but with little success.
Averrhoa carambola - Kaamaranga
Averrhoa carambola L. OXALIDACEAE

Common names: Carambola, start fruit
Dhivehi name: Kaamaranga
Status: Occasional; grown in home gardens.
Description: A small, evergreen tree 4 to 6 m tall with a dense, bushy, broad and
rounded canopy. Trunk is short, multi-stemmed with many drooping branches.
Bark is light brown, smooth or finely fissured. Leaves are compound and arranged
alternately and spirally. Leaves have 7 to 11 nearly opposite leaflets (including a
terminal single leaflet), which are ovate or ovate-oblong in shape, soft, medium green
and smooth on the upper side, finely haired and whitish on the lower surface. Leaves
are sensitive to light and touch; leaflets tend to fold together during night or when
the tree is shaken or abruptly shocked. Inflorescence is a panicle borne in the axils of
old branches, which are mostly without leaves or on young branches. Flowers are
small, fragrant, downy, red-stalked with light-red or purple coloured jointed petals;
calyx with five pink coloured sepals. Fruit is ovate or ellipsoid in shape, about 6 to 12
cm long, has five prominent longitudinal ridges (wings) so when cut, the cross
sections of the fruit is star shaped. Fruit skin is thin, waxy, yellowish-green when
young, becomes orange-yellow when ripe. Flesh is yellow, juicy and crisp with
pronounced oxalic acid odour and taste ranges from sour to slightly sweetish.
Uses: Ripe fruits are eaten fresh, sliced and served in salads or used as garnish on
seafood. They can be cooked with fish and shrimp. Underripe fruits are salted and
pickled. Fruit flavour can be enhanced by removing the longitudinal wings, which
contain most of the oxalic acid. Wood is whitish but becomes reddish with age and
is medium hard and is used in construction and carpentry. Fruits, leaves and roots
are used in traditional medicine to counteract fevers, headache and skin disorders
and to relieve bleeding haemorrhoids. Carambola fruit is also used to quench thirst,
stop vomiting and settle stomach disorders.
Ecology, propagation and management: Grows well on poor sandy soil, heavy clay
and limestone but growth is faster and yield is higher in rich loams. It requires full
sunshine and cannot tolerate flooding. It is widely propagated from seeds but also
by budding and by grafting on to its own seedling rootstock. Flowering continues
throughout the year and fruit is available most of the year. It is an ideal tree for
landscaping.
Azadirachta indica - Hithi gas
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. MELIACEAE

Synonyms: Melia indica, Melia azadirachta
Common names: Neem, morgosa-tree
Dhivehi name: Hithi gas
Status: Occasional. Found mostly in home gardens and also in residential

areas. It is considered as recently introduced into the Maldives but its
presence was recorded in 1957 (Forsberg, 1957).
Description: A large tree that may grow up to 20 m tall but most trees found in the
Maldives are less than 10 m. Canopy is dense with thick foliage and is round in
shape. Bark is brown in young trees but with age turns to grey and develops deep
furrows and scaly plates; inner bark is pink in colour. Leaves are pinnately compound,
alternate and spirally arranged and fall during summer or drought. Each leaf has
seven to nine pairs of 6 to 8 cm long leaflets, which are curved and lance shaped,
have saw-toothed margins and pointed tip. Leaflets are smooth and dark green in
colour. Flowers are small, white and fragrant, arranged in panicle flower heads,
which arise from the corner of leaves. Fruit is a small drupe, oblong-ovoid in shape,
green when young and yellow-green when ripe with white latex. Each fruit contains
a single ellipsoid seed.
Uses: Multiple use tree; it can be grown as a windbreak, shade and fodder tree, used
to improve soil condition and reclaim wasted land. It is also a timber tree. Wood is
durable, seasons well but does not take polish well; highly pest resistant; used for
construction, carpentry, toys, boards and panels. In some islands of the Maldives
the wood is used for boat building. Oil is extracted from the seeds, which is used in
soap industry. Leaves, kernels and oil cakes soaked in water can be used as a natural
pesticide and pest repellent. Azadirachtin, a chemical extracted from the seeds and
leaves affect the reproductive cycle of insects, nematodes, fungi, bacteria and even
viruses and thereby control their multiplication. Leaves, bark, oil and roots are used
widely in traditional medicine.
Ecology, propagation and management: Grows everywhere, on dry, stony, sandy,

clayey, slightly acidic or alkaline, shallow soils. It is slightly saline-tolerant, can
tolerate drought and high rainfall but cannot tolerate waterlogging. Propagated
mainly by seeds; immediately after collection, fleshy part of the fruit should be
removed, seed should be washed (not soaked) to remove casing and dried in shade
for five to ten days. Seeds can be stored in well-aerated places for a short period, two
to six months. However, it is recommended to sow the seeds as soon as possible to
have a good germination. Seeds can be directly sown or seedlings may be raised in
nursery beds or in containers. Transplanted wildlings also perform well.
Barringtonia asiatica - Kim’bi, Kin’bi
Barringtonia asiatica (L. ) Kurz LECYTHIDACEAE

Synonym: Barringtonia speciosa
Common names: Sea putat, sea poison tree
Dhivehi names: Kim’bi, Kin’bi
Status: Abundant in the southern islands but found only occasionally in

northern islands.
Description: A huge tree about 20 m tall, with crooked often leaning trunk, often
buttressed with low branches. Crown is dense and massive. Bark is thick, dark
brown, slightly rough or somewhat scaly with elongated lenticels. Leaves are large
and simple, terminal part is broader than the basal end, with entire margin and held
in rosettes at the ends of branches; veins are prominent. Young leaves are bronze in
colour with pinkish veins. Inflorescence is a raceme, erect and found at the tips of the
branches. Flowers are large and attractive with stout stalk. Sepals and petals are
small and distinctive, white or cream coloured. Stamens more than 100 in numbers
and filaments are up to 15 cm long, which are white coloured at the base and pink at
the tip. Flowers open in the night and attract large moths and nectar-feeding bats
with their heavy scented and copious nectar. Fruit, called in Maldives as kin’bi or
kim’bi, is large, four sided, lantern-shaped, about 10 to 15 cm long and 10 cm wide
with persistent sepals and styles. Young fruits are green, turns to brown when
mature. Middle layer of the fruit is spongy and contains air sacs, and inner layer is
hard and thick and contain one seed.
Uses: It can be grown as a windbreak, and wave barrier and shade tree. Wood was
once used in Maldives for boat building when there was a scarcity of boat-building
timber. Wood is sometimes used for handicrafts and also as firewood. Local people
apply well pounded seeds on the body for relief from pain and swelling. Water in
which flowers were soaked overnight are used to wash face and eyes for relief from
inflammation and discomfort resulting from reflection of sun light from white sand
and sea. Fully developed fruit, which contains high amount of saponin, used elsewhere
to stun fish in tidal pools and reefs.
Ecology and Management: Barringtonia asiatica is a typical littoral tree, forms thick
forest in all types of soil even among boulders of rugged beach. In many islands of
Maldives closed forests of Barringtonia asiatica with overlapping crowns is found
behind Scaveola scrubland. In these places soil is rich and moisture content is relatively
high. It grows in the wild from seeds. Fruits, after maturing on the tree, drop off and
float in the sea for long periods, more than two years; they drift along the shore for
long distances and finally washed ashore and sprout. Barringtonia asiatica is
considered as one of the early colonizers of the islands of Maldives.
Caesalpinia bonduc - Kashi kaburan
Caesalpinia bonduc (L. ) Roxb. CAESALPINIACEAE

Synonym: Caesalpinia bonducella
Common name: Grey nickernut
Dhivehi name: Kashi kaburan
Status: Occasional; it was once “common in whole archipelago” (Forsberg,

1957) but now it is found only occasionally mainly in some northern
islands.
Description: A woody scrambling shrub growing up to 5 m tall with an irregular

crown. Plant is covered with small 1 to 6 cm long recurved thorns (prickles). Leaves
are 20 to 45 cm long with 4 to 11 pairs of pinnae and each pinna has five to ten pairs
of leaflets, which are elliptic to oblong or ovate in shape with sharp or blunt tip.
Spines are found scattered along the midrib (rachis) of leaf and pinnae. Leaves are
more or less covered with short soft hairs both on the upper surface and underneath.
Inflorescence is a raceme, produced in the axils of leaves, 12 to 20 cm long, and
branched. Flowers are large, yellow coloured and pubescent. Sepals are shorter than
petals and pubescent. Petals are about 1 to 5 cm in length and greenish-yellow to
yellow in colour. Fruit is a pod, oblong-elliptic in shape, 4 to 10 cm long, 3 to 4 cm
wide, turgid, thick and covered with bristly spines. Each pod has two hard, smooth,
shiny seeds, which are ovoid or globose in shape. They have a distinctive attachment
scar and faint concentric striations.
Uses: Seeds of the nickernut are called as “poor man’s quinine” since they were once
used as a substitute to treat malaria. The seeds are roasted, ground and boiled and
used to control diabetes and hypertension. The seeds are used to treat mouth ulcers.
In the Maldives, tips of the shoots are given to women as a medicine after child birth
to hasten recovery. Seeds are widely used in many traditional indoor games.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is a hardy plant that grows well in sandy
soil. It is saline tolerant and capable of forming dense thickets along the shoreline
and thus, can used grown as a wind breaker and wave barrier. Not highly tolerant of
stagnating water. Propagation is by seeds. Mature seeds are scarified and soaked in
water for several days before sowing. It needs no special horticultural treatment.
Seeds are very buoyant, have a hard imperious seed coat and can retain their viability
after floating in sea for several months.
Caesalpinia pulcherrima - Fa’thangu
Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L. ) Sw. CAESALPINIACEAE

Synonym: Poinciana pulcherrima
Common names: Peacock flower, dwarf poinciana
Dhivehi name: Fa’thangu
Status: Common
Description: An evergreen, low-branching and fast growing shrub that can grow up
to 4 m tall. Canopy is round, moderately dense and wide spreading with smooth
outline. Occasional pairs of thorns can be seen at nodes. Leaves are bipinnately
compound and opposite or sub-opposite in arrangement and 20 to 30 cm long. Each
leaf has four to six pairs of pinnae and each pinna has 7 to 15 pairs of leaflets, which
are oblong or ovate in shape. They are 1 to 1.5 cm long and have smooth margin.
Inflorescence is a corymb. Flowers are very showy, large, red, orange or yellow in
colour. Each flower has five sepals and five petals and the fifth petal is far smaller
than the other four. Fruit is a pod, which is flat, compressed, and green when young,
brown when ripe. Each pod is about 10 cm long and contains five to six seeds.
Uses: Feathery foliage and brilliant scarlet and yellow flower and quick growth rate
make C. pulcherrima a popular ornamental plant. It blooms all year round. In the
Maldives, it is found grown commonly in home garden, parks and other public
places. A variety of C. pulcherrima that has red flower with yellow margin is the
National Flower of the Maldives.
Ecology and Management: Grows well in all kinds of soil including sand, clay, loam,
acidic or alkaline soils. It is highly drought tolerant but is intolerant to flooding. It is
moderately tolerant to aerosol salt and thus can be planted along the beach. Though
it can grow in partially shaded places it requires full sun for flowering. Propagation
is by seeds. Germination will be faster if the seeds are sanded slightly or soaked in hot
water for hours. Wildlings that grow below the mother tree in home garden, parks
and other public places can also be used for outplanting and they perform quite well.
Tipping of the branches during the growing season creates a fuller shrub and more
flowers. It needs pruning and normally grown with trainer, otherwise trees will droop
as they grow.
Caesalpinia sappan - Bey’s fathangu
Caesalpinia sappan L. CAESALPINIACEAE

Synonyms: Caesalpinia minutiflora, Binacaea sappan,
Common names: Indian redwood, sappan wood
Dhivehi name: Bey’s fathangu
Status: Rare
Description: A small- to medium- sized sized, shrubby spreading tree that grows to
4 to 8 m tall. Bark is greyish-brown in colour with distinct ridges and sharp prickles.
Young branches and buds are covered with soft small hairs. Leaves are bipinnately
compound, 20 to 45 cm long and are alternately arranged. Each leaf has about 8 to
16 pairs of pinnae, which may be up to 20 cm long and with prickles at the base. Each
pinna has ten to 20 pairs of oblong or oblong-rhomboid shaped leaflets, which are
attached neither parallel nor at right angle to rachis and thus, give a distinctive
shape to whole leaves. Leaflets are slightly shiny. Inflorescence is a raceme with long
peduncle and located at the tips of the branches. Flowers are yellow coloured, 2 to 3
cm long with five shiny sepals and five haired petals. Fruit is a pod, which is shiny,
thick, flattened, oblong and woody. Fruits are 7 to 8 cm long and 3 to 4 cm wide and
dark-brown in colour with prominent recurved beak. Each pod contains two to five
flattened brown seeds.
Uses: It is a multipurpose tree. Wood, which is known as redwood or Brazil wood, is

dark red in colour, hard and lustrous and resistant to termite. It is of great value for
making violin bows. It is commonly used for making walking sticks. It is also used for
inlaying work and cabinet making. The heartwood yields a valuable dye, which is
used in colouring leather, silk and cotton. This dye is also used to colour meat, wine
etc., and has the potential to be used as a safe natural colouring agent. Leaves
contain a pleasant smelling volatile oil. Decoction of the heartwood is used as a
powerful agent to stimulate menstrual flow and a tonic for women for fast recovery
after childbirth.
Ecology, propagation and management: It performs well in all kinds of soils and
withstands any amount of drought but is less tolerant to wet soil. It requires full
sunlight for better performance. Propagation is by seeds and stem cutting. Seeds are
viable for about three months, which require scarification or soaking in warm water
for about ten minutes before sowing. It is a fast growing species and within a year
it reaches a height of 3 to 5 m. Stem cuttings, about 2.5 cm in diameter and 10 cm
long are also used for propagation. Initially sappan wood grows straight, but after
reaching a height of 2 to 3 m, branches start to droop and by means of this spine
entwine with branches of nearby tree to form thickets. In commercial cultivation, tree
is cut about 1m above the ground and stump sprouts profusely within two weeks.
Calophyllum inophyllum - Funa
Calophyllum inophyllum L. CLUSIACEAE

Common name: Alexander Laurel wood
Dhivehi name: Funa
Status: Abundant in the southern islands and common in the northern

islands.
Description: A large- to medium-sized, slow-growing evergreen tree that grows 8

to 20 m in height but is capable of reaching 45 m in favourable environment. Crown
is spreading with many large irregular branches and is round or pyramidal in shape.
Bark is thick and light grey to grey in colour with alternately arranged diamond-
shaped fissures and flat ridges. Leaves are stiff, shiny and oval, oblong-oval shaped.
They are arranged oppositely along the branches and dark green in colour with close
set of parallel veins. Both the tip and base of the leaves are round. Inflorescence is a
stalked raceme. Flowers are white and small with four oblong, spreading petals.
Stamens are golden yellow in colour and pistil is pink coloured. Flowers are fragrant
and sparkling like stars against the dark green background of the leaves. Fruit, which
grows in a cluster, is a round, ping-pong ball-like drupe with leathery skin. It is green
when young, turning to yellow and then brown and wrinkles when ripe. Fruit skin
covers a hard woody shell with corky inner layer, containing a seed. Trunk exudes a
gum when wounded, which solidifies quickly.
Uses: It is one of the finest timber trees of the Maldives and widely used in boat
building. Wood is hard, durable and fine textured with moderately dense and
interlocked grain. It shrinks appreciably upon drying and thus is difficult to work
with. Seed is roasted and made into a paste by grinding with the charcoal from the
coconut husk and this paste is applied in between the plates in boats as waterproofing.
Seed oil is poisonous but used to light lamps, as it lasts for a long time. The seed oil
is also used in ayurvedic medicines. It is also a handsome ornamental and shade
tree.
Ecology, propagation and management: It tolerates a wide range of soils but grows
best in well-drained sandy soil in coastal areas. It is a hardy species, tolerates high
wind, aerosol salt spray, drought and even brief period of water logging. It is also
tolerant of shallow and saline soils. Propagation is mainly by seeds. Seeds may be
sown directly or seedlings can be raised in nursery for outplanting. In order to
increase the rate and timing of germination, ripe fruits may be soaked in water
overnight, which will facilitate easy removal of skin and then shells can be cracked
just prior to sowing. Nursery raised seedlings can be outplanted after one to three
months. Seedlings should be hardened off before outplanting. Performance of
transplanted wildlings is poor.
Calotropis gigantea - Ruvaa
Calotropis gigantea (L. ) R. Br. ASCLEPIADACEAE

Common names: Giant milkweed, bowstring hemp
Dhivehi name: Ruvaa
Status: Occasional; found mostly in wasted land nearby residential areas.
Description: A medium sized shrub that may grow up to 3 m tall. Bark of the stem is
yellowish- grey and has longitudinal fissures. Leaves are elliptic to oblong in shape,
8 to 10 cm long and 5 to 8 cm wide with pointed tip and heart-shaped base. Leaves
are thick and feathery to touch, covered with soft white hairs. Flowers are arranged
in auxiliary or sub-terminal simple or compound flower head. Flowers are drawn on
the outside. Corolla is about 2 to 3 cm in diameter and dull purple or purplish-lilac in
colour. In a variety of giant milkweed flowers are white in colour. Fruit is follicle,
recurved, oblong in shape and about 7 to 10 cm in length. Seeds are ovate in shape,
5 to 6 mm long with bright, silky-white fibrous material (floss). Flowers are produced
throughout the year.
Uses: Strong fibre can be extracted from the stem, which is durable under water. In
the Maldives, giant milkweed stems are kept in the seawater till they become soft and
then fibre is extracted from the softened stems. This fibre is so strong that it is
commonly used to make loops in the fishing lines from which hooks are suspended.
Fibre extracted from the stems was once used as bowstring. Wood is used to make
fine quality charcoal and gunpowder. Floss obtained from the fruit is used to stuff
mattresses. The plant as a whole can be allowed to mulch in the soil to provide
protection to crops against soil-borne microbes. In the traditional medicine of the
Maldives, five parts of the plant, namely, roots, bark, leaves, flowers and fruits are
used to treat rheumatism. Leaves are considered as a good pain reliever. The matured
leaves are smeared with sesame oil, warmed and pressed on aching body parts to
provide relief from pain.
Ecology, propagation and management: Calotropis gigantea is normally considered as a

wasteland weed. It is found growing in all types of soil including wet clay soil to dry
coastal sands. It grows in a xerophytic condition also. It is not normally cultivated
but in some countries it is grown as an ornamental plant. In nature, seeds with a
parachute of hairs (floss) are easily spread by winds. Seeds are also spread by water
over a long distance. Local stands of C. gigantea normally increase through root suckers.
Carica papaya - Falho, veyo falho, rangu falho, ran falho
Carica papaya L. CARICACEAE

Common names: Papaya, papaw
Dhivehi names: Falho, veyo falho, rangu falho, ran falho
Status: Commonly cultivated in home gardens both in the northern and

the southern islands.
Description: A fast growing, woody, tree-like herb that grows up to 3 m tall. It

normally does not branch but if the top is cut off or injured, it produces a few
branches. Trunk is straight, hallow and green or deep purple in colour with prominent
leaf scars. Leaves are arranged spirally and clustered at the top of stem. Leaf stalk is
about 1m long, hallow and succulent. Leaf is divided deeply into five to nine segments
with prominent yellowish ribs and veins. Flowers are fleshy, waxy and slightly fragrant.
Some plants bear only short-stalked female flowers whereas some other plants may
bear only male flowers, which are clustered on 1.3 to 1.6 m long panicles. Some plants
bear bisexual flowers. Male or bisexual plants may change completely into female
plants after being beheaded. Fruit is a fleshy berry, oval to nearly round or somewhat
pyriform or elongated club-shaped. Fruit has thin, waxy skin, which is green in
colour when young, becoming light or deep yellow as it ripens. Flesh is succulent,
yellow or golden-yellow or orange-red in colour, aromatic and sweet. Seeds look like
pepper, about 5 mm long, black or grey-black in colour and attached to the flesh by
a soft, white, fibrous tissue. All parts of the plant are rich in white latex.
Uses: Ripe fruits, available throughout the year, are eaten fresh and widely used in
salads. Papaya juice, prepared from peeled fruit, is a delicious drink. In the Maldives,
unripe fruits are used to prepare spicy curry whereas a special dish called “falho
murubb’ is prepared by cooking young ripe fruit in sugar syrup. Fruits and leaves can
be used to tenderize meat.
Ecology, propagation and management: Papaya grows well in hot places and requires
light and porous soil rich in organic matter for better performance. It is also capable
of growing in marl, scarified limestone and other types of poor soils. However, it is
very sensitive to water stagnation and even well-grown plants would be killed by root
rot in excess moisture. Papaya is normally propagated by seed. Seeds, extracted from
ripe fruits, are washed to remove gelatinous seed covering (aril) and then dried. Dried
seeds are dusted with fungicide to avoid damping-off, which is a common cause of
loss of seeds. Rate of germination is high, if the seeds are planted as soon as they are
extracted from the fruits. Papaya can also be grown from semi-hard woodcuttings,
which need to be hardened off for a few days before planting. Air-layering is also
practiced in a small scale to reproduce certain varieties.
Cassia auriculata - Ranauraa
Cassia auriculata L. CAESALPINIACEAE

Synonym: Senna auriculata
Common name: Mature tea tree
Dhivehi name: Ranauraa
Status: Occasional; once it was common in wild in many of the islands of

the Maldives but now it is found only in a few islands.
Description: A profusely branched, evergreen shrub that grows up to a height of 4 m.

Bark is smooth and reddish brown in colour. Leaves are bipinnately compound and
are 5 to 10 cm in length. Each pinna has seven to nine pairs of leaflets; leaflets at the
tip of the pianna are broadly ovate whereas lower leaflets are oblong-elliptical in
shape. Stipules are auricle or lunar shaped and persistent, by which it can be easily
distinguished from other shrubs of Cassia. No gland is present on the petiole but
they can be seen along the rachis, opposite to leaflets. Flowers are yellow in colour, 2
to 5 cm long and 5 cm in diameter and arranged in terminal compound inflorescence.
Fruit is a thin flat pod, pale brown in colour, about 15 cm in length and 1.5 cm in
breadth and crumble easily. Each pod contains 6 to 12 small, compressed seeds.
Uses: Cassia auriculata has high medicinal value and is widely used in the preparation
of different kinds of traditional medicines. Leaves and seeds are considered as natural
laxative, frequently used to alleviate occasional and habitual constipation. Dried
flowers are commonly used in the treatment of diabetes. In the Maldives, flowers are
boiled and used as an ingredient in the preparation of a traditional medicine, which
is given as a post-partum medicine to women after childbirth; this medicine is
considered as a tonic for the young mother and also said to have properties to clean
up the womb. It is also used to ease the discomfort in women during menstruation.
Ecology, propagation and management: This sun-loving plant grows well in all
kinds of soil but the performance is good in porous soil, including coastal sands. It
also grows well in dry areas. It is not cultivated in the Maldives but can be easily
propagated by seeds. In the wild it often forms large clumps in open places.
Cassia fistula - An’malthassh
Cassia fistula L. CAESALPINIACEAE

Common name: Golden shower
Dhivehi name: An’malthassh
Status: Occasional; grown as an ornamental tree in public places.
Description: It is a medium sized, deciduous, fast growing tree, about 5 to 10 m tall.

Crown is oval or vase shaped. Trunk is straight. Bark is smooth, slender and pale
grey when young, turning to brown and scaly in old trees. Branches are well spaced
and dropping. Leaves are bipinnately compound, 20 to 40 cm long with four to eight
pairs of leaflets. Each leaflet is about 8 to 10 cm long, 2 to 4 cm broad with distinct
petiole. No gland is present in the leaf. Leaves drop from the tree for a short period of
time during the summer. Flowers are bright or golden yellow in colour, 3.5 to 4 cm in
diameter, arranged in drooping racemes, which are about 30 to 60 cm in length.
Flower bunches appear when the branches are bare, just before the new leaves emerge
and during that time it looks like as if the entire tree is clothed with flowers. Fruit is
a cylindrical pendulous pod, 40 to 70 cm long, smooth and purple in colour. Fruit has
numerous transverse septa between the seeds and walls of the septa are with black,
sweetish pulp. Each pod contains about 25 to 100 seeds, which are light brown in
colour, hard, lustrous but poisonous.
Uses: In the Maldives, it is grown as a shade and ornamental tree. However, it has
many other uses. Wood, which is red in colour, is hard and heavy, strong and
durable and thus suitable for cabinet work, interior work, posts, wheels and mortar.
It is also used in ayurvedic medicine to treat various kinds of diseases. Roots are used
to treat various skin diseases and syphilis. Leaves are useful in alleviating rheumatism.
Flowers are used as a mild laxative and as an antipyretic.
Ecology, propagation and management: Golden shower grows on clayey, loamy,

sandy, acidic and alkaline soils but it performs well in well-drained sandy soil. It
requires full sun. It is moderately drought and saline tolerant and also tolerates
aerosol salts. Thus, it is suitable to be planted in the coastal areas. Propagation is
mainly by seeds. Seeds can be soaked in concentrated sulphuric acid for 15 minutes
and washed thoroughly and soaked in water for 24 hours before sowing and such
treated seeds will germinate within a day. Manual scarification can also be done
before sowing. It coppices vigorously and produces root suckers freely. Young trees
need staking and pruning for the development of a well-shaped and structured
crown.
Cassia occidentalis - Dhigu thiyara
Cassia occidentalis L. AESALPINIACEAE

Synonym: Senna occidentalis
Common names: Coffee senna, fedegoso
Dhivehi name: Dhigu thiyara
Status: Common; grown near houses.
Description: A much branched, smooth, half woody herb or shrub about 0.8 to 1.8 m
tall. Stem is erect and without hairs. Leaves are bipinnately compound and about 20
to 25 cm in length. Each pinna has four to seven pairs of leaflets, which are 3 to 9 cm
in length and 2 to 4 cm in width and arranged oppositely. Leaflets are ovate or ovate-
lanceolate in shape with a long, fine pointed tip. Each leaf has a distinct spherical-
shaped gland, which is located about 0.3 to 0.5 cm from the base of the petiole. This
is one of the features that can be used to distinguish coffee senna from other related
species such as Cassia tora (sickle pod) in the field. Inflorescence is a terminal or
axillary raceme. Flowers are yellow coloured and about 2 cm long and 3 to 4 cm wide.
Fruit is a pod, compressed, 8 to 12 cm long, 0.7 to 1 cm wide and curved slightly
upwards. Each pod contains 20 to 30 seeds, which are ovoid in shape, smooth, shiny
and dull brown to dark olive-green in colour.
Uses: Coffee senna has many medicinal value and is reputed as a tonic, diuretic and
antihelminthic agent. In the Maldives, seeds are roasted and powdered to prepare
strong coffee. It is given as a substitute to coffee and also as a tonic. It is also given to
alleviate asthma and to persons suffering from hysteria. In the Maldives, the leaves,
which are laxative and liver detoxifying, are widely used as a leafy vegetable and
eaten either raw or mixed with coconut, chilly and onion.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on a variety of soils but prefers

slightly acidic to neutral soil. It requires high soil moisture for better performance. It
is not cultivated in large scale but grown near houses or even in home gardens. It can
be easily propagated by seeds. Seeds can be collected from mature pods, which split
upon maturity. Seed may be manually scarified to increase the rate of germination.
Cassia surrattensis - Ranuwia
Cassia surrattensis Burm. f. CAESALPINIACEAE

Synonym: Cassia glauca
Common names: Scrambled egg tree, galucocus cassia
Dhivehi name: Ranuwia
Status: Occasional; grown as dooryard ornamental plant.
Description: An evergreen, fast-growing shrub to small tree, about 2 to 5 m tall.

Leaves are bipinnately compound, 9 to 15 cm long with eight to ten pairs of leaflets.
Leaflets at the distal end of the leaf are larger in size and narrower, 2 to 5 cm long and
1 to 2 cm wide and obovate to elliptic-ovate in shape. Leaflets at the bottom of the
leaf are almost round in shape. Upper surface of the leaflets are dark green in colour
and usually without hairs but lower surface has sparely appressed hairs (pubescent).
Tip of the leaflets is round and emarginated and the base is obliquely rounded.
Nectar glands are present between the first, second and sometimes third pairs of
leaflets. Stipules are linear, 0.5 to 1.5 cm long. Inflorescence is an axillary raceme.
Flowers are bright yellow or orange yellow in colour, 1 to 3 cm long. Fruit is a pendulous
pod, about 6 to 10 cm long, strongly compressed and with a stipe (spine like structure
at the base of the pod) of about 0.5 to 0.8 cm length. Seeds are pale brown in colour,
shiny and oblong-ellipsoid in shape.
Uses: Widely grown as an ornamental tree. It is attractive since the bright or golden
yellow flowers are excellently offset by the dark green leaves. It is capable of blooming
almost every day and blooms look like scrambled eggs.
Ecology, propagation and management: Scrambled egg tree is capable of growing on

all kinds of soil including coastal sands. Like other species of Cassia it also loves full
sun but is capable of growing in partially shaded places also. Initially it requires
frequent watering but tolerates drought once established. Propagation is by seeds.
Pods are allowed to dry on the plant itself and after that they are opened manually
to collect the seeds. Seeds are sown directly and no pretreatment is required.
Citrus aurantifolia - Lun’boa
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle RUTACEAE

Common names: Lime, sour lime
Dhivehi name: Lun’boa
Status: Common; grown widely in home gardens.
Description: A small, densely and irregularly branched, evergreen tree, about 3 to 4

m tall. Short, sharp, stiff spines are present in the branches and twigs. Leaves are
elliptic to oblong-ovate in shape, 4 to 8 cm long and 2 to 5 cm wide and arranged
alternately on the branches. Leaf stalk is narrowly winged and the leaf margin is
crenulated. Leaf tip is variable, blunt in some and sharply pointed in other leaves.
Leaf surface is dark green to pale green in colour. Flowers are small, white, with
cup-shaped calyx, four to six lobed. Number of petals varies between four and six.
Flowers are either perfect or male and they are seen in a cluster of ten flowers in the
leaf axis of mature shoots. Sometimes single flower can also be seen in the axils of the
shoots, which are just emerged. Fruit is a globose to ovoid berry, 3 to 6 cm in diameter
with thin skin, which is characterized by the presence of a large number of minute
glands. Fruit is green when young, turning to yellow when fully ripe. Flesh is yellow-
green in colour, juicy, very acid and fragrant. Seeds are small in size, ovoid in shape
and smooth. It bears fruit throughout the year. Root suckers are common.
Uses: Lime is widely used for flavoring a variety of food. Drinks are commonly
prepared either with sugar or salt. It is also widely used in the preparation of pickles.
In the Maldives, rice is mixed with “garudhiya” (tuna stock) and a dash of lime to
make a delicious food. Another favorite item of Maldivians is “lonu lumbo” which is
prepared by ripening the lime in salt water and drying them in the sun until the
interior turns brown. It is also regularly used in the preparation of curries and chutneys.
Leaves and fruits have many medicinal values.
Ecology, propagation and management: Lime is capable of tolerating very infertile

and poor soil and is capable of growing well in sandy soils with proper drainage. It
is affected severely by water logging. It is highly drought resistant but requires irrigation
to produce quality fruits. Propagation is mainly by seed. Air-layering is common in
South-east Asia. Suckers are prepared for air layering and layers are potted and
nursed for about two to four weeks before outplanting.
Citrus aurantium - Naarin’gu
Citrus aurantium L. RUTACEAE

Common names: Sour orange, bitter orange
Dhivehi name: Naarin’gu
Status: Commonly grown in the home garden in some of the southern

islands.
Description: An erect, much branched evergreen tree, about 3 to 9 m tall. Crown is

compact and rounded. Bark is brown and smooth. Young twigs are angular, flexible
and bear slender short spines. In older branches spines are stout and longer, about 8
cm in length. Leaves are simple and arranged alternately. They are broadly ovate to
elliptical in shape with minutely toothed margin and obtuse or bluntly pointed tip.
Upper surface of the leaf is dark-green and pale beneath. Leaf petiole is 2 to 4 cm
long, upper half is narrowly to broadly winged and triangular-obovate in shape.
Leaves are aromatic when crushed. Flowers are borne singly or in small clusters in the
leaf axils. They are white in colour and have recurved, widely separated four to five
petals surrounding a tuft of up to 24 yellow stamens. Fruit is round or oblate or
oblong-oval in shape, 5 to 8 cm wide, with thick, smooth to warty and aromatic skin.
Matured fruit is reddish-orange to yellow-orange in colour and central core is usually
hollow. Fruits have ten to 12 segments with bitter walls containing acid pulp. Fruits
have a few to numerous seeds. Sour lime has a number of well-established varieties.
Uses: An essential oil called neroli is extracted from the flowers of the bitter orange,
which is an essential component of high-quality perfumes and of the toilet water
‘eau-de-Cologne’. Bitter orange juice is considered as a digestive tonic, helps to relieve
nausea and soothe stomach disorders. In the Maldives, sour orange is mostly used to
prepare sweet or sour drinks. It is also used in the traditional medicinal system of the
Maldives to treat kidney stones. The skin of the fruit is crushed and mixed with
warm water and drunk regularly to get rid of the stones.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is adaptable to a wide range of soils

including dry coastal soil. It does well in rich soils with high water table. It tolerates
high temperature, provided soil moisture is adequate. Dry hot winds may reduce leaf
size and may cause heavy withering during flowering. Propagation is by seed, grafting
and budding. Seeds are planted in seed beds and then transplanted in containers
before outplanting. It is generally grown for rootstock for sweet oranges. Seedlings
are raised in nurseries for one or two years and then budded. During the first year
after planting, pruning is necessary to keep the foliage off the ground.
Citrus limon - Dhoalhan’bu, Jambhoshi
Citrus limon (L. ) Burm. f RUTACEAE

Synonym:, Citrus medica var. limonium
Common name: Lemon
Dhivehi names: Dhoalhan’bu (common), Jambhoshi in some northern

islands
Status: Common in the northern islands and occasional in the southern

islands.
Description: A large, low-branching, sometimes spreading tree, about 3 to 6 m tall.

Some individuals have upright branches. Both the young and old twigs have sharp
and stiff spines. Leaves are oblong, elliptic or long ovate in shape, 6 to 12 cm long
with finely toothed margins. Wings on the petiole are narrower and slender. Leaves
are dark green on the upper surface and light green below and sometimes young
leaves are reddish in colour. Flowers are single or a cluster of two or more and borne
in the leaf axils. Flowers have four to five petals, which are white inside and purplish
outside. Flower buds are used to be reddish in colour. Fruit is oval with a nipple like
protuberance at the apex, 6 to 12 cm long with thick, aromatic skin, which is dotted
with oil glands. Skin is green in colour in young fruits, turning to light yellow in
ripened fruit. Fruit has eight to ten segments, containing juicy, acid, pale-yellow
pulp. Most of the fruits have only a few seeds, which are about 1 cm in length, elliptic
to ovate in shape, pointed and smooth.
Uses: It is mainly grown for the fruit. Lemon juice, which is marketed fresh, canned,
concentrated and in powder form, is mainly used for the preparation of lemonade.
Lemon juice with ginger is commonly used as a cold remedy. In the Maldives,
particularly in the northern islands, lemon juice is used as an alternative to lime juice
and it is squeezed on cooked fish before eating. In some islands, leaves are boiled in
the water used for bathing to get relief from skin allergies. In the traditional medicinal
system of the Maldives, roots of lemon are used to treat rheumatism. Like Citrus
aurantium, oil from lemon peel is used to blend perfumes and colognes. Wood is fine-
grained and easy to work with to carve small articles including toys.
Ecology, propagation and management: Lemon grows both in dry and humid
conditions. It tolerates a variety of soils, from silty-clay loam to fine sand. It is also
capable of growing in very poor soil. Normally best quality lemons are produced only
in the coastal areas. Defoliation is very common in high winds. Propagation is
mainly by seed and also by cuttings and budding. Trees require pruning when young
and it should be kept 3 to 3.5 m in height for easy harvesting. A number of varieties
of lemon are cultivated in different parts of the world.
Citrus maxima - Ban’bulhabos
Citrus maxima (Burm. ) Merr. RUTACEAE

Synonyms: Citrus aurantium var. grandis, Citrus grandis, Citru s
decumana
Common name: Pummelo
Dhivehi name: Ban’bulhabos
Status: Occasional in the home gardens in southern islands.
Description: An evergreen tree, about 5 to 10 m tall with round but open crown.
Branches start emerging on the lower part of the trunk and spreading. Bark is light
brown in colour and smooth. Seed propagated trees have long spines, about 5 cm in
length whereas vegetatively propagated plants are spineless. Leaves are large in size,
5 to 15 cm long and 3 to 8 cm wide and ovate to elliptical in shape, shiny, dark green
in colour and dotted with minute glands. Leaf margin is smooth or shallowly toothed.
Leaf stalk is broadly winged, which is up to 7 cm wide. Inflorescence is axillary, with
single or a cluster of a few flowers. Flowers are large in size with 5 white petals and are
strongly fragrant. Trees flower two to four times in a year, mainly in conjunction with
shoot growth. Fruit is round or pyramid in shape, large, 10 to 30 cm in diameter with
thick densely glandular dotted rind, which is soft and easy to peel away. Fruit
segments are large containing yellow to coral pink flesh and vary from juicy to
slightly dry and from spicy sweet to tangy and tart. The dull green coloured skin of
the fruit brightens up upon ripening as the oil glands become more prominent and
shiny. Seeds are few, large, heavy, ridged and yellowish in colour.
Uses: Fresh sweet juicy pulp vesicles are eaten out of hand and lesser sweet varieties
are eaten with sugar. It is also used in fruit salads and in making sweet drinks.
Flowers are used to make perfume and leaves are used in the preparation of aromatic
baths. In some countries leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds are used in traditional
medicines to alleviate cough, fevers and stomach disorders.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is adapted to grow in a variety of soils,

from coarse sand to heavy clay. However, it performs well in deep, medium-textured
fertile soils, which are free from injurious salts. Propagation is by seeds, air-layering
and budding. Fleshy seeds with their thin coat dry out easily and require an ideal
biophysical condition to germinate. A seedling progeny consists largely of a slender
tree with long spines. In the initial stages of growth, shade and frequent watering is
required for better performance of the seedlings. Young trees need to be pruned to
prevent lower branches from touching the ground.
Citrus medica - Bodu Lun’boa
Citrus medica L. RUTACEAE

Synonyms: Citrus aurantium, Citrus var. medica
Common name: Citron
Dhivehi name: Bodu Lun’boa
Status: Found in a few places in some of the southern islands.
Description: A small, slow-growing evergreen shrub or tree, about 2.5 to 4.5 m tall.
Twigs angled and purplish when young, becoming rounded quickly as the tree
grows. Both branches and twigs are very stiff and have long stout spines in the leaf
axils. Leaves are ovate-lanceolate or ovate-elliptic in shape, 6 to 18 cm long with
rounded or blunt tip. Leaves are leathery, fragrant, dark green in colour with minutely
serrated margins. Wing of the leaf petiole is slender and very narrow. Flowers are
borne singly or in short clusters, most of them are bisexual while some of them are
male flowers. Flowers are pinkish or purplish on the outside, whitish inside and
fragrant. Fruit shape is highly variable; some are oblong or obovoid while others are
oval. Pyramidal shaped fruit can also be seen. One form, called fingered citron or
Buddha’s hand is wholly or partially divided into five finger like segments. Size of
the fruit is generally large, rough, bumpy with furrowed or smooth surface. Outer
rind of the fruit is thin and green in colour in young fruits, turning to yellowish green
in ripened fruit. Inner rind of the fruit is thick, white and tender. Each fruit has 14 to
15 segments, which are pale yellow to green in colour. Fruit pulp is firm, not very juicy
and sour to slightly sweet in taste. Seeds are smooth, ovoid and numerous.
Uses: Fruit is used to prepare pickles and sometimes used as an alternative to lime. In
Europe and the United States of America peel of the citron is an important part,
which is processed in saltwater, candied in a strong sucrose or glucose solution and
used as an ingredient in fruitcake, plum pudding, buns, sweet rolls and candy.
Ecology, propagation and management: Citron is adapted to a variety of soil but

sensitive to intense heat and drought. Propagation is mainly by cuttings. Small
cuttings with leaves are taken from the branches two to four years old trees and are
quickly buried deep for better results. It can also be propagated by budding. There are
two types of main cultivars; one cultivar possesses pinkish new growth, purple
flower buds and purple tinged petals with sour pulp and dark inner seed coat and
the other cultivar is with white flower, non-acid pulp and colourless seed coat.
Clerodendrum inerme - Dhun’gethi
Clerodendrum inerme (L. ) Gaertner VERBENACEAE

Synonym: Clerodendron neriifolium
Common names: Seaside clerodendron, garden quinine
Dhivehi names: Dhun’gethi
Status: Common in all islands of Maldives; grown as a hedge plant.
Description: An evergreen, much branched, erect or somewhat straggling shrub,

about 1 to 3 m tall with slender, dark green coloured terminal branches. Main stem is
woody and smooth. Leaves are simple and opposite decussate in arrangement (as in
the case of Calophyllum inophyllum) and vary in shape from ovate, oblong-ovate to
elliptic-ovate. Leaves are about 4 to 8 cm long, 2 to 5 cm wide, green and shiny with
smooth margin. Inflorescence is a cyme, three flowered and borne in the axils of the
leaves. Flowers are erect and fragrant; calyx is green, narrowly funnel-shaped with
five very short teeth. Petals are five and corolla is about 3 to 4 cm long and comprises
a slender, purple coloured spreading tube with white or purple-tinged lobes. Stamens
four, filaments long, reddish to purple in colour, protrude out and upwardly curved.
Fruit is obovoid in shape and about 1.5 cm in length and split into four parts upon
drying.
Uses: Fragrant white flowers that form in clusters and accented by purple-coloured
delicate protruding stamens and green foliage and bushy habit make seaside
clerodendron an attractive plant and are thus considered as a one of the candidate
species for hedge. It is a versatile plant and can be grown as topiary or as a bonsai. In
the Maldives, it is popularly grown as a hedge plant in almost all types of buildings.
Its long twigs are used as purlins in roofing structures and side shades of timber built
houses. It is reported that decoction of leaves are effective against intermittent and
remittent fevers and also used as a substitute for quinine in controlling malaria.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows in all kinds of soil but performance
is better in sand. It grows well in hot sun and tolerates salt spray. It can be propagated
by seeds and cuttings. Plants easily spread vegetatively and seeds may be dispersed
by birds. It has aggressive growth characteristics and has the potential to form dense
cover over other plants. It is also hard to remove as it roots at the nodes and produce
large amount of biomass. It can be grown as an understory species in multispecies
multi-tiered coastal bioshield.
Colubrina asiatica - Raarohi, raaruhi
Colubrina asiatica (L. ) Brongn. RHAMNACEAE

Common names: Indian sankewood, latherleaf
Dhivehi names: Raarohi, raaruhi
Status: Common in the forested areas and also found growing in wasted
land near residential areas.
Description: A climbing shining shrub that normally grows up to 4 m tall but in the
presence of a support it may grow up to 6 to 7 m. Branches are vine-like, climbing or
drooping that can reach 10 m in length. Leaves are simple, thin, shining and arranged
alternately along the branches and oval or broadly ovate in shape and 4 to 9 cm long
and 3 to 5 cm wide. Leaves are dark green in colour with two to three conspicuous
lateral veins that spring from the base of the leaf. It has toothed margin and pointed
tip and rounded base. Inflorescence is a cyme, appears in the axils of the leaves.
Flowers are small, about 0.4 cm in diameter and greenish-yellow in colour. There are
five greenish sepals, which are ovately-triangular in shaped, giving a star-like
appearance to the flower. Petals are five in number, rounded and hood shaped and
yellow in colour. Fruits are small capsules, about 1 cm in diameter. Young fruits are
green and fleshy, turning to dark brown with age. Each fruit contains three, small,
greyish seeds.
Uses: As its name latherleaf suggests, leaves of C. asiatica have the ability to produce
foam in water and thus, have long been used as a substitute for soap in the rural
areas in some countries. Leaves and fruits are used as fish poison. In the Maldives,
leaves are used to alleviate inflammations and boils. In order to alleviate painful
swellings, leaves are crushed and juice is rubbed on the affected body. Young stems
are cut into pieces and boiled in water, which is drunk to alleviate stomach disorders.
Medicinal oil is prepared from seeds along with other ingredients, which is used to
treat rheumatism and numbness in adults and also in treating weak legs in children.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is as a constituent of beach strand

vegetation and found growing in slightly elevated areas. It establishes well in loose
soil. Propagation is mainly by seeds. Its seeds are dispersed by currents and remain
viable even after floating in seawater for many months. Seeds are also dispersed by
birds. Germination is fast and growth rate is rapid in full sun. Latherleaf shows
remarkable vegetative regeneration. Its stem grows upwards to the top of the canopy
of supporting vegetation, fall back to the ground where they root (adventitious roots)
and then grow upwards. Vigorous resprouting from cut or injured stems is also
common. It may cause problem by overgrowing other shrubby vegetation near the
coast.
Cordia subcordata - Kaani, kauni
Cordia subcordata Lam. BORAGINACEAE

Synonyms: Cordia moluccana, Cordia orientalis
Common names: Sea trumpet, beach cordia
Dhivehi names: Kaani, kauni
Status: Common; found in all the islands of the Maldives.
Description: An attractive medium sized, evergreen tree that is capable of growing

up to 15 m. Canopy is broad and dense and may spread 8 to 10 m across, often as
wide as the height of the tree. Bark is brown or grey, shallowly fissured and flaky.
Leaves are light green in colour, somewhat shiny, broad, egg shaped or elliptical with
pointed apex and arranged alternately along the branches. Flowers are showy, large
and funnel shaped and 2 to 4 cm long, with five to seven slightly wrinkled lobes.
Flowers, which are short-lived, are scentless. They are present in clusters at the
terminal ends of the branches or in leaf axils. Fruit is almost round or egg shaped, 2
to 3 cm long, green when young, brown, hard and woody when mature. Each fruit
contains up to four or fewer delicate, white, narrow, small seeds.
Uses: Wood is soft but durable. Heartwood is dark chocolate coloured, often with
dark streaks. It is finely grained, easy to work with, shrinks little and takes a fine
polish. In the Maldives, timber is widely used for boat building. It is a good craft
wood and is used in handicrafts. It is also used for house construction and house
poles, which may last for more than 100 years. Leaves are used to colour fish nets
and lines to make them less visible to fish. It is also grown as a shade and an
ornamental tree. In a multispecies coastal bioshield, it can be planted behind a row of
sea lettuce tree (Scaevola taccada), nit pitcha (Guettarda speciosa) and beach heliotrope
(Tournefortia argentea) to protect it from direct aerosol salt spray.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is adapted to a variety of soils including

sandy and clay soils to rocky limestone. It is propagated by seeds and cuttings. Seeds
are very small and very difficult to extract and hence, whole capsule is generally
sown. Fruits may be soaked in water overnight or up to two days after clipping off
the end of the hard, woody capsule to accelerate germination. Germination takes
place within three to six weeks and seedlings may attain 40 to 50 cm height in about
six to eight months, which can used for outplanting. Seedlings may be grown in
partial shade to get better results. Stem cutting is also commonly used in propagation.
Heavy branches often develop low on the stem and branches are slanted and look
crooked in very old trees.
Delonix regia - Ginimaa
Delonix regia (Baj . ex Hook) Rafin CAESALPINIACEAE

Synonym: Poinciana regia
Common names: Flame of the forest, gul mohur
Dhivehi name: Ginimaa
Status: Occasional; grown as an ornamental tree.
Description: A small- to medium-sized sized, semi-deciduous tree, about 8 to 15 m

tall. Crown is broad, umbrella shaped and spreading with long and nearly horizontal
branches. Trunk is large but short, buttressed and angled towards the base. Bark is
smooth, greyish-brown and with vertical lines of brown dots. Leaves are feathery,
compound, long, 20 to 60 cm in length and arranged alternately along the branches.
Each leaf has 10 to 25 pairs of pinnae and each pinna has 12 to 40 pairs of small
oblong-shaped leaflets, which are stalkless, rounded at the base and apex. Flowers
are very showy, large, 5 to 13 cm in diameter and borne in lateral dense clusters at the
end of the twigs. Flowers have five petals, orange-red in colour and broadly spoon
shaped. During bloom, flowers almost cover the entire tree top. Fruit is a flat pod,
dark brown, hard and woody, 30 to 65 cm in length and 5 to 7.5 cm wide. It remains
attached to the tree most of the year even when the trees are leafless. About 35 to 45
seeds present in each pod, which are hard, shiny, and grey in colour and oblong in
shape. They look like date seeds.
Uses: Widely planted as ornamental and shade tree along streets, roadsides and in
avenues. It should be planted 3 to 4 m away from pavement or sidewalks since large
surface roots may grow beneath them and destroy them. Large pods and wood are
used for fuel. Wood is soft and heavy but weak and brittle and may be broken by
strong winds and storms.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on many types of soils but prefers
well-drained sandy soil. Its tolerance to draught is high but limited to aerosol salt
spray. It requires full sun for better growth. Propagation is mainly by seeds but hard
and woody seeds take very long period to germinate. Seeds may lie in the soil for
about two to three years without germination. Hence, pretreatment of seed is required
before sowing. A portion of the seed coat can be clipped or seeds may be boiled in hot
water and then allowed to soak for 24 hours and such pretreated seeds germinate
within five to ten days. Growth in the initial stage is fast and nursery-raised seedlings
should be outplanted within three to five months, beyond which seedlings may be
too tall to handle properly. Trees can also be propagated by branch cuttings. To
develop a strong, durable tree, major branches may be pruned.
Desmodium umbellatum - Haalhala, haulhala
Desmodium umbellatum (L. ) DC. FABACEAE

Synonym: Dendrolobium umbellatum
Common names: Horse bush, sea vetch tree
Dhivehi names: Haalhala, haulhala
Status: Occasional in the forested areas along the shores of the southern
islands; rare in the northern islands.
Description: A small, evergreen tree or shrub that grows to 3 m in height. Branches

are stick like and young branches are densely covered with filamentous hairs. Old
branches are hairless. Leaves are trifoliate (with three leaflets), feathery, alternate in
arrangement and ovate-oblong or broad-oblong in shape. The middle leaflet, which
is 6 to 8 cm long and 3 to 5 cm wide, is always larger than the lateral leaflets; upper
surface of the leaflet is dark green and without hairs and lower surface is pale and
somewhat hairy. Leaves are pointedly blunt at the tip. Inflorescence is an umbel,
borne on short peduncle in the axils of the leaf. Flowers are small and covered with
dense silky hairs. Corolla is about 1 to 1.5 cm long, bright white in colour and entire
flower looks like a white butterfly. Fruit is a pod, 3 to 4 cm long, about 0.5 cm wide
and curved, consists of three to five segments and constricted. A small beak is
present at the base of the pod. Seeds are small, hard, oval or elliptical in shape.
Uses: It is a nitrogen fixing plant and excellent in controlling soil erosion. In the
Maldives, straight sticks are used as beams along the length of the roof and also as
sides of the traditional timber built houses. Straight branches are also used as handle
for scoops used for drawing water from wells. Charcoal produced from the wood is
widely used by blacksmiths. Leaves are used as post-partum medicine for women
after childbirth for fast recovery. It is also grown as an ornamental plant.
Ecology, propagation and management: It tolerates a wide range soils, including

limestone. It is able to grow in wet condition but it prefers well-drained soil for better
performance. Propagation is by seed. Hard seeds need pretreatment such as pouring
of hot water over the seeds 24 hours before sowing. Treated seeds are sown
approximately 0.5 cm deep in water-permeable soil. It can tolerate moderate shading
but growth is faster in full sun. Pods that break into one seed units are sticky and
thus spread by animals and human. It is reported that seeds are dispersed by ocean
currents also. It can be found growing well along the shores, where it forms dense
stands. It also grows as an under story in low-elevation forests.
Dodonaea viscosa - Kudhi-ruuvaali
Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. SAPINDACEAE

Synonym: Dodonaea angustifolia .
Common names: Giant bush hop, sand olive
Dhivehi name: Kudhi-ruuvaali
Status: Common in some of the islands in the southern group; rare in the
northern islands.
Description: A fast-growing small tree or shrub that grows to 1 to 3 m in height but

is capable of reaching 8 m. Bark is dark grey coloured, fissured and peeling. Branchlets
are rusty red in colour, sometimes narrowly winged or ridged. Branches exudate
resin. Leaves are simple, papery with very short petiole or subsessile. Leaf shape
varies from lanceolate to linear spooniform and secretes gummy exudate on both the
surfaces and thus always appearing shiny. Leaf margin is entire or inconspicuously
wavy and the leaf tip is pointed or round. Inflorescence is terminal or axillary and
densely flowered. Flowers are very small, borne on long and slender flower stalks.
Sepals are four in number, greenish-yellow in colour; petals are absent. Fruit is a
capsule and two to three winged. In mature fruits, wings are coral red in colour. Seeds
are small, black and lens like in shape. Each chamber of the fruit contains one to two
seeds.
Uses: D. viscosa is very effective in sand dune fixation and controlling coastal erosion
since its roots are excellent soil binders. It is also used to reclaim marshes. It is grown
as an ornamental plant for its shiny foliage and pink-red winged fruit. Poles are
useful in fencing. Timber is hard and durable. In the Maldives, tree nails are prepared
from the timber, which are used for boat building. Roots are used in the preparation
of medicinal oil, which is used to treat rheumatism. Leaves are also used in the
treatment of rheumatism and bone fracture.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is a hardy shrub that can grow well on
poor soils and rocky sites. Seedlings, wildlings and direct sowing are the methods
followed to propagate giant bush hop. It is a fast growing shrub that requires no
management once it is established. It regenerates rapidly after burning. Seeds are
viable for about one year, if they are properly stored and germination rates varying
from 30 to 70%. Pretreatment of seeds is not required before sowing. Seeds are also
dispersed by wind.
Erythrina orientalis - Berebedhi
Erythrina orientalis (L. ) DC. FABACEAE

Synonym: Erythrina variegata var. orientalis
Common name: Coral tree
Dhivehi name: Berebedhi
Status: Found growing mostly in Male as a shade tree.
Description: A fast-growing deciduous tree that grows to 15 m in height. Canopy is

dense, spreading and symmetrical with a smooth outline. Trunk is short with stout
upright branches and branchlets, which are armed with short, few to many, sharp
thorns. Thorns are black in colour. Bark is greyish green in young trees, brown in very
old individuals, thin and easily damaged from mechanical impact. Leaves are trifoliate
and arranged alternately along the branches. Leaflets are broadly ovate in shape and
middle leaflet is always larger than lateral ones. Leaf stalk is 20 to 30 cm long. E.
orientalis can be easily identified by the conspicuous yellow variegation on green
leaves. Inflorescence is a terminal raceme, 15 to 20 cm long, with numerous large,
bright red flowers. Occasionally flowers are white in colour. Fruit is a pod, 10 to 25 cm
long and 1.5 to 2 cm wide, constricted between the seeds. Seeds are kidney shaped,
dark purple to red in colour and 1 to 1.5 cm in length.
Uses: Large size, large scarlet flowers which appear in bloom, followed by beautiful
foliage make E. orientalis a candidate species for ornamental plantation. It is also
grown as a shade tree because of its wide-spreading canopy, which casts dense
shade. It is a nitrogen fixer. Wood can be used for fishing floats, insulation board and
other lightweight materials. In Male, it is planted in large numbers along the pavement
as well as in other public places as a shade tree.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows well in well-drained soil and requires
full sun for better performance. It is highly drought tolerant and moderately salt
tolerant. Propagation is by seed and stem cutting. Seeds are viable for many years
and requires pretreatment to improve germination. Seeds may be mechanically
scarified or boiled for one minute and left to cool overnight. Further soaking in
concentrated sulphuric acid for about 15 minutes enhances germination. Large-
sized stem cuttings, 2 to 3 m in height and 5 to 10 cm in diameter, are planted for
quick establishment. Plenty of room needs to be given for this tree to develop fully
since the canopy is large. When planted for shade, lower branches should be removed
immediately after establishment. Since the trunk often flares or buttresses at the base
and surface roots can lift sidewalks, this tree should be planted at least 3 to 4 m away
from the sidewalk.
Erythrina variegata - Faiy kurehi, berebedhi
Erythrina variegata L. FABACEAE

Synonym: Erythrina indica
Common name: Indian coral tree
Dhivehi names: Faiy kurehi, berebedhi
Status: Occasional; found in forested areas and near to residential areas.
Description: A deciduous tree that is capable of growing to more than 25 m tall.

Canopy is dense and spreading. However, a commonly grown cultivar has a narrow,
columnar crown. Branches are thick and sappy, armed with large, scattered thorns.
Bark is grey-green and furrowed. Young shoots and stems are covered with fine hairs
at first, later become glabrous. Leaves are trifoliate and alternate in arrangement.
Leaf stalk is 2 to 28 cm long and rachis is 10 to 12 cm in length. Leaflets are green in
colour, ovate to broadly rhomboid in shape, usually wider than long; terminal leaflet
is the largest. Inflorescence is a dense raceme, axillary in position; 10 to 40 cm long
with 7 to 25 cm long peduncle and covered with rust coloured hairs. Flowers are
large, orange-red in colour, scattered in groups of three along the rachis. Flowers in
the drooping inflorescences are upturned. Fruit is a pod, sausage shaped or cylindrical,
10 to 45 cm long and 2 to 3 cm wide and slightly constricted between the seeds. Seeds
are ellipsoid or kidney shaped, 0.6 to 2 cm long, glossy, smooth, black or purplish or
purplish red-brown in colour.
Uses: It is popularly known as a shade, hedge and live-fence tree. It is also grown as
an ornamental tree. It is a nitrogen fixer and useful for enriching the soil. Foliage,
which is rich in protein, makes an excellent fodder for most livestock. Wood is soft,
light and not durable and not suitable as timber. However, it can be used as a fish
float and for packing boxes. In the Maldives, leaves are used as an ingredient in the
preparation of a traditional medicine for treating pain in the knee joints. It is considered
as one the important agroforestry trees of the tropics.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows well in sandy loams and tolerate
acidic to alkaline condition. It also tolerates moderate soil salinity and aerosol salt
spray. It is drought tolerant and grows well in nutrient-poor soil. It is commonly
propagated by branch cuttings. Branches of 2 to 3 m height and 5 to 10 cm diameter
are commonly used for planting. Larger cuttings establish quickly and survive better
than smaller cuttings. It can also be propagated by seeds. Seeds can easily be collected
from dried pods. Seeds can be scarified and soaked overnight. Seeds can also be
immersed in hot water for ten minutes and then in tepid water overnight. Seedlings
of about three to four months old are suitable for outplanting.
Euphorbia tirucalli - Eggamu muraka, hudu kiruthona
Euphorbia tirucalli L. EUPHORBIACEAE

Common names: Milk bush, aveloz, pencil cactus
Dhivehi names: Eggamu muraka, hudu kiruthona
Status: Occasional; grown as ornamental and as medicinal plant.
Description: A succulent, cactus-like shrub or small tree, about 2 to 5 m tall. It grows

along the ground with ascending stems or is sub-erect in habit. Main trunk and older
branches are woody with brown-coloured bark. Young stems are green, succulent,
and cylindrical with many fine longitudinal ribs. Leaves are green, fleshy, very minute,
0.7 to 1.5 cm in length and 0.1 to 0.4 cm in width, linear spatula like in shape and
attached to the tips of the young branches without leaf stalk. Both old and young
branches look leafless since leaves shed so early that they are normally not noticed.
Functions of the leaves are taken over by the green young stems. Flowers are small
and many and enclosed within a four to five lobed involucre (a whorl or rosette of
bracts), which are crowded at the ends of branches or in axils. Number of male
flowers is high and variable but always surrounds the female flower, which is solitary.
Fruit is very small, 0.8 cm in diameter and pale brown in colour and seeds are about
0.5 cm long and smooth. All parts of the plant exudate latex.
Uses: Milk bush is reported to be widely used in folk medicine as a cure for a variety
of diseases, ranging from cough to cancer. Stems are used along with other ingredients
to serve as poultices for healing bone fracture. It is also considered as an important
future source of energy, capable of producing 10 to 50 barrel of oil per acre. Fibrous
residue of the wood after the extraction of latex can be used for paper pulp. It is also
a well-known insect repellent and fish poison.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on a variety of light-textured,

neutral to acidic soils but requires good drainage and high water table for better
performance. It is highly tolerant to drought and aerosol salt. It is also moderately
tolerant to soil salinity. It is considered as a suitable species for cultivation in marginal
and drought prone areas. It can be easily propagated by stem cuttings. It is reported
that 5 cm cuttings, taken from fresh branches of a healthy bush might grow to 50 cm
in height within a growing season. Planting of stem cuttings in shallow trenches of
about 20 cm where water can collect, is normally practiced in large-scale cultivation
of milk bush. In order to grow as hedge, it should be trimmed and the top should be
pruned.
Ficus benghalensis - Nika, kiri gas
Ficus benghalensis L. MORACEAE

Synonym: Ficus indica
Common names: Banyan tree, Indian banyan tree
Dhivehi names: Nika, kiri gas
Status: Abundant; found in forested areas and nearby residential places

in all islands.
Description: A huge, wide-spreading tree that grows up to 25 m in height. It is

characterized by the presence of copious aerial roots, which hang from the branches.
As the tree becomes older these aerial roots reach the ground, take root and act like
stems. Leaves are simple, rough, and alternate in arrangement, ovate in shape with
blunt tip and heart-shaped base. Leaf size ranges from 10 to 30 cm in length and 7
to 20 cm in width. Leaf has five to seven pairs of lateral veins; base pair that reaches
one-third of the leaf plate length is very conspicuous. Leaf stalk varies in length from
1.5 to 7 cm. Stipules are thick. The flower stand is round and hollow and all the
flowers attached onto the inside walls, and thus can not be seen from outside, which
is a characteristic feature of all Ficus species. Male flowers posses a minute stalk
whereas female flowers are sessile. A small opening at the top of the flower stand
allows the pollinating insect to enter. Fruit, a fig, is sessile, round and depressed,
about 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, green in colour when young and orange to red when
ripened.
Uses: In the Maldives, straight aerial roots (locally called as “alohoa’”) are used for
sailing masts (farumanu) in boats. Wood is also used for making inner parts of boats.
It is widely grown for shade near the beach and residential areas. Below the banyan
tree, a resting platform locally called “holuashi”, is constructed with large stems of
Pandanus odoratissimus (maa kashikeyo), where adult and elderly people spend their time
during hot sun and in the evening. Fruits are eaten with sugar and sometimes with
“rihaakuru” (tuna fish paste).
Ecology, propagation and management: Propagation is by seed and stem cuttings.

Seeds are dispersed by birds, and seeds germinate and grow on other trees (host),
eventually overgrowing and strangling and shading the host trees to death. Banyan
tree needs a specific pollinator wasp namely, Eupristina masoni without which it can
not reproduce and spread by seeds. In Maldives, stem and branch cuttings are the
common method followed for propagation. Cuttings of any size are used and
establishment is improved by providing shade and watering. Wildlings are also used
for propagation.
Ficus benjamina - Faiy kudhi nika
Ficus benj amina L. MORACEAE

Synonym: Ficus nitida
Common name: Weeping fig
Dhivehi name: Faiy kudhi nika
Status: Occasional; grown as ornamental and as shade tree.
Description: A small, evergreen tree that grows to 6 to 8 m in height but is capable of

reaching even 20m in height. Bark is grey and smooth. Branchlets are brown and
shining. Canopy is umbrella like with pendant branches that go down to the ground
(hence, the name weeping fig). As the tree matures, spread of the tree becomes
broader than the height of the tree. Leaves are simple, leathery, shiny on both surfaces
and alternate in arrangement and 4 to 11 cm long and 1.5 to 6 cm wide. Shape of the
leaf blade varies from oblong, elliptic, oval to lanceolate. Leaf tip is pointed, base is
rounded, and the leaf margin is entire and undulated. Fruit is a fig, solitary or paired,
sessile or attached to the branch by a small stalk. The fig shape is nearly round or
somewhat oval, 0.8 to1.2 cm long and 0.7 to 1 cm wide, orange, yellow or dark red in
colour.
Uses: Dense, round and symmetrical canopy and gracefully drooping branches made
this tree quite popular as an ornamental tree. It is also cultivated as a bonsai. In the
Maldives, it is grown along the pavements, sidewalks and also in home gardens and
other buildings as shade and ornamental tree.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on clay, loam, sandy, acidic and
alkaline soil. It grows occasionally in wet soils but best performance is achieved only
in well-drained soils. It grows in full sun and partial shade. Propagation is by seeds
and stem cuttings. The reproductive system of the genus Ficus is unique. Each species
of Ficus, including all the species described in this book, has an associated species of
wasp. A Ficus species can be pollinated only by its associated wasp and in turn, the
associated wasp can only lay eggs within its associated Ficus fruit. Hence, for successful
natural regeneration a Ficus species associated wasps must be present. However,
Ficus benjamina is propagated by both stem and branch cuttings. Plants should be
carefully watered when young and later during droughts for better results. Some of
the disadvantages of this tree are that its rapidly growing roots can severely damage
concrete surfaces of the sidewalks and the size of the tree is much too large for
residential planting.
Ficus elastica - Rabaru gas
Ficus elastica Rox. Hornem MORACEAE

Synonym: Ficus rubra
Common names: Indian rubber tree, Indian rubber fig
Dhivehi name: Rabaru gas
Status: Ornamental tree; observed only in a few northern group of islands.
Description: A fast growing, evergreen tree, which normally grows 6 to 10 m tall but
is reported as growing to more than 30 m in height in its native habitat in the jungles
of tropical America. It also grows as an epiphyte, sending down many adventitious
roots from the trunk and larger branches. In trees, which are not growing as epiphytes,
crown shape is oval and spreading but irregular in outline. Leaves are single, leathery,
shiny and smooth and alternately arranged along the branches. Leaves are elliptic-
oblong in shape and 15 to 25 cm long with tapering point. Stipules are deciduous,
thin and usually red in colour, often as long as the leaves, which is a characteristic
feature of the Indian rubber fig. Fruit is a fig, oblong-obovid in shape, about 1 cm
long, axillary in position, stalkless, smooth and greenish yellow in colour.
Uses: Grown mainly as an ornamental tree. Currently three different cultivars are
available, which are varying in leaf colour. One cultivar has broad, reddish-green
leaves with ivory coloured veins running down the centre of the leaf, another variety
has yellow-variegated leaves and the third cultivar has light green leaves with white
or yellow margins.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is adapted to all kinds of soil but prefers
well-drained soil for better growth. It is highly drought tolerant and moderately
tolerant to aerosol salt spray. It grows well in partly shaded environment. Propagation
is mainly by air-layering and stem cuttings. It easily breaks apart in strong winds. To
develop strong structure as well as to increase longevity, multiple branches need to be
removed during the early phase of the growth and lateral branches should be pruned.
Ficus amplissima - Laami, Laamiaa
Ficus amplissima Smith MORACEAE

Synonyms: Ficus tsiela, Ficus indica
Common names: Bat tree, tsiela
Dhivehi names: Laami, laamiaa
Status: Common in the northern islands.
Description: A fast growing, evergreen tree, which grows 6 to 12 m in height. Crown

is round in shape with widely spreading branches. Aerial roots are rarely developed
from the branches. Bark is smooth and greenish-grey in colour. Leaves are simple,
leathery, and smooth and spiral in arrangement, ovate-elliptic to lanceolate-elliptic
in shape with acute tip and rounded base. Leaf size ranges from 5 to 12 cm in length
and 2 to 6 cm in width. Leaf stalk is long, varies from 2.5 to 8 cm in length. Leaves
become grey-green to brownish in colour when dry and dried leaves have the upper
surface covered with minute raised dots. Fruit, a fig, is subglobose to obovoid in
shape, sessile and axillary in position and located in the twigs below the leaves. Fig
is about 1 to 1.2 cm in diameter, green when young and pink to purple when ripened.
Uses: In Maldives, it is widely grown as ornamental and shade tree. Bark and leaves
of Ficus amplissima is used in traditional medicine.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows well in sandy loams and tolerate
acidic to alkaline condition. It also tolerates moderate soil salinity and aerosol salt
spray. It is drought tolerant and grows well in nutrient-poor soil. It is commonly
propagated by stem and branch cuttings. Stem cuttings of 45 to 60 cm without any
leaves are planted in beds in slanting position. Leaves appear within a month and
after a period of about two months these cuttings are transferred to polythene
containers. After a month in the container they are used for outplanting. In Maldives,
larger branches are also used for outplanting.
Gliricidia sepium
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq. ) Kunth ex Walp. FABACEAE

Synonym: Gliricidia maculata
Common names: Gliricidia, tree of iron
Status: Occasional; found growing as shade and ornamental tree.
Description: A semi deciduous, medium sized tree of variable height, ranging from 3
to 15 m. Trees may have single or multiple stems with diffuse and irregular crown.
Bark colour is grey to brown, smooth or slightly fissured. Leaves are pinnately
compound, 15 to 30 cm long and arranged alternately along the branches. Each leaf
has 7 to 17 leaf pairs and a terminal leaflet. Leaflets are elliptical or lanceolate in
shape, 3 to 6 cm long with pointed tip and wedge-shaped base. Inflorescence is a
raceme or panicle, numer2ous, erect or upward curving, 10 to 12 cm long and borne
at the base of leaves. Flowers are large, about 2 cm long, have light green calyx tinged
with red and a corolla of five whitish-pink or light purple coloured petals. Fruit is a
flattened pod, 10 to 15 cm long, about 2 cm wide, which contains three to eight seeds.
Pods are yellow-green initially, turning to yellow and finally brown or blackish when
fully matured. Seeds are round and flat, shiny and light brown in colour. Size and
shape of the tree is greatly modified by repeated lopping in agriculture environments.
Uses: It is a nitrogen-fixing tree grown for its environmental services and products. It
is used to provide shade to shade-loving crops, living fence posts for pastures and as
a fallow tree to improve degraded land. It also provides green manure, fodder and
firewood. Wood is very hard, heavy, durable and termite resistant and used for posts,
house construction, furniture and tool handles. Roots and seeds are used as rat
poison. It is an ideal species for agroforestry.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is adapted to grow in wide rage of soils,

from light to heavy soils and thrives well in deep, medium-textured, well-drained
soil. It also grows in calcareous soils that are rich in available calcium and tolerates
aerosol salt spray and thus suitable for growing in a large scale in atoll environment.
Propagation is by seeds and cuttings. Pretreatment of seeds is not necessary when
fresh seeds are used for sowing. However, seeds stored for a long time need soaking
overnight in hot water and sowing should proceed immediately after this treatment.
Nursery-raised seedlings are ready for planting within three months. Initial growth
rate is rapid, may reach 3 m height in the first year. Large cuttings, 2 to 2.5m long and
6 to 15 cm in diameter are used for quick establishment. Rooting will be fast, if small
incisions are made on the lower part of the cuttings.
Guettarda speciosa - Uni
Guettarda speciosa L. RUBIACEAE

Common name: Nit pitcha
Dhivehi name: Uni
Status: Abundant in forested areas; present in all islands.
Description: An evergreen, small- to medium- sized size tree that grows normally
about 5 to 10 m in height but is capable of reaching more than 20 m. Crown is round
and spreading. Leaves are large, 15 to 25 cm long, 7.5 to 20 cm wide, dark green in
colour and ovate in shape. Tip of the leaves is blunt or sometimes acute and the base
is rounded or heart-shaped; midrib of the leaf and seven to ten pairs of lateral nerves
are prominent. Flowers are fragrant, tubular and white in colour. Corolla tube is light
yellow in colour and 2.5 to 5 cm long and corolla is about 3 cm across. Flowers are
sensitive to sun and hence, open in the evening and fall before dawn. During cloudy
days or in shaded places, opened flowers can be occasionally seen during daytime.
Fruits are round and slightly flattened, faintly ribbed, 2.5 to 3 cm in diameter and
without stalk; green in colour when unripe, turns to brown at maturity. Each fruit
has four to six cells and each cell has one very small white seed. Matured fruits are
cork like and dispersed by ocean currents.
Uses: Wood is white in colour, dense, heavy, hard and durable. Wood is mainly used
as poles for house construction and boat building. According to some Maldivian
elders, wood is heated before using to increase its strength. It is said that nails once
fixed in heated wood cannot be easily removed. Wood is also buried in the sand near
the sea to keep its freshness for future use. Branches are excellent firewood. It is also
grown as ornamental tree and small poles are used for growing passion fruits. In the
Maldives, the latex is used to treat cut wounds and the flowers are mixed with an
ayurvedic medicine namely, huvandhu byes, to treat polio and paralysis. It can be a
candidate species for developing multispecies coastal bioshield and can be planted
along with lettuce tree (Scaevola taccada) and beach heliotrope (Tournefortia argentea)
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows in light to heavy soils but prefers
well-drained medium-textured soil for better growth. It also grows well in poor soil.
Its tolerance to drought, aerosol salt spray and soil salinity is high. Propagation is
mainly by seeds. In the Maldives, it is not cultivated. But according to the elders,
wildlings can be used to raise this plant in desired locations. Cuttings are also used
for propagation. Both seedlings and cuttings require proper shading and watering in
the initial stage to establish and grow.
Hernandia nymphaeifolia - Kandhu, mas kandhu
Hernandia nymphaeifolia (C. presl) Kubitzki )

HERNANDIACEAE
Synonyms: Hernandia ovigera, Hernandia peltata, Hernandia sonora
Common names: Hernandia, Jack in the box
Dhivehi names: Kandhu, mas kandhu
Status: Abundant in the forested areas; present in all islands.
Description: A medium to large sized tree, 10 to 12 m tall but is capable of reaching

30m in height in favourable condition. Crown is round and irregular. Trunk is
cylindrical and straight, sometimes with slightly developed buttresses. Bark is white,
grey or pale brown in colour, scaly or flaky and slightly fissured. Leaves are simple,
peltate, leathery, smooth, shiny and alternate in arrangement. Leaves are also large
sized, 15 to 18 cm long and 8 to 10 cm wide with 15 to 25 cm long leaf stalks are oval
shaped with pointed tip and rounded base and are dark green on the upper surface
and dull green underneath. Inflorescence is terminal or axillary and 10 to 20 cm long.
Flowers are on a branched axis, white, slightly hairy and about 1 cm across. Fruit is
ellipsoid or somewhat rounded in shape and 1.5 to 3 cm long, black in colour and
enclosed in an inflated green sphere. Fruit is single seeded. Seeds are dispersed by
ocean currents.
Uses: Wood is not very hard and easily decays in seawater. In the Maldives, wood is
sometimes used for making small implements that are used in boat operation. Wood
is also used for making toys and souvenirs such as boats and ships and for small
furniture. It is also used to make coffins. In the past, wood was used for large tables
and big toolboxes used by carpenters. Trunks or large stems are used for rolling
dhonis into the sea from the boatyard. Poles are used as a support for beetle veins.
Fruits are used to prepare “madhang”, a paste, which is used for caulking boats.
Leaves, roots, bark and seeds are used in the preparation of a traditional medicine
called ‘ruhglu beys’, which is used to treat bone fractures. Flowers are used in alleviating
headache.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows in sandy and well-drained soil but
prefers slightly wet soil and moist environment for better growth. It is saline tolerant
but tolerance to aerosol salt spray is moderate. Propagation is by seeds and stem
cuttings. In the Maldives, it is not normally grown but in some islands hardened
wood cuttings, 35 to 45 cm in height and 5 to 10 cm in diameter are used for
propagation. It establishes and grows fast if proper shade is provided.
Hibiscus tiliaceus - Dhiggaa
Hibiscus tiliaceus L. MALVACEAE

Common names: Sea hibiscus, beach hibiscus
Dhivehi name: Dhiggaa
Status: Abundant; present in forested areas and near to residential places

in almost all the islands.
Description: A small- to medium- sized sized evergreen tree 3 to 10 m in height but

is capable of growing to 20 m tall. Canopy is usually much wider than the height of
the tree. Trunk is often short, with numerous crooked, sprawling branches. In the
shrub like forms, prostrate branches intertwine and form an impenetrable thicket.
Bark is grey to light brown, fissured and thick in old trees. Leaves are simple, 8 to 15
cm long, green, smooth and glossy on the upper surface greyish and hairy on the
lower surface. Tip of the leaf is pointed, base is heart-shaped and the margins are
minutely serrated. Flowers are cup shaped, showy with corolla consisting of five
radiating, obovate, lemon-yellow coloured petals with dark maroon base. Flowers are
fragile and short-lived, mostly falling the same day that they open. Flower fades to
pink colour prior to falling. Fruit is a capsule, hairy, ovoid in shape, light brown in
colour and about 2 cm long. It splits into five segments upon drying. Seeds are
kidney shaped, brown or brown-black in colour and hairy.
Uses: Timber is soft, less durable but hard. In the Maldives, it is widely used for boat
building. Trunk and stems are stripped off bark and soaked in seawater to discourage
insect attack and rot. Timber is also used for tool handles and fish floats. It is also
used for firewood. Smooth, fibrous, cream-coloured inner bark is used for making
ropes, which are stronger when wet. This rope is used for fishing nets, mats, bowstrings,
net beg etc. Leaves are good for composting. Tree is very useful to stabilize coastal
sands and sand dunes. It is an ideal species for agroforestry in atoll environment and
a candidate species for multispecies coastal bioshield.
Ecology, propagation and management: It tolerates wide variety of soils, ranging

from coralline, skeletal soils to waterlogged swampy soils of medium to heavy texture.
It also tolerates aerosol salt spray, brackish water and shallow flooding very well.
Well-established tree can also withstand drought. Propagation is by seed and stem
cuttings. For seed propagation, capsules should be collected before becoming brown
and then air dried to allow the capsule to split, which when shaken will release seeds.
Seeds can be scarified by lightly nicking the seed coat. Seedlings, five to six month old
and about 25 cm in height are suitable for outplanting. Stem cuttings about 2 to 3 m
long from straight branches are commonly used for propagation.
Lawsonia inermis - Heenaa
Lawsonia inermis L. LYTHRACEAE

Common names: Henna tree, mignonette
Dhivehi name: Heenaa
Description: A much-branched shrub or small tree 2 to 6 m in height. Bark is greyish-

brown, unarmed when young but branches of older trees are spine tipped. Young
branches are green in colour and quadrangular which turn red with age. Leaves are
small, about 1.5 to 5 cm long, 0.5 to 2 cm wide, elliptic to broadly lanceolate in shape
and opposite in arrangement along the branches. Inflorescence is a large pyramid
shaped cyme. Flowers are small, about 1 cm across, numerous, fragrant, white in
colour with four crumbled petals. Calyx is with a 0.2 cm tube and 0.3 cm spread
lobes. Fruit is a small brown coloured round capsule. Fruit opens irregularly and
splits into four sections at maturity and is many seeded. Seeds are about 0.3 cm
across, angular with thick seed coat.
Uses: Flowers are very fragrant and in the Maldives, they are used to extract a
perfume, which is used as base for local scents. Henna leaf has an orange-red dye
and leaf paste or powder is widely used for decorating hands, nails and feet with
patterns. It is also used as a hair dye. Leaves, flower and roots are used in traditional
medicine to treat a variety of ailments. It is used for alleviating jaundice, venereal
diseases and smallpox. Root is considered as a potent medicine for gonorrhoea and
herpes infection. Leaves have cooling properties and a paste made of the leaves is
used to apply on the soles to reduce body temperature. It is considered as a one of the
“plants of the paradise” and once it was forbidden to damage, cut down a tree or use
wood as fuel.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is adapted to grow in all types of soil,

from clayey to poor, stony soils but prefers sandy soil for better performance. It grows
both in acidic as well as slightly alkaline soils. It requires high temperature for
germination, growth and development. Propagation is by seed and cuttings. Seeds
are steeped in water for three to seven days wherein the water is changed everyday
and then placed in small heaps, which are kept moist for a few days. Well-swollen
seeds are then selected for sowing. Seedlings should be kept in the nursery for about
four to five months, during which time it would grow to about 35 to 40 cm. It is then
cut back to 15 cm height and outplanted. It is easy to propagate from cuttings.
Heartwood cuttings about 15 to20 cm can be used for planting. It is a hardy plant
and can survive without watering but to increase growth rate watering is essential.
Leucaena leucocephala - Ipil-ipil
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam. ) de Wit.

MIMOSACEAE
Synonyms: Leucaena glauca, Leucaena latisiliqua
Common name: Leucaena
Dhivehi name: Ipil-ipil
Status: Occasional; observed only in a few islands.
Description: A bushy shrub to small or medium sized fast growing tree, the height of
the plant depends on cultivars and types. Some cultivars may reach 20 m height at
maturity. Bark is smooth, grey to brown in colour with tan spots. Leaves are compound,
bipinnate, 10 to 20 cm long with four to nine pairs of pinnae. Each pinna is 4 to 10
cm in length with 11 to 17 pairs of small, oblong-lanceolate shaped leaflets, which
fold up in the night. Pinnae are without terminal leaf and leaf arrangement is alternate.
Flowers are very small, white in colour, arranged in a round inflorescence, which is 2
to 2.5 cm in diameter. Inflorescence is single, axillary in position and with 5 cm long
peduncle. Fruit pod is thin and flat, up to 20 cm long and 2 cm wide and pointed at
both ends. Seeds are elliptical in shape, compressed and brown in colour.
Uses: It can be effectively utilized to improve soil condition since its nitrogen-fixing
capacity is very high. It fixes about 275 kg of nitrogen per year per hectare and thus
superior to Gliricidia, Casuarina and Erythrina. It is also a good source of fuel wood.
Wood is also used for light construction, flooring, pulp, poles and posts. Pods are
used as fodder and green manure. Tree is also widely used to control soil erosion
because of its deep root system. It is a good species for agroforestry.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is adapted to different soil conditions but

grows well in deep red soils. It also grows on calcareous and coral soil and tolerates
acidic to alkaline conditions. It is sensitive to flooding and requires good drainage. It
is moderately tolerant of salinity, aerosol spray and drought. Propagation is by
seeds. Seeds can be collected by thrashing mature pods. Seeds require pretreatment
to break dormancy. Seeds may be soaked in boiling water for two to three minutes
and left in water at room temperature for two to three days. Seeds can also be
immersed in sulphuric acid for 10 to 15 minutes and washed and dried before
planting. Seeds can also be scarified mechanically. It can also be established by stem
cuttings; cuttings about 4 m long and 10 cm in diameter can be rooted in a nursery
and outplanted after trimming the roots to a length of 20 cm.
Mangifera indica - An’bu, aavi an’bu, koi an’bu
Mangifera indica L. ANACARDIACEAE

Common name: Mango
Dhivehi names: An’bu, aavi an’bu, koi an’bu
Status: Common both in the northern and southern group of islands.
Description: A well-known evergreen tree 10 to 25 m tall with spreading, round

shaped, dense crown. Trunk is short and multi-branched. Bark is grey-brown in
colour and longitudinally fissured. Leaves are simple, 8 to 40 cm long but narrow,
lanceolate or oblong in shape and arranged alternately. Leaves are somewhat leathery,
with tapering base and pointed tip with undulating margin and 12 to 30 pairs of
nerves. Young leaves are reddish, becoming dark green and shiny with age.
Inflorescence is terminal, widely branched panicles, which is up to 60 cm long with
a numerous, small, yellow-green male and bisexual flowers. Flowers are with five
lobed calyx and five petals. Fruit is a fleshy drupe, variable in size and shape, usually
obovoid-oblong, unequal sided and up to 10 cm long and 30 cm wide. Young fruit is
green in colour, turning to red, orange, yellowish or purple-brown as fruit matures.
Flesh is yellow to orange coloured, juicy, may be fibrous, sweet to turpentine flavored.
The fruit is single seeded.
Uses: Both unripe and ripe fruits are eaten fresh. It is used for stewed fruit, juices,
jam and jellies. It is processed into pickles, chutney, curry and dried slices. Sherbet is
also made out of fruits. In the Maldives, a local variety called “aavi an’bu”, which
smells and tastes like mint, is widely eaten. Slices of green fruit with rihakuru (tuna
fish paste) is one of the delicious items of the culinary of the Maldives. Wood is
strong, heavy and durable and can be used for boat building, carpentry, house
building etc.; but in the Maldives it is not used for any of these purposes since mango
tree is not normally felled for timber.
Ecology, propagation and management: Mango grows in clay, loamy, sandy and
acidic or alkaline, poor but well-drained soils. It performs well in sand, gravel and
even limestone soil. Its tolerance to drought and aerosol salt spray is moderate. It is
sensitive to soil salinity. Mango is readily propagated by seed. Germination rate and
vigour of seedlings are highest when fresh seeds are used. No pretreatment of seed is
required. Propagation from seed is unable to perpetuate characters of the parent tree
and also plants take more time to bear fruit. Hence, many vegetative propagation
methods have been developed with varying degrees of success. Inarching and
approach-grafting are the common methods followed in vegetative propagation.
Propagation by stem cutting and air layering is less successful. Both cuttings and air-
layers do not develop good root system and are not practical for establishing large-
scale plantations.
Manilkara zapota - Sabhudheli
Manilkara zapota (L. ) van Royen. SAPOTACEAE

Synonyms: Achras zapota, Manilkara achras
Common names: Sapdilla, naseberry, chicle tree
Dhivehi name: Sabhudheli
Description: A slow-growing, evergreen, upright, long-lived forest tree (in Central

America) with a normal height ranging from 12 to 15 m but it is capable of growing
to 30m height. However, grafter cultivars, which are normally grown in the home
gardens, are much shorter. It has a distinctly pyramid-shaped crown when young,
which becomes round and dense with age and irregular in shape. Trunk is cylindrical
and long in forest-grown trees but become shortened in cultivars. Leaves are simple,
alternate, spirally arranged and clustered at the shoot tips. Leaves are elliptic or
oblong in shape, stiff, shiny and medium to dark green in colour. Flowers are single,
small, greenish-white with a hairy flower stalk and bell-like in shape with six green
sepals and six white corolla lobes. Fruit is an oval, round or ellipsoid berry with a
rough brown skin. Immature fruits are hard, gummy and very astringent. Ripe fruits
contain juicy, sweet, yellowish to light or dark brown or reddish brown coloured flesh
with a sweet and pleasant flavour resembling that of a pear. Fruits contain 3 to 12,
shiny, hard flattened, brown or black seeds with one white margin. Fruits can also be
seedless. All parts of the plants are rich in white latex.
Uses: Though it is a multiple use tree, it is mainly cultivated for its fruit, which is
eaten raw or made into juice, sherbets, jam and syrup. Wood is very hard, strong,
tough, dense, insect resistant and durable and deep red in colour. It is suitable for
heavy construction and excellent for furniture. Latex of the bark, commonly called as
chicle, was previously the base for chewing gum. It is a strong tree and can withstand
hurricane very well. It is also a very good ornamental and shade tree.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is well adapted to many types of soil but
flourishes on rich, well-drained sandy loam. It is highly drought tolerant, can withstand
aerosol salt spray and very saline soil (approaches the date palm in its tolerance of
soil salinity). Propagation is by seed and vegetative methods. The best seeds are large
ones from large fruits. Seeds germinate readily but growth is slow and takes 5 to 8
years to bear the fruit. Cultivars are normally propagated by air-layering, inarching,
marcoting and grafting. For air-layering two years old branches are used. Grafting is
successful on several rootstocks but grafts using Manilkara kauki and Manilkara hexandra
as rootstock grow vigorously and fruit heavily.
Mimusops elengi - Moonimaa
Mimusops elengi L. SAPOTACEAE

Common names: Tanjong tree, Pagoda gum tree
Dhivehi name: Moonimaa
Status: Common; grown in public places and home gardens. No individual

tree is found in the wild.
Description: A handsome evergreen tree about 8 to 15 m tall with a dense, round and
spreading crown. Trunk is straight. Bark is grey in colour and fissured deeply in old
trees. Leaves are single, shiny, leathery, oblong and lanceolate in shape and opposite
in arrangement. They are small in size, 4 to 12 cm long and 3 to 6 cm wide with
slightly curled margin and pointed tip. Flowers are solitary or in pairs, star-shaped,
1.5 cm across and axillary in position and very fragrant. Sepals are green, tough and
12 in number, which are arranged in two series of eight and four. Petals are creamy
white in colour, 24 in number and arranged in two series, the outer series with 16 and
inner series with 8 petals. Fruit is a berry, ovoid to egg-shaped, green when unripe,
orange-red when ripe and fleshy. Each fruit contains a single, hard and dark brown
seed.
Uses: In Maldives, it is widely grown as a shade and as an ornamental tree because

of its dense, dark green canopy and fragrant flowers, which fill the night air with
deep, rich very pleasant aroma. Flowers retain their odour for many days after they
fall and they are used to stuff pillows. A pleasant perfume is also obtained from the
flowers. Fruit with sweet, aromatic and yellow-coloured flesh is edible but rather
astringent. Unripe fruit is used by silk dyers to fix colours. It is also an excellent
timber tree. Its heartwood, which is deep red in colour, is very hard, strong, durable
and fine grained, easy to work with and polishes well. Various parts of the tree are
used in traditional medicine. Bark decoction is widely used to maintain oral hygiene.
Ripe fruit, pounded and mixed with water, is given to promote delivery in childbirth.
It can be grown as a wind breaker and can be a part of multispecies coastal bioshield.
Ecology, propagation and management: It tolerates a variety of soils but grows well
in coastal sandy soil. It requires good moisture for better performance. Trees growing
in dry soil may have pale yellow foliage. It is propagated by seed. Seeds are collected
from ripened fallen fruit. Outer skin and flesh of the fruit can be easily removed and
seeds can be used directly for plantation. No pretreatment is necessary. Since growth
rate is very slow, seedlings grown in the nursery for about two years are used for
outplanting. It can be grown as an avenue tree in rows with 4 m interval. It requires
regular watering in the early stage for establishment.
Morinda citrifolia - Ahi
Morinda citrifolia L. RUBIACEAE

Synonyms: Morinda bracteata, Morinda litoralis
Common names: Indian mulberry, cheesefruit, noni
Dhivehi name: Ahi
Status: Common; found mostly in the forested areas.
Description: An erect, evergreen, smooth shrub or small tree 3 to 10 m tall. Bark is

greyish or yellow-brown, shallowly fissured and somewhat shiny. Young branches
are light green in colour and four-angled. Leaves are simple, opposite in arrangement
along the branches, elliptic to elliptic-ovate in shape, 20 to 45 cm long and 7 to 25 cm
wide. Leaves are dark green in colour, shiny and deeply veined. Flowers are small,
white, numerous and about 70 to 90 flowers can be seen in a ovoid to round flower
head, which has 1 to 4 cm long peduncle. Inflorescence is axillary and normally
opposite to leaves in position. Flowers are bisexual and fragrant; corolla is five lobed
on a short greenish yellow coloured tube. Fruit is yellowish-white in colour, fleshy,
roughly cone like in shape, 3 to 10 cm long and 2 to 3 cm wide. It is soft, somewhat
gelatinous when ripe, and strong smelling. Each fruit has many seeds and each seed
is enclosed in a distinct air chamber.
Uses: Indian mulberry was previously cultivated for a reddish-purple and brown dye
from the bark and roots to colour cloths. Now it is widely cultivated for medicinal
purpose. Fruit juice is used in alternative medicine for a host of illness such as
diabetes, high blood pressure, arthritis, and muscle aches, menstrual difficulties etc.
Fruit juice is considered as an excellent adaptogen (can keep body systems in
homeostasis). In the Maldives, fruit is normally given to old people to alleviate
illnesses resulting from senility. Leaf juice, obtained by crushing leaves or cooked
leaves are applied on the swollen body parts to reduce swelling and pain.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on a wide range of soils and harsh
environmental conditions, such as brackish tide pools, limestone soils or outcroppings
on coral atolls. It also tolerates seasonal water logging but prefers free, well-drained
soils for better performance. It grows well both in acidic and alkaline soils. Its tolerance
to drought, aerosol salt spray and water and soil salinity is very high. Its growth and
fruit production is somewhat reduced in windy areas. Indian mulberry can be easily
propagated by seeds and stem cuttings. Seeds float in water due to presence of air
bubbles inside and such floating seeds from mature fruits can be collected and
scarified to improve germination rate and time. Seeds may be directly sown or seedlings
of about 2 to 12 months can be outplanted. Stem cuttings 20 to 40 cm long can be
grown in containers and used for outplanting after six to nine weeks.
Moringa oleifera - Muran’ga gas
Moringa oleifera Lam. MORINGACEAE

Synonym: Moringa pterygosperma
Common names: Drumstick tree, horseradish tree, ben nut
Dhivehi name: Muran’ga gas
Status: Common in the northern islands; occasional in the southern islands.
Description: A small, fast growing, deciduous to evergreen tree that can grow up to
10 m in height.. Crown is umbrella shaped and open. Branches are slender and
drooping. Bark is corky and grey in colour. Leaves are compound, leathery and up to
50 cm long with many small leaflets, which are about 1 to 2 cm long. Terminal leaflet,
which is obovate in shape, is usually larger than the lateral leaflets. Lateral leaflets
are elliptical in shape. Flowers are white or creamy white in colour, fragrant and 1.5
to 2 cm long, borne in axillary inflorescence. Fruit is a pod, pendulous, triangular in
cross section, normally 30 to 50 cm in length but some may be as long as 120 cm.
Young fruits are green in colour, turning to brown and splitting into three parts when
dry. Each pod contains about 20 dark brown, three-winged seeds, which are
embedded in pith.
Uses: It is a multipurpose tree and almost every part of the drumstick tree is of value
for food. Leaves are used as greens, in soups and salads and in vegetable curries.
Pods, which looks like giant beans and taste like asparagus are widely used in
curries. Seeds can also be eaten fresh as peas. Flowers are also used as a vegetable.
Thickened root of the drumstick tree is used as a substitute for horseradish. Seeds
yield sweet high-quality oil called ben oil, which is used in art, salads, and hairdressing
and as a lubricant for fine machinery such as that of watches. Leaves, flowers and
pods are high in proteins (5 to 10% on average) and rich in vitamins and iron and
calcium. Because of the high nutritive value drumstick tree is considered as one of the
important trees with reference to nutritional security of rural communities. It is an
ideal species for agroforestry in the coastal areas.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is adapted to a wide range of soils but

grows well in dry sandy soil. It is highly tolerant to drought but foliage production
reduces considerably under continuous water stress. It can be easily propagated by
stem cutting and seed. Seeds collected from dry pods can be sown directly. Seedlings,
which grow very fast, can be raised in a container for outplanting. Stem cuttings of
about 1 m long is normally used for planting. It requires protection against high
winds.
Muntingia calabura - Jeymu
Muntingia calabura L. TILIACEAE

Common names: Japanese cherry, Jamaica cherry tree
Dhivehi name: Jeymu
Status: Common in forested areas and around residential areas.
Description: A fast growing, slender, evergreen tree that grows up to 10 m tall.

Branches are nearly horizontal like a fan, spreading, hairy and drooping at the tip.
Mainline branches become erect after leaf fall and contribute to the development of
the trunk. Leaves are simple, alternate in arrangement, ovate to lanceolate in shape,
covered with tiny sticky hairs on the upper surface and grey or brown hairy on the
underside. Leaf margin is irregularly toothed and leaf blade is strongly asymmetrical.
Flowers are solitary or up to three in number with five green sepals and five white
petals and are borne in leaf axils. Flowers open just before dawn and last for only a
day. Fruit is a berry, round, 1 to 1.2 cm wide, red or sometimes yellow in colour,
smooth, thin with tender skin. Fruit pulp is juicy, soft, and light-brown in colour
with sweet, musky flavour. Seeds are minute, elliptical and greyish yellow in colour
and numerous.
Uses: Fruits are edible and somewhat strawberry tasting. They are eaten raw and can
be preserved as jam if they are available in plenty. Fruits are also used in tarts. Bark
can be made into ropes. Wood, which becomes light weight when dry, is a source of
fuel wood and not used for any other purpose. It can be grown as a shade tree for
nursery. In the Maldives, tree is grown for shade and ornamental purposes. Shoot,
fruit and root are used in traditional medicine.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows in dry soil but flourishes in slightly
moist and acidic soil. It is tolerant to shade but tolerance to salinity and aerosol salt
spray is very poor. It spreads spontaneously and seeds are dispersed by birds and
fruit eating bats. It is reported that fresh seed germination is enhanced by passage
through the digestive tract of bats. Seed germinates in high temperature and light.
M. calabara is normally not cultivated except in some places in Brazil, where fresh
seeds are sown directly. To collect seeds, water is added repeatedly to the squeezed
juice, resulting in sinking of viable seeds to the bottom of the container. Collected
seeds are washed and dried for future use. In the Maldives, wildlings are used for
growing in home garden as a shade tree.
Maldivian variety
Murraya koenigii - Hikan’dhi gas, hikan’dhi faiy

Murraya koenigii (L. ) Spreng. RUTACEAE

Common name: Curry leaf
Dhivehi names: Hikan’dhi gas, hikan’dhi faiy
Status: Common; grown in home garden.
Description: An evergreen, fast growing and spreading small shrub that grows up to
2.5 m in height. Bark is dark green to brownish and can be peeled off longitudinally,
exposing the white wood underneath. Leaves are bipinnately compound and 20 to
35 cm long. Each leaf bears about 24 leaflets, which are 5 cm in length and 1.8 cm in
width and lanceolate in shape. Inflorescence is a cyme, terminal in position and
bearing about 60 to 90 flowers. Flowers are white in colour, funnel shaped, fragrant
and about 1.2 cm across. Calyx is green in colour, five lobed and persistent. Corolla
is white with five lanceolate shaped petals. Fruit is round to oblong in shape, 1.4 to
1.6 cm long and 1 to 1.2 cm in diameter and pulpy, green when young but ripe fruits
are black in colour with shinning surface. About 30 to 80 fruits can be seen in a
cluster. Each fruit contains a small greenish seed. In the Maldives, a variety of curry
leaf is grown, which is shorter in height and does not flower and fruit.
Uses: Fresh leaves have a very pleasant aroma and it is widely used fresh to add
flavour to curries. Leaves are commonly fried in oil or butter or even oven dried or
toasted before use. Because of their soft texture curry leaves are not removed from
curries. In Maldives, curry leaf is widely used in special fish curries as well as in
delicious chicken and beef curries. Fruits are considered as very nutritious and can be
eaten raw. Fruits too have many medicinal properties.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on a variety of soil but performs

well only in deep, well-drained red soil. In clayey soil its performance in the initial
stage is good but soon it will wither. Their performances in saline and alkaline soil is
very poor and because of this reason many of the plants grown in the Maldives
exhibit choloritic symptoms (leaves becoming abnormally pale green or yellow due to
partial or complete loss of chlorophyll). It is propagated by growing the small
suckers from the base of the tree, by root cuttings or by seed. Seeds lose their viability
quickly and should not be dried before planting. Germination rate is high, if fresh
seeds are used in nursery beds after carefully removing fruit skin and flesh. Sometimes
fruit is soaked in water for two days before removing the seeds. Seedlings about 30 to
40 cm in height are suitable for outplanting.
Ochrosia oppositifolia - Dhun’buri
Ochrosia oppositifolia (Lam. ) K. Schum APOCYNACEAE

Synonym: Ochrosia borbonica
Common name: Cork wood tree
Dhivehi name: Dhun’buri
Status: Common in wild and also grown in home gardens.
Description: A small- to medium- sized sized evergreen, upright tree that grows up to
12 m. Trunk is straight and short. Young branches are somewhat shiny and green in
colour with the leaves often crowned at the end. Leaves are leathery and shiny, 14 to
20 cm long and four to ten cm wide, widest in or frequently above the middle,
tapering at the base. Leaf apex is round or faintly acuminate and obtuse with
prominent midrib and lateral veins underneath. Inflorescence is an umbel with
peduncle of two to 12 cm and terminal or lateral in position. Flowers are white in
colour with 0.5 to 1 cm long cylindrical tube and fragrant. Corolla is deeply divided
into five lobes, which are longer than the tube and oblong or obtuse in shape. Fruit is
a drupe, comes in pair, smooth, distinct, elliptical in shape, 5 to 8 cm long and
bluntly pointed. Matured fruit is bright yellow in colour. Each fruit contains an
ovate-shaped strongly flattened seeds.
Uses: Wood is soft and has distinct odour. Sapwood is yellow or shades of yellow and
heartwood is dark coloured. Wood can be used only for lighter construction and
firewood. In the Maldives, wood was used in the past for carpentry, particularly for
cot and tables and two types of benches called boduashi and kudaashi. According to
elders, the wood was normally heated before use to make it stronger and long lasting.
Leaves were also once used as a green and were popularly used to cover cooked
foods. Children sometimes eat ripe fruits. Now it is frequently grown as a support
tree for betel leaves. Flowers are used to make medicines for skin diseases.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows in clayey and loamy soil but prefers
well-drained sandy soil for better performance. Its tolerance to drought and aerosol
salt is high and tolerance to sail salinity is moderate. It grows well close to the sea in
full sun or partial shade. It can be propagated by seeds and cuttings.
Peltophorum pterocarpum - Reendho varey
Peltophorum pterocarpum D. C. Baker ex Heyne

CAESALPINIACEAE
Synonyms: Peltophorum ferrugineum, Poinciana roxburghii
Common names: Copper pod, golden flame, yellow Poinciana
Dhivehi name: Reendho varey
Status: Occasionally grown as an ornamental and shade tree.
Description: A fast growing, upright, semi-evergreen tree that normally grows up to

8 to 20 m tall. However it is capable of reaching 50 m in height in optimal climatic and
soil conditions. Crown is dense, round shaped and spreading. Bark is smooth and
grey in colour. Leaves are large, delicate, feathery, dark green in colour and arranged
alternately along the branches. Leaves are bipinnately compound, have 4 to 15 pairs
of pinnae, each pinna with eight to 20 pairs of oblong leaflets. Inflorescence is in
panicles of spikes at the end of branches with orange-yellow coloured flowers and
rust-coloured buds. Flowers are showy, fragrant, about 2.5 cm in diameter with frilly
margins. Fruit is an elongated pod, 5 to 10 cm long, flat, thin and winged; copper red
in colour when young, dark red when ripe and then turn black. Each pod contains 1
to 3 seeds.
Uses: It is widely grown as a shade and as an ornamental tree. Its dark green and
feathery leaves create welcoming cool shade. During the summer, entire canopy is
smothered with beautiful, showy and grape-like fragrant flowers. Heartwood of the
tree is light reddish-brown or black in colour, moderately hard, moderately heavy
and somewhat lustrous, used for light construction, cabinet making, woodcarving
etc. Bark contains about 20% of tannins and it is an important component in the
black or dark dye used for batik work in Indonesia. It is also used for tanning leather
and preserving and dyeing fishing nets.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on clay, loam and sand, acidic and
alkaline soils but prefers light to medium textured free-draining alkaline soils for
better performance. It requires full sun for better growth. It is highly drought tolerant
but tolerance to aerosol salt and soil salinity is poor. It can be propagated by seed,
stem and branch cuttings. Seed germination can be improved by scarifying one end
of the seeds or immersing them in sulphuric acid for about 25 minutes followed by
washing or immersing them in boiling water for about two minutes and then soaking
in cold water overnight. One year old nursery raised seedlings are used for outplanting
for better results. Wildings can also be used for planting.
Phyllanthus acidus - Goan’bili
Phyllanthus acidus (L. ) Skeels EUPHORBIACEAE

Synonyms: Cicca acidus, Phyllanthus distichus
Common names: Country gooseberry, star gooseberry
Dhivehi name: Goan’bili
Status: Occasional
Description: A shrub or small erect tree about 2 to 9 m tall. It resembles bilimbi in

general appearance. Crown is dense, bushy and spreading. Bark is grey, rough and
with prominent lenticels. Branches are ascending and leaves are clustered at the tips
on greenish or pinkish branchlets. Each branchlet is 20 to 50 cm long with 25 to 40
leaves, which are arranged alternately. Leaves are thin, ovate or ovate-lanceolate in
shape with pointed apex; green on the upper surface and blue-green on the underside.
Flowers are small, light pink in colour, which are found in dense cushion-shaped
flower head at nodes of the leafless branches, old wood and also on proximal
branchlets of current year’s growth. Flowers are male, female or bisexual with four
petals and sepals. Fruit is a drupe, somewhat round in the beginning, becoming
shallowly six or eight lobed, greenish yellow when young, whitish when ripe. Flesh is
firm, sour in taste with a hard, bony grooved stone, which contains six to eight
smooth seeds.
Uses: Fresh fruits, which are acidic in taste, are sometimes eaten raw or mixed with
salt or sugar. Mixing of salts neutralizes the acidity. Fruits are also used to make
syrups and sour and sweet drink, which is considered thirst quenching. Fruits are
used to flavour various food items and processed into pickles. Wood is fairly hard,
strong and tough and durable, if seasoned. Fruit is used as a laxative and also taken
as a liver tonic.
Ecology, propagation and management: Star gooseberry grows well in hot and humid
climate and grows on a variety of soils including coastal sandy soils. It prefers moist
soils for better performance. It is normally grown from seed. Seeds are collected from
matured, white coloured fruit from the ground. No pretreatment is required before
sowing. It can also be propagated vegetatively by budding, greenwood cuttings and
air-layering but success rate is less when compared to seed propagation.
Phyllanthus emblica - Beys goan’bili
Phyllanthus emblica L. EUPHORBIACEAE

Synonym: Emblica officinalis
Common names: Indian gooseberry, emblic myrabalan
Dhivehi name: Beys goan’bili
Status: Rare; grown in home gardens.
Description: A small or medium sized deciduous tree 8 to 10 m tall but is capable of

growing to a height of 20 m in optimal climatic and soil conditions. Main stem is
often crooked with spreading branches. Bark is smooth, thin and grey in colour with
numerous bosses and peels off in thin flakes. Leaves are simple, very small, about 1.2
to 2 cm long and 0.3 cm wide, overlapping and spreading. Leaves are oblong in
shape and arranged alternately in two opposite rows (distichous) along very slender
branchlets, giving a misleading impression of finely pinnate leaves. Though it is a
deciduous tree it is seldom entirely bare and is therefore often cited as an evergreen
tree. Flowers are small, unisexual, greenish-yellow in colour and axillary in position.
Male flowers are very small, numerous and usually occur at the lower end of growing
branchlets. Female flowers are only a few and sessile. Fruit is round, indented at the
base, smooth with six to eight pale lines that run base to the apex, giving it the
appearance of being divided into segments. Fruit skin is thin, translucent and adherent
to the very crisp, juicy flesh. Fruit is light green when young, turns to whitish or dull,
greenish-yellow in colour as it matures.
Uses: It is grown mainly for its fruits, which is highly valued as a component in the
preparation of a variety of traditional medicine. Juice of the fruit along with other
ingredients is used to treat hemorrhage, anemia, jaundice, fits, insanity, cough,
hiccough, indigestion etc. Ripe fruits are often cooked with sugar and eaten daily to
restore health and vitality. Young fruits are considered as cooling, laxative and
diuretic and also thirst quenching. It is also eaten after fasting. Wood is close-grained
and hard but it warps and splits when exposed to sun. However, it is durable under
water.
Ecology, propagation and management: It tolerates a variety of soil and has been
raised successfully in arid, semi arid, coastal climatic conditions. It is noted for being
able to thrive in regions that are too dry and contain very poor soil. Its tolerance to soil
salinity is moderate. It is normally propagated by seeds. Seeds are collected from
overripe fruits, which are sun dried to facilitate removal of stone. Extracted seeds are
given the float test and those seeds that sink are collected for germination. About
four-months-old seedlings can be used for budding and grafting.
Pisonia grandis - Lhos
Pisonia grandis R. Br. NYCTAGINACEAE

Synonym: Pisonia alba
Common names: Lettuce tree, grand devil’s claw
Dhivehi name: Lhos
Status: Occasional in the southern islands and common in the northern

islands.
Description: A small sized tree 6 to 20 m tall with smooth, thick, greyish cream or
dull pale brown coloured bark with prominent pores. Leaves are usually thin but
fleshy if exposed to salt spray. Leaves are broadly elliptic to oblong in shape, 9 to 30
cm long and 6 to 18 cm wide with distinct lateral veins. Leaf apex is acute or bluntly
acuminate. Leaves are variously arranged, opposite to sub-opposite, sometimes
alternate on the same tree. Leaves of wild trees are dark green. Inflorescence is a
dense, terminal or sub-terminal cyme, alternately or irregularly branched with light
brown hairs. Flowers are unisexual on the same tree or on different trees. Male
flowers are 4 to 6 mm long, broadly deltoid in shape with short lobes and covered
with minute hairs. Female flowers are less in number and smaller than male flowers.
It has a unique fruit type called anthocarp, a structure in which the outer sterile part
of the flower is united with the fruit. Fruit is about 1.5 cm long, leathery, five ribbed
and each rib is with one row of large, black, sticky glands.
Uses: Wood is soft, weak and brittle and, hence, not used. Foliage makes an excellent
fodder for livestock. It is also grown as an ornamental tree, especially “female” trees
with beautiful light green-coloured foliage is commonly grown in dooryards. In the
Maldives, it is widely grown in the home gardens as a support tree for beetle vein.
Leaves are used to make salad and curries. In the traditional system of medicine
leaves are used to alleviate stomach disorders. They are also used as an analgesic,
anti-inflammatory and diuretic.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is an important component of the beach

forest of atoll environment and it is often the dominant forest tree of coral islands
that have large seabird colonies. It provides favored nesting grounds for a variety of
seabirds. In fact, it has evolved to grow on seabird-dominated islands and it is one of
the few trees that thrive in the acidic guano deposits produced by large numbers of
nesting seabirds. Attached to the feathers of seabirds, the sticky seeds spread over
long distances. It can be easily propagated by stem cuttings. Cuttings of various
sizes are used for planting and they establish easily if watered regularly in the initial
stages. It can also be propagated by seeds. Entire fruits can be sown directly or seeds
may be removed in water and used afresh for sowing.
Pithecellobium dulce - Kashi helebeli
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb. ) Benth. MIMOSACEAE

Synonym: Inga dulcis, also spelled as Pithecollobium or Pithecolobium
Common names: Manila tamarind, sweet inga
Dhivehi name: Kashi helebeli
Status: Common; grown in home gardens and public places.
Description: A small- to medium- sized sized semi-evergreen tree that grows up to 20

m height. Crown is spreading but irregular. Trunk is short, about 1 m high, with
crooked branches and somewhat shiny branchlets. Bark is grey and smooth in young
trees, turning to slightly rough and furrowed in old trees. Bark exudes reddish-brown
gum when injured. Leaves are bipinnately compound with a pair of pinnae, each
with two leaflets that are kidney shaped and dark green in colour. Spines are present
in pairs at the base of the leaf. New leaf growth and shedding of old leaves occur
almost simultaneously, giving the tree an evergreen appearance. Inflorescence is
about 10 cm long and 1 cm across, located at the end of the branches with 15 to 20
white flowers in round heads. Each flower is 0.3 to 0.5 cm long with hairy corolla and
calyx. Fruit is a pod, 10 to 15 cm long, 1 to 1.5 cm wide, curled up tightly and reddish-
brown in colour. Each pod has five to ten shiny black coloured seeds, which are
surrounded by thick, spongy, dry pulp.
Uses: Fruit pulp, which is sweet and acid in taste and white or sometimes red in
colour, is eaten fresh with seeds. Pulp and seeds together are used to make a sweet
drink. Seeds are also used in curries. Pods and leaves are excellent fodder. Wood is
strong, moderately hard, durable but soft and flexible. It is also easy to work with
and finishes to a smooth surface. Short spines and irregular crooked branches make
the wood of this tree less attractive. Tannin can be extracted from the bark, leaves
and seeds, which can be used to soften leather. Bark extract can be used to dye
fishnets. Oil is extracted from the seed, which is edible. It can be a candidate species
for agroforestry in atoll environment.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows well both in wet and dry areas. It is
found growing well in clay, limestone, sandy and other poor soils. It is rated as highly
tolerant to soil salinity and grow even with its roots in brackish water. It can be easily
propagated by seed. Seeds can be extracted from mature fruits remain viable for
about six months, and can be used for direct sowing. No pretreatment is required.
Seedlings may also be grown in the nursery. Seedlings raised in nursery bed are
transplanted to containers after six months, and used for outplanting when they are
about one year old. It can also be easily propagated by stem cuttings.
Plumeria obtusa - Bodu gulchampa
Plumeria rubra - Raiy gulchampa

Plumeria obtusa L. APOCYNACEAE

Synonym: Plumeria krugii
Common names: Frangipanni, temple tree, pagoda tree
Dhivehi name: Bodu gulchampa
Status: Common; grown as an ornamental plant.
Description: An evergreen shrub or small tree 4 to 5 m tall with coarse textured, vase
shaped, open canopy. Branches are rough, blunt, sausage-like, thick and grey-green
in colour. Branches are upright, soft but sturdy, rather crowded on the trunk, giving
a vase-like appearance to the entire plant. Leaves are simple, leathery, and alternate
in arrangement, oval or obovate in shape, 30 to 45 cm long and 15 to 30 cm wide,
dark green and shining above, light green with prominent venation beneath. Apex of
the leaf is rounded. Flowers are large, 4 to 5 cm across, showy, pleasantly fragrant,
creamy white in colour with a yellow centre. Corolla is funnel shaped with five
spreading petals, which are fused at the base and the corolla tube is cylindrical, 2 to
3 cm long. Inflorescence is a cyme, which is borne on a long peduncle. Fruit is a
double follicle with winged seeds. Fruits are rarely produced. A milky sap is exuded
from the branches when they are bruised or punctured.
Plumeria rubra L. APOCYNACEAE

Synonyms: Plumeria acuminate, Plumeria acutifolia
Common names: Red frangipanni, red jasmine
Dhivehi name: Raiy gulchampa
Description: It is similar to Plumeria obtusa in all characters expect the following:

leaves are deciduous and have acuminate apex, which is tapering to a point; flower
is red or pink coloured (Plumeria alba has white flower).
Uses: Both P.obtusa and P.rubra are grown as an ornamental plant.
Ecology, propagation and management: Both Plumeria obtusa and Plumeria rubra
grow in clay, loam and sandy, acidic and alkaline soil but prefer moist, neutral and
well-drained soil for better survival and growth. Their tolerance to drought and salt
spray is high. They are moderately tolerant to soil salinity. They can be easily
propagated by herbaceous, woody, softwood, semi-hardwood cuttings. Normally,
large hardwood cuttings are recommended for propagation and these cuttings should
be allowed to heal by drying for several days before planting. Water requirement is
moderate. It can be grown with a single trunk or branched low into a multi-trunked
specimen.
Premna serratifolia - Dhakan’dhaa
Premna serratifolia L. VERBENACEAE

Synonyms: Premna integrifolia, Premna obtusifolia
Dhivehi name: Dhakan’dhaa
Status: Common in the forested areas.
Description: A small deciduous shrub or tree 4 to 8 m tall with dense, round crown.
Sometimes it may be prostrate and form impenetrable thickets. Bark is brown and
rough. Branches and branchlets are slender, brown or light brownish in colour with
prominent corky leaf scars. Leaf shape is highly variable, elliptic or oblong-elliptic or
oblong or even sub-ovate, 3 to 12 cm long, 2 to 8 cm wide and opposite in arrangement.
Tip of the leaves is also variable, obtuse to short acuminate or ending abruptly in a
short sharp point. Leaf margin is smooth, sometimes shallowly notched or coarsely
serrated. Inflorescence is terminal, much branched and many flowered. Flowers are
small with distinctly toothed calyx, greenish, or pale greenish-white or pale yellowish-
white in colour and unpleasantly aromatic. Fruit is a small round drupe, fleshy,
surrounded at the base by enlarged calyx and dark blue or black in colour when
mature. Stone is hard, normally four chambered and four seeded.
Uses: In the Maldives, it is considered as ideal firewood and it is a tradition to use

branches and twigs of this tree to make ‘first fire’ in new kitchens. It is also grown as
shade tree in houses, schools and other public places. Wood is used for handicrafts
and to make handles of small tools. Straight long poles, which are light weight and
durable, are commonly used as handle of scoops or buckets that are used to draw
water from shallow wells. Poles are used to provide support to beetle vein. Leaves are
eaten to increase mother’s milk. Leaves are also used in traditional medicine to
alleviate rheumatism and neuralgia and weakness of the limbs. It is a strong wind
breaker and, hence, can be an important component in multiple coastal bioshield.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is well adapted to shallow, dry, alkaline

coastal soil but better performance is seen in deep soil with high moisture content. It
is also capable of growing in rocky areas near the shore. Its tolerance to drought and
aerosol salt spray is high and tolerance to soil salinity is moderate. It is not cultivated
in the Maldives though it can be propagated by seed and stem cuttings. Seeds can be
removed from the fruit by crushing them in water and can be used for direct sowing.
Seedling growth is moderate and requires regular watering but intolerant to excess
watering. Stem cuttings 1 to 1.5 m height and 6 to 10 cm in diameter can be used for
easy establishment.
Psidium guajava - Feyru
Psidium guaj ava L. MYRTACEAE

Synonym: Psidium aromaticum
Common names: Guava, common guava
Dhivehi name: Feyru
Status: Common; cultivated in home gardens.
Description: A shrub or small evergreen tree that grows to a height of 10 m. However,

most of the trees found in the Maldives are only around 4 to 5 m tall. It is many
branched, which are crooked and spreading. Young branches are four sided and
downy. Bark is smooth, mostly copper coloured or mottled green and peel off in thin
flakes continuously. Leaves are simple, opposite in arrangement with short leaf stalk
and are oval or oblong in shape. They are stiff, dull green to yellow green on the upper
surface and leathery with conspicuous veins; aromatic when crushed. Flowers are
small, about 2 cm across and borne singly or in a cluster of two to three in the axils of
the leaf. Flowers are white in colour with four to five petals, which drop immediately,
leaving a tuft of white stamens. Fruit is round, oval or pear-shaped berry with floral
remnants at the apex and has a sweet musky odour. Fruit skin is thin, yellow in
colour and frequently blushed with pink. Next to skin a thin, juicy flesh is present,
which is white, yellowish, light or dark pink or near red in colour. The central pulp is
darker in colour, juicy and filled with small seeds. Immature fruit is green, hard and
astringent in taste.
Uses: Fruit is eaten raw and varieties differ widely in taste, flavour and seediness.
Guava is used to make jam, jelly, juice and nectar and also preserved in varieties of
forms. Guava is made into a paste by evaporating the pulp with sugar and eaten as
sweetmeat. Wood is brown or reddish, hard, moderately strong, and durable but
because of the short and crooked nature of the stem it is not widely used. Leaves and
bark pieces are used to make a decoction that is used externally to treat skin diseases.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is a hardy tree that grows in a wide variety
of climatic and soil conditions. It grows well on poor soils with good drainage but
growth and fruit production is better in rich clayey loams. It is drought resistant but
less tolerant to soil salinity. In high aerosol salt condition the leaves become chloretic.
It has a very shallow root system with no taproots and thus tolerance to high wind
is limited. It can be propagated from seeds, which are pretreated by boiling for five
minutes or soaked for two weeks. Seedlings about 25 cm height are used for outplanting.
It is also propagated by air-layering, shield or patch budding on seedling rootstock,
grafting and stem cuttings. Root cuttings are also used for propagation.
Pterocarpus indicus - Ofi elay gas
Pterocarpus indicus Willd. FABACEAE

Synonyms: Pterocarpus pallidus, Pterocarpus blancoi
Common names: Burmese rosewood, narra
Dhivehi name: Ofi elay gas
Status: Common in Male and being introduced into other islands.
Description: A large tree, that grows up to 33 m tall and 2 m in diameter. It is

evergreen in non-seasonal humid climates like Maldives but in regions with seasonal
rainfall it is deciduous. Trunks are usually fluted and with pronounced buttress.
Crowns are large and bear many long arching branches, which may droop at the
ends. Bark is smooth, light yellow-brown in colour and exuding red sap when
wounded. Leaves are pinnately compound with 7 to 11 leaflets, which are arranged
alternately. Leaflets are ovate or oblong ovate in shape, shiny and pointed at the tip.
Flowers are large, 1 to 5 cm long, fragrant, showy, yellow in colour, arranged at
axillary panicles. Fruit is a pod, circular in shape, flat, 4 to 5.5 cm in diameter
including 1 to 1.5 cm wide surrounding wing. Seedpods are soft haired when young
becoming almost smooth when mature.
Uses: It is an important timber tree and its wood is highly valued. Timber is moderately
hard, moderately heavy and smells like camphor or cedar. Timber develops a range of
colours from yellow to red and has conspicuous growth rings that impart a fine
figure to the wood. The more the red the heavier is the wood. It is easy to work with
and takes polish well. Timber is in great demand and used for high-class furniture,
carving and specialty items. In the Maldives, it is grown as an ornamental and shade
tree.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows in a wide variety of environmental

conditions, ranging from deep inland forests to coast. It also grows near the sea and
along tidal creeks, indicating its tolerance to salinity. Regarding soil, it grows well in
sandy or clayey loam with neutral or slightly acidic soil. Propagation is by seeds and
stem cuttings. Seeds are very difficult to extract from the fruit and hence, whole fruit
is used for propagation. There is a little difference in germination time and percentage
between extracted seeds and whole fruits. It can be propagated easily by rooted
cuttings. Stem cuttings 2 to 3 m in length and 10 cm in diameter are normally used
for planting.
Punica granatum - Annaaru
Punica granatum L. PUNICACEAE

Common name: Pomegranate
Dhivehi name: Annaaru
Description: A small, multi-stemmed deciduous shrub or tree that normally grows to

2 to 5 m tall but is capable of growing up to 10 m in optimal environmental condition.
Canopy is open and crown base is low. Stem is woody and spiny. Bark is dark grey in
colour and smooth. Slender branches start out upright then droop gracefully and
unpruned shrubs have a drooping or fountain- shaped habit. Leaves are simple, 2 to
8 cm long, oblong or obovate in shape, shiny, opposite in arrangement or arranged in
whorls of five or six. Flowers are large, showy, trumpet shaped and borne singly or as
many as five in a cluster at the tips of the branches. Flowers are characterized by the
presence of thick, tubular, red-coloured calyx with five to eight pointed sepals forming
a vase from which emerge the three to seven wrinkled, orange-red or white or variegated
petals. Fruit is a globose berry and shiny, tough, leathery with reddish- or yellowish-
coloured rind when matured and crowned at the base by persistent calyx. Fruit is
divided into compartments by membranous walls and spongy tissue, filled with
numerous seeds. Each seed is encased in a juicy, somewhat acidic, red, pink or
whitish pulp. Seeds are angular, soft or hard, white or red in colour.
Uses: Juicy seeds, which have sweet-sour and very pleasant taste, are eaten raw or
made into juice, which is a very popular drink in the Maldives. It is also made into
jellies and jams. In India, seeds are dried and used as a spice for vegetable dishes. It
is also grown as an ornamental tree and there are several cultivars selected just for the
showy and variegated flowers.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on a variety of well-drained soils,

ranging from deep acidic loam to alkaline calcareous soils. It is highly tolerant to
drought and seasonal water logging. Its tolerance to soil salinity and aerosol salt is
moderate. It is easily propagated by seeds and cuttings. Seeds readily germinate, if
sown directly and seedlings grow vigorously. However, it is normally propagated by
hardwood cuttings to avoid seedling variation. Hardwood cuttings 20 to 30 cm in
height are planted for rooting in containers and they are kept in the nursery for 12 to
18 months before being transplanted to the field. It is slow growing and lopping,
pruning and coppicing are the recommended management practices. Normally,
seedlings are trained with a single stem up to 30 to 45 cm or as a bush with three to
four main stems. Thinning should be done occasionally for good aeration and to
avoid interception of sunlight.
Ricinus communis - Amanaka
Ricinus communis L. EUPHORBIACEAE

Common names: Castor bean, castor oil plant
Dhivehi name: Amanaka
Status: Occasional, found mostly in wasted lands
Description: A perennial shrub that normally grows to 3 m tall but in suitable

condition it grows as an evergreen tree and may reach up to 12 m height. In shrub
form, stem is succulent with sap and in tree form it is woody, soft and light with
central pith. Bark is light brown, smooth and exhibits rings at nodes. Leaves are
large, 10 to 60 cm across, alternate in arrangement, palm like in shape with five to
nine finger like lobes and sharply toothed leaf margin. Leaf stalk is long, attached to
the centre of the leaf blade. Flowers are small and without corolla. Male and female
flowers are on the same plant, and are produced on a clustered spike inflorescence,
which is located at the end of the branches. Male flowers have greenish calyx, which
is deeply cut into three to five segments and enclose numerous, much branched,
yellow stamens. Male flowers are found in the lower portion of the flower head.
Calyx of the female flower is slightly reddish in colour and cut into three segments.
Fruit is a round capsule with soft prickles and deeply grooved. Each fruit contains
three shiny, ovoid and tick-like seeds of variable colour.
Uses: Seeds yield fast-drying, non-yellowing oil, used mainly in industry and medicine.
It is used as additives in paints and varnishes, in the manufacture of high-grade
lubricants mainly for aircrafts, printing inks, in textile dyeing, in leather preservation
and in the production of a nylon-type fibre. Oil and its derivatives are used as skin
moisturizer and smoothing agents. Hydrogenated oil is utilized in the manufacture
of waxes, polishes, carbon paper, candles and crayons. Seeds are highly toxic and the
principal toxin is ricin.
Ecology, propagation and management: It tolerates a wide variety of soil but

performance is good in fertile, well-drained and neutral soil. Its tolerance to aerosol
salt and salinity is low. It requires full sun and high temperature for better yield. It
colonizes disturbed and wasted lands, where it grows rapidly, shading out native
species and producing monospecific stands. It is cultivated as an oil crop and it is
propagated entirely by seeds, which retain their viability for two to three years.
Pretreated seeds to resist diseases are sown directly. Seedlings grown in nursery are
also used to raise plantation. It exhausts soil nutrients easily and hence, application
of fertilizers is necessary.
Scaevola taccada - Magoo
Scaevola taccada (Gaertn. ) Roxb GOODENIACEAE

Synonyms: Scaevola frutescens, Scaevola sericea
Common names: Sea lettuce tree, scaevola, half flower
Dhivehi name: Magoo
Status: Abundant along the shoreline.
Description: A low branching, spreading bushy shrub that grows up to 3 m tall with
soft-wooded and crooked main stem. Slender branches are green in colour, somewhat
succulent with soft spongy tissue inside (pith) and with clear leaf scar on the outside.
Leaves are simple, slightly alternate in arrangement, normally crowded at the tip of
the branches; slightly fleshy, obovate in shape, 15 to 30 cm long and 8 to 10 cm wide
with rounded apex and prominent midrib. A tuft of white long hairs is present in leaf
axils. Inflorescence is a cyme, axillary in position, branched and slender. Sea lettuce
is often called as half flower because corolla tube, which is about 1.5 cm long, appears
to be split down one side with five spreading petals. Flowers are white or pinkish-
white in colour and fragrant. Fruit is a drupe, white or purplish in colour, ovoid or
sub-globose in shape, about 1.5 cm in diameter, soft, fleshy and tasteless. Stone is
ellipsoid in shape, ribbed with corky outer layer.
Uses: In the Maldives, earlier it was used for building traditional houses. Harvested
stems were kept in the seawater for a few days and after that bark was removed to get
beautiful white sticks, which were used as roofing strips and rafters. According to
some elders, leaves of sea lettuce were eaten though bitter during the Second World
War when no food was available. Presently, it is mainly used for firewood. Pith of
large stem is used for handicrafts. It is also used in traditional medicine. Leaf juice is
used to alleviate painful swellings and a few drops of juice extracted from the seeds
are added to the eyes to reduce reddening. It can be one of the important components
of the front row vegetation of coastal bioshield and can be multiplied for coastal
stabilization.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is one of the early colonizers (one of the
first to grow in open places) of the beaches of the Maldives. It grows well in sandy,
calcareous, alkaline soil. It is highly tolerant to drought, aerosol salt spray and
salinity. It grows well in full sun. It is not cultivated in the Maldives. However, it can
be easily propagated by seeds. Fruits float and the seeds remain viable for more than
a year in seawater. However, they will germinate only with freshwater. It can also be
propagated by stem cuttings. Stem cuttings need shade and regular watering for
better survival and growth rate.
Sesbania grandiflora - Feerumuran’ga
Sesbania grandiflora (L. ) Poiret FABACEAE

Synonyms: Agati grandiflora, Sesbania formosa
Common names: Agathi, sesban
Dhivehi name: Feerumuran’ga
Status: Occasional in some of the southern islands.
Description: A fast growing, small tree 8 to 15 m in height with a cylindrical trunk,

which is up to 25 cm in diameter. Bark is grey in colour, rough and furrowed. Leaves
are pinnately compound, alternate in arrangement, 15 to 20 cm long with 12 to 20
pairs of oblong, rounded leaflets. Leaflets are 3 to 4 cm long and 1 cm wide, light
green in colour when young, dark green when mature, turn to bright yellow before
falling. Leaves are borne only on terminal ends of branches. Flowers are large, 5 to 10
cm long, about 3 cm wide, curved before opening and cream or white coloured. Fruit
is a pod, 20 to 50 cm long but only about 0.8 cm wide, slightly curved with swollen
margins. Each pod contains 15 to 40 seeds, which are bean like and pale coloured.
Uses: Leaves, flowers and pods are edible. Flowers are steamed or cooked in soups
and stewed after the stamen and calyx have been removed. Steamed, cooked leaves
are also eaten. Leaves and pods are valued as fodder; however, because of high
protein content they are not fed to animals solely. Gum extracted from the bark is
used as a substitute for gum arabic. Wood is used for pulp and fuel. It is generally
considered as a poor fuel wood because it burns very easily and smokes excessively
when burning. It can be effectively used to improve soil health. It is a good nitrogen
fixer and leaves, flowers and pods can be used for mulching to improve soil fertility.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows well even on poor and waterlogged
soils and also tolerates saline and alkaline conditions. It also has the ability to grow
in acidic soil and tolerates prolonged dry season, that is up to nine months. It tends
to break in high winds. It is easily propagated by seeds. Seeds may be pretreated by
scratching or nicking round end of the seed, or soaking in cold or tepid water for 24
hours. Seeds can be sown directly onto the field. Seedlings can also be raised in the
nursery for outplanting.
Suriana maritima - Halaveli
Suriana maritima L. SURIANACEAE

Common names: Tassel plant, bay cedar
Dhivehi name: Halaveli
Status: Abundant along the shoreline in all the islands.
Description: An evergreen shrub that normally grows to 1.5 to 2.5 m in height but is
capable of reaching up to 6 m in favourable condition. It is a multi-stemmed, much
branched shrub with prostrate or ovoid crown. Bark is dark brown in colour, rough
and flaky. All young parts of the plants are covered with minute hairs. Leaves are
simple, fleshy, spatula like in shape, alternate in arrangement, grey green in colour,
and crowded at the tips of upturned twigs. Leaves are 1 to 4 cm long and 0.3 to 0.5
cm wide and produce a cedar-like fragrance when crushed. Leaves become yellow
before falling. Leaf scars are prominent in young branches. Inflorescence is one to
four flower cyme and axillary in position. Flowers are small, about 1.5 cm across with
five yellow coloured petals and five green coloured sepals, which are pointedly lobed.
Flowers develop into clusters of five dry, brown drupes, which are surrounded by
persistent grey sepals. It looks somewhat like Pemphis acidula (Kuredhi) in appearance
and is frequently mistaken for that plant.
Uses: Wood is very hard, heavy, strong, fine-textured and durable. Heartwood is
dark red or reddish brown. Sapwood is somewhat lighter in colour. In the Maldives,
wood is used mainly for wood peg but only if the wood of Phempis acidula is not
available. Crooked nature of the stem does not allow extraction of wood of considerable
size. It is also widely grown as an ornamental plant for hedges and borders. It is used
for firewood. In traditional medicine it is used to treat bone fracture. In olden days,
leaves were used to stuff pillows. It can be a part of the frontline vegetation of
multispecies coastal bioshield.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is an important component of beach

vegetation and grows in sand, loam, coral rubble, acidic and alkaline but well-drained
soils. It requires full sun for normal growth. It is highly tolerant to drought and
aerosol salt spray and its tolerance to soil salinity is good. Its fruits are buoyant and
remain viable for long periods in seawater and thus, allow it colonize beaches easily.
It can be propagated from seeds, stem cuttings and also from root suckers. Wildlings
are also used for plantation. Seeds can be collected by gently pressing the fruits and
can be sown in containers in nursery. It requires watering in the initial stage and can
grow without irrigation once established. It takes trimming well and can be trained
into required size. If straight poles are required it should be pruned periodically.
Syzygium aqueum - Jan’buroalu
Syzygium aqueum (Burm. f. ) Alston MYRTACEAE

Synonyms: Eugenia aquea, Eugenia javanica
Common names: Water apple, wax apple
Dhivehi name: Jan’buroalu
Status: Common; mostly found in home gardens.
Description: An evergreen large shrub or small tree 3 to 10 m in height. Trunk is

crooked, often branched near the base. Canopy is dense and irregular in outline. Bark
is thick, light brown in colour and fissured in old trees. Leaves are simple, opposite in
arrangement, elliptic-cordate to obovate-oblong in shape, large, about 7 to 25 cm
long and 2.5 to 16 cm wide with short leaf stalk. Leaves are pale to dark green in
colour, somewhat curled and slightly aromatic when crushed. Inflorescence is at the
tip of the branches or from axils of the leaf with three to seven large flowers. Flowers
are white in colour, 2.5 to 3.5 cm across with four petals, which spatula-like and up
to 0.7mm long. Stamens are numerous, hairy and up to 2 cm long. Fruit is a berry,
cone shaped, shiny, white to red in colour with translucent skin and crowned by
calyx segments. Flesh is juicy and watery. Each fruit contains one to two or at the
maximum six seeds, which are small and round in shape.
Uses: It is grown mainly for fruit, which is eaten fresh and nearly 80% or more of the
fruit is edible. In some countries fruits are used in salad or sometimes pickled or
stewed. Fruit is sweet, somewhat astringent and considered as thirst quenching.
Shelf life is very short. Wood is hard and reddish in colour, normally not used
because it is considered as weak and brittle. Various parts of the tree are used in
traditional medicine. It is observed in the Maldives that the tree bark is used to grow
orchids. It is also grown as a shade plant.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows in sandy and light soil but flourishes
in heavy soils with easy access to water. It grows in hot climate with fairly long
season but not tolerant to draught. It is weakly tolerant to salt spray and salinity.
Propagation by seed, stem cuttings and air-layering is common. Seeds lose their
viability quickly and should be sown fresh from the fruit. Air-layering is commonly
employed in many countries, and it is also widely practiced in the Maldives. In the
old method, sand is mainly used as medium which is tightly packed with the help of
jute sack and watered daily. Sometimes, 1 to 1.5 m cuttings are taken and kept in
water for rooting and then outplanted.
Syzygium cumini - Dhan’bu gas
Syzygium cumini (L. ) Skeel MYRTACEAE

Synonyms: Eugenia jambolana, Syzygium jambolanum
Common names: Jambolan, Indian blackberry, black plum
Dhivehi name: Dhan’bu gas
Status: Common in southern islands and occasional in the northern

islands.
Description: A fast growing, evergreen tree that normally grows to 12 to 15 m tall but
is capable of growing up to 30m in height. It is low branching and multiple branches
can be seen at about 2 to 3 m from the base. Crown is irregular or globular. Bark is
thick, rough and flaky on the lower part of the trunk and smooth and light coloured
in the upper part. Leaves are simple, opposite in arrangement, thick, leathery, hairless
and broadly ovate, elliptic or elliptic-oblong in shape; pinkish when young, dark
green when mature with transparent margin and conspicuous midrib. Leaves produce
a faint turpentine smell when crushed. Leaf stalk is 1.5 to 2 cm long and yellow
coloured. Inflorescence is a panicle, 5 to 12 cm long, usually on leafless branches.
Flowers are small in size, lightly fragrant, white or pink coloured with four to five
united white, round, concave petals, which shed quickly leaving only the numerous
stamens. Fruit is round or oblong, turns from green to light pink, then dark-purple or
nearly black as it ripens; present in clusters of 10 to 40 or even less fruits. Fruit skin
is thin, smooth, shiny with purple or white, juicy pulp. Each fruit encloses a single,
sometimes two to five green or brown seeds.
Uses: It is one of the important timber trees of the Maldives. Timber is reddish-grey or
reddish-brown in colour, strong, durable in water, resistant to termites. It is used in
boat building and carpentry. In dhoni, timber of jambolan is mainly used for making
inner support (stems) called vagandha. According to some of the elders, trees in the
Maldives are now affected by a disease, which cause decaying of heartwood of large
trees and thus making them not suitable for any use. Fruits are collected and eaten
raw or made into juice and sherbet.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is adapted to a variety of soil but prefers

deep, rich and well-drained soil. It can tolerate drought and prolonged flooding. Its
tolerance to salinity is also good. It is propagated by mainly seeds. Freshly collected
seeds are normally used for direct sowing. Seedlings can also be raised in the nursery
and for better performance, soil moisture is more important than shade. Growth of
the seedling in the first year is slow and normally two-years old seedlings are used for
outplanting. Inarching, grafting, budding and stem cuttings are the other methods
of propagation.
Syzygium jambos - Janbu
Syzygium j ambos (L. ) Alston MYRTACEAE

Synonyms: Eugenia jambos, Jambosa jambos
Common names: Rose apple, jambos
Dhivehi name: Janbu
Status: Rare; a tree is observed near the Presidential palace in Male.
Description: An evergreen, low branching shrub or small tree that grows to 6 m in

height with dense and spreading crown. Stem is cylindrical and mostly twisted at
the base; four sided when young. Bark is pale-brown in colour, smooth and somewhat
shiny. Leaves are simple, opposite in arrangement, thin, narrowly lanceolate in shape
and 10 to 23 cm long. They are slightly leathery, glossy, rose coloured when young
and dark green when mature. Leaves are produced in a dense luxuriant mass that
hides all the branches from view. Flowers are large, 5 to 10 cm wide, showy and white
to pale cream in colour. Flowers consist of four petals and four sepals with 300 to 400
stamens, which are about 4 cm long. There are about four to five flowers together in
terminal clusters. Fruit is nearly round or oval in shape, 2 to 5 cm in diameter and
crowned by persistent four-lobed calyx. Fruit skin is smooth, thin, pale-yellow or
whitish and sometimes pink blushed. Flesh is crisp, dry to juicy, yellow-pink in
colour, sweet and fragrant like rose. Each fruit contains one to four seeds in the
central hallow, which are brown, rough coated and round in shape.
Uses: Grown mainly for fruits, which are eaten out-of-hand by children. It is also
made into jam and jelly with lemon juice added and can be candied by stewing them
in heavy sugar syrup. Fruits can also be used to extract a high-quality rose water.
Essential oil is extracted from the leaves for perfume production. Heartwood, which
is heavy and hard, can be used for construction.
Ecology, propagation and management: It flourishes on deep loamy soils and also
on sand and limestone with very little organic matter. It tolerates semi-arid condition
but does not tolerate prolonged dry spell. It requires frequent watering during dry
season. It can be grown in coastal location as it is tolerant to wind and salt spray.
Propagation is mainly by seed but the seedlings are not uniform in character and
growth. Many methods of vegetative propagation, such as hardwood cuttings, air-
layering and budding are tried but protocols are yet to be standardized. However, in
some countries air-layering is commonly practiced and rooted layers are planted
during the rainy season.
Tamarindus indica - Helen’beli
Tamarindus indica L. CAESALPINIACEAE

Common name: Tamarind
Dhivehi name: Helen’beli
Status: Occasional in the northern islands.
Description: A slow growing, long lived, evergreen tree that is capable of growing up
to a 30 m tall. It is an open, low-branching tree with dense, round, spreading crown.
Bark is grey brown in colour, rough and fissured. Leaves are pinnately compound,
long, alternate in arrangement with 10 to 18 pairs of leaflets. Leaflets are narrowly
oblong in shape, 1 to 3.5 cm long and 0.5 to 1 cm wide, apex rounded to square and
slightly notched. Leaflets close up at night. Flowers are about 2.5 cm across with five
petals and four sepals and pale yellow or cream coloured with orange or red streaks.
Flower buds are distinctively pink in colour due to the outer colour of the sepals,
which are shed when flower opens. Flowers are arranged in small racemes. Fruit is a
pod, 10 to 18 cm long, straight or curved with round base and brittle rusty-brown
shell. It is slightly constricted between seeds. Fruit pulp is sticky, thick, and blackish-
brown in colour. Seeds are hard, shiny, smooth and embedded in the pulp.
Uses: Fruit pulp is widely used in the preparation of curries and chutneys and also
in various food preparations. Young leaves, flowers and pods are sometimes used for
curry or eaten raw. Oil and gum can be extracted from the seeds for industrial use.
Timber is very hard, strong and durable and heartwood is dark purplish in colour. It
is used in the Maldives in carpentry. It is also used for boat planks and panels.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is adapted to a wide range climatic and

soil conditions but prefers well-drained alluvial soil for better performance. It is
drought and wind tolerant. It is also tolerant to aerosol salt spray. It requires long,
well-marked dry weather for fruiting. It is commonly propagated by seeds and also
vegetatively by marcoting, grafting and budding and stem and air layering. Seeds
need to be soaked in cold water for about 12 hours or nicked mechanically. Seedlings
80 cm in height are normally used for outplanting. Grafting and budding are normally
followed to propagate desirable selections. Trees generally require minimum care but
young trees are pruned to allow for the development of well-spaced branches. It is
generally considered not very compatible with other plants because of its dense
shade and allelopathic effects.
Tectona grandis - Haivakaru
Tectona grandis L. VERBENACEAE

Common names: Teak, Indian oak
Dhivehi name: Haivakaru
Status: Rare.
Description: A medium to large sized deciduous tree about 25 to 30 m tall but is

capable of reaching 50 m height. Trunk is straight, often low buttressed and the first
branch may appear at about 10 m above ground in tall trees. Bark is brown, fibrous
with shallow fissures. Leaves are simple, large, up to 55 cm in length and 37 cm in
width which shed for about three to four months during the dry season. Leaves are
round, oval or oval-oblong shaped, shiny above, hairy below with conspicuous veins.
Inflorescence is large, about 40 cm long and located at the tip of the topmost unshaded
part of the crown. Flowers are small, white in colour with seven lobed corolla and five
to seven lobed calyx which becomes inflated enclosing the fruit. Fruit is a drupe with
four chambers, round, hard and woody, brown in colour at maturity. Each fruit
contain up to four seeds.
Uses: Teak is well known for its high quality timber. Heartwood, which is often
yellowish when freshly cut but turns to golden brown or dark greyish-brown after
exposure, is resistant to rot, decay and termites. It is used for boat building, house
building, bridge building, furniture, etc. In the Maldives, it is widely used in paneling
walls of houses and decks of boats. It is widely admired in the Maldives and according
to an elder from Vaadhoo Island, a mosque constructed with imported teak about
300 years ago is still intact.
Ecology, propagation and management: Teak grows well in deep, well drained, fertile
neutral to slightly alkaline soil, which is rich in calcium and phosphorus. Teak does
not tolerate water logging and its tolerance to salinity and aerosol salt spray is weak.
It is propagated by seeds, seedling stumps and cuttings and by tissue culture. Seeds
collected from floor are generally used for direct sowing. Pretreatment is necessary
and several methods such as alternate soaking and drying, soaking the fruit for 48
hours in running water, removing exocarp are followed. In seedling stumps, seedling
of about one year old is removed from nursery, stem cut off and stump is used for
planting. Normally growth rate is fast in young trees and a ten-year-old tree can
reach up to 25 m in height in optimal climatic and soil condition.
Terminalia catappa - Midhili gas, madhu gas, gobu gas
Terminalia catappa L. COMBRETACEAE

Synonym: Terminalia procera
Common name: Country almond
Dhivehi names: Midhili gas, madhu gas, gobu gas
Status: Abundant in the forested areas and also grown around residential
places.
Description: A tall, semi-deciduous, erect, medium to large sized tree 10 to 25 m tall.

Trunk is usually straight and more or less cylindrical but it may also be crooked and
leaning. Bark is grey brown coloured, smooth in young trees, rough with age. In
younger trees branches are almost horizontal and erect and arranged in tiers, giving
the tree a pagoda like shape, which becomes less noticeable as the branches elongate
and droop at the tips. Leaves are single, alternate, obovate in shape, large (15 to 36
cm long and 8 to 24 cm wide) and spirally clustered at the tips. Leaves are dark green
above, pale below, leathery and shiny; before dropping leaf colour changes to yellow
and red. Flowers are small, white or cream coloured, five lobed and arranged on long
axillary spikes. There are no petals. Majority of the flowers are male and bisexual
flower are located towards the base of spikes. Fruit is a sessile, laterally compressed,
oval-shaped drupe. Fruit colour changes from green in young to dark purplish red at
full maturity. Rind of the fruit is light, pithy or corky tissue and float in the sea and
thus dispersed by ocean currents. Each fruit contain a cream-coloured seed, which
encloses the kernel (nut).
Uses: Country almond is an important timber tree in the Maldives. Timber is strong,
elastic, moderately hard, smooth and lustrous. It is brown or reddish-brown in
colour and medium coarse in texture. Timber is widely used in boat building, mainly
for keel (fargun). It is also used for flooring and furniture. Wood is not suitable for
long-term ground contact. Outer flesh of the fruit is eaten raw. Nut is eaten fresh or
used as a substitute for cashew nut. Nut is preserved by sun drying and also sold in
market. It can be an important component of the coastal bioshield from economic
point of view.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on silt, loam, clay soils but prefers
neutral or slightly alkaline sand and sandy loams. It tolerates slightly saline soils and
its tolerance to drought is moderate. It is adapted to salt-laden winds but tolerance
to aerosol salt spray is limited. Country almond can be readily propagated by seeds.
Seeds can be collected from fresh fruits and should be sown within four to six weeks.
No pretreatment is needed. Seedlings grow rapidly in the initial stages. Seedlings of
four month old or about 25 cm in height can be used for outplanting. Stem cuttings
of 20 to 30 cm can be rooted in the nursery before planting.
Thespesia populnea - Hirun’dhu
Thespesia populnea (L. ) Soland. ex Correa MALVACEAE

Synonyms: Hibiscus populneoides, Thespesia macrophylla
Common names: Thespesia, tulip tree, milo, portia tree
Dhivehi name: Hirun’dhu
Status: Abundant in the forested areas and also grown as avenue and
shade tree.
Description: A small, evergreen tree 6 to 10 m in height with short and often crooked
main stem. Crown is round, broad, dense and regular in outline. Bark is brownish or
greyish and fissured. Leaves are simple, alternate with 5 to 10 cm long leafstalk. Leaf
blade is broadly ovate in shape, 8 to 15 cm long with pointed tip and very broad,
slightly heart shaped base. Leaves are somewhat fleshy, shiny and palmately veined
and turn yellow before falling. Flowers are single, large, about 4 to 7 cm long, bell-
shaped and borne on the axils. Petals are five in number, which are broad, round
shaped, overlapping and yellow in colour with a maroon spot at the base of each
petal. Flower open and close on the same day and flower colour changes to purplish
as the day progress. Fruit is a capsule, round but flattened, grown on short stalks
and clustered at the ends of the branches. Matured capsules are brown to grey in
colour and exude a bright yellow resin when cut. Seeds are brown in colour and hairy.
Fruits float in seawater and are dispersed by ocean currents.
Uses: Tulip tree is one of the important timber species of the Maldives. Timber is fine
grained, heavy, strong, and durable especially under water and highly esteemed.
Timber is mostly pale-pink in colour. Wood from mature trees is widely used in
building many parts of the boat. It is a premier carving wood, because the wood can
be cut to fine details. It is also used for furniture and household items. Wood from
young stems and trees are less dense and more prone to rotting. Bark may be used for
rope and caulking boats. It is a candidate species for multispecies coastal bioshield
in atoll environment.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows well on nutrient poor coastal sandy
soils and also on soils derived from limestone. It prefers slightly alkaline soil condition.
It is highly tolerant to both soil salinity and aerosol salt spray. It is also tolerant to
drought. It is easily propagated by seed and stem cuttings. Seeds can be collected
from dry capsules by crushing them by hand. Normally no pretreatment is required
but germination may be improved by soaking the seeds in water overnight. It can be
directly sown or seedlings can be raised in nursery. Seedlings 40 to 50 cm, which are
hardened off with reduced watering and exposure to full sunlight, can be used for
outplanting. Stems cuttings 2 m long are normally used for propagation but smaller
cuttings produce healthier trees. Initial growth is slow.
Tournefortia argentea - Boshi
Tournefortia argentea L. f. BORAGINACEAE

Synonym: Messerschmidia argentea
Common name: Beach heliotrope
Dhivehi name: Boshi
Status: Abundant along the beaches in all islands
Description: A small- to medium- sized size tree that grows to 4 to 6 m all. Trunk is
often slanted and branches are crooked. Bark is light grey to brown in colour and
deeply corrugated. An important feature of the tree is its silky, hairy, fleshy light
green leaves, which have a silvery grey lustre. They are simple, obovate to oblanceolate
in structure, 10 to 20 cm long and 3 to 12 cm wide and arranged spirally at the branch
tips. Inflorescence is large, hairy, consisting of numerous small, white sessile flowers.
Flowers are about 0.6 cm in diameter and 0.2 cm in height with five lobed calyx and
corolla. Fruit is round, small, 0.2 to 0.8 cm long, greenish white to brown in colour,
which divides into two to four nutlets. Seeds, two to four in number, are enclosed in
a corky tissue.
Uses: Sea heliotrope is important for its ecological benefits. It acts as a barrier against
aerosol salt spray, as a windbreak on exposed coasts and as a stabilizer of coastal
soils. In the Maldives, wood, which is lightweight and strong, is used as oars for
small boats called bohkura. It is also used to make small implements used in boat. It is
also used for firewood. According to some of the elders, young leaves were once
widely used as salad. Leaves were cooked with rice and fish after removing the
midrib and cut into small pieces to prepare a delicious food namely, boshi baiy.
Liquid from flowers are used for making medicines to treat skin diseases. Bark and
flowers are chewed with areca nut. It is a candidate species for multispecies coastal
bioshield in atoll environment and can be planted in the front rows along with other
salt spray tolerant plants.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is an important component of the strand

plant (means restricted to coastal environment) community. It is commonly found
on beach sands and rocky coral limestone slopes, indicating its adaptation to shallow,
well-drained and infertile soil. It is highly tolerant to salt spray. It can grow very close
to sea. It can be propagated easily by seeds and cuttings. Fresh seeds can be directly
sown without any pretreatment or seedlings can be grown in nursery and outplanted.
Since it is slow growing seedlings may take long time, up to one year, to reach a size
(about 35 cm tall) suitable for outplanting. Hardened or green woodcuttings 15 to 30
cm length can be used for planting.
Vitex negundo - Dhunnika
Vitex negundo L. VERBENACEAE

Synonym: Vitex incisa
Common name: Five-leaved chaste tree
Dhivehi name: Dhunnika
Status: Occasional; grown as an ornamental plant.
Description: A large, deciduous, much-branched shrub or small tree 3 to 5 m in

height. Branchlets are four-sided and hairy. Crown is round, spreading, open and
irregular in outline. Bark is thin, grey coloured and smooth. Leaves are palmately
compound with three to five leaflets, which are lanceolate in shape, 4 to 10 cm in
length, pointed at both ends, somewhat shiny on the upper side and hairy beneath;
middle leaflet with distinct stalk is always larger than the others. Leaf when crushed
produces a fragrant smell. Flowers are small, pleasantly fragrant, bluish-purple in
colour and arranged in a pyramid shaped terminal inflorescence. Fruit is a succulent
drupe, black when ripe and 0.4 to 0.5 cm in diameter.
Uses: Vitex negundo has a strong and deep root system, which produce large
number of suckers and thus it can be used in sandy areas for soil retention and
moisture conservation. It is also found suitable for coastal windbreaks and can be a
component in the multiple coastal bioshield. Leaves have insecticidal properties and
they are laid over stored grain to ward off insects. It is reported that houses that have
V. negundo around are free of mosquitoes. Oil extracted from seed and leaves is an
excellent medicine to treat sloughing, gangrene wounds and ulcers. Branches are
used as firewood. In the Maldives, all parts of the plant, roots, flowers, leaves and
bark are used for medicinal purposes relating to women. Leaves are lactogogue
(increases secretion of mother’s milk) and emmenagogue (promotes and regulates
menstruation). A decoction of the leaves is given to women in puerperal state to
alleviate abdominal pain. It is also used in aromatic baths.
Ecology, propagation and management: Five-leaved chaste tree grows in clay or

sandy soils but prefers a loose, well-drained moist but not wet, alkaline soil for better
growth performance. It often suffers from shoot dieback in organic rich, murky or
other soil, which is too wet. Its tolerance to hot weather is good and to aerosol salt is
moderate. It grows well in full sun and light shade. Propagation is generally by stem
cuttings that are planted in nursery beds or polythene containers and transplanted
after two months. Cuttings can also be planted directly. Its growth rate is moderate
to fast. Though it is usually seen as a shrub with multiple branches it can be trained
onto a tree with one or several trunks.
Ximenia americana - En’boo
Ximenia americana L. OLACACEAE

Synonyms: Ximenia laurina, Ximenia rogersii
Common names: Hog plum, sour plum, wild plum
Dhivehi name: En’boo
Status: Common in the forested areas.
Description: A spiny, semi-scandent bush-forming shrub or small tree 2 to 6 m tall.

Trunk diameter is seldom greater than 10 cm. Bark of the trunk is smooth to scaly,
pale grey to reddish in colour; old trunks are superficially fissured and with large
number of brown spots (lenticels). Main stems, which are laid back, have divergent
branches forming a conical or rounded, thin canopy. Young branchlets are green in
colour with prominent longitudinal ridges whereas mature branchlets are purple red
with a waxy bloom. Branchlets are armed with long, slender, straight spines that are
borne at the axils of the leaves. Leaves are simple, alternate, and oblong to elliptic in
shape with obtuse or slightly notched tip. Leaf blade is 3 to 7 cm long, 1.5 to 4 cm
wide, green, leathery and variable in thickness. When crushed, young leaves smell
like bitter almonds. Flowers are yellowish white, fragrant and less than 1 cm in
length. Fruit is a somewhat round or ellipsoidal drupe, about 3 cm long, greenish and
shiny when young, becoming yellowish when ripe, containing a juicy pulp. Fruit is
single seeded with a fatty kernel.
Uses: Fruit is eaten raw and can be used to make juice, jams and jelly. Kernel is
considered as poisonous. In the Maldives, fruits, which have sweet and sour tastes,
are eaten raw. Wood, which is very hard, strong and malleable, was popularly used
in the past to make skewers and pegs. Leaves are used in traditional medicine to treat
bone fractures and gonorrhoea. Fruits are used to prepare a medicine that is given to
women during pregnancy and after childbirth. Spines and leaves are used in the
preparation of medicinal oil called ‘ruhgalu beys’, which is used to treat bone fractures.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on a variety of soil from clay, clayey
loam, and sandy clayey-loam to fine sand. It is well adapted to poor and dry soil and
also grows well in wet soils. It is drought resistant and tolerant to salinity. It is not
cultivated. It regenerates naturally from the seed in the forested areas and coppice
from stems and form impenetrable thickets. Seeds are normally dispersed by animal.
It can also be propagated by seed and stem cuttings. Fresh seeds should be used for
direct sowing. It is suited for cultivation as a hedge plant.
Ziziphus mauritiana - Kunnaaru
Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. RHAMNACEAE

Synonym: Ziziphus jujuba
Common names: Indian jujube, jujube
Dhivehi name: Kunnaaru
Status: Common in home gardens and not observed in the wild.
Description: A spiny, fast growing evergreen tree which is capable of growing 15 m

tall. In harsh environmental conditions, it grows as a shrub. Crown is round, spreading
and irregular. Bark is grey or dull black, irregularly fissured. Branches are many,
drooping with hairy zigzag branchlets. Spines are small, paired at leave bases. Leaves
are single, alternate, ovate to oblong-elliptic in shape, entire or finely toothed. On the
upper side leaves are smooth, glossy and dark green but dense, silky, white or greyish
hair is present on the underside. Leaf blade is also characterized by the presence of
three conspicuous longitudinal parallel veins. Inflorescence is axillary with 7 to 20
flowers. Flowers are small, greenish-yellow in colour, with five-reflexed petals and a
calyx with five-deltoid lobes, which are hairy outside. Fruit is round, oval or oblong
in shape, with smooth or rough skin, which is light green to yellow in unripe fruits.
Ripe fruits are reddish or red-brown or blackish in colour with spongy, musky flesh.
Each fruit contains a single, hard, oval shaped, rough stone, which contains two
brown seeds.
Uses: Fruits are eaten fresh or dried, used to make drinks, candy and syrup. Unripe
yellow-green fruits are also edible but sour in taste. Wood is hard, strong and fairly
lustrous, split slightly during seasoning and used for general construction, furniture
and cabinetwork and packaging. In the Maldives, fruits are considered as an appetizer
and fruit juice is used as an antihelminthic. Leaves are ground and applied to
affected body parts to reduce swellings. Water with crushed leaves is used to wash
corpse to delay onset of rigor mortis (muscular stiffening following death). Seeds are
used for quick healing of broken bones.
Ecology, propagation and management: Grows on a variety of soils but best soil is
sandy loam, which may be neutral or slightly alkaline. It is highly tolerant to heat
and drought and moderately tolerant to soil salinity. Propagation is mainly by seeds.
Either stone or seed extracted from the stone may be used for sowing. Uncracked
stones require two to three weeks for germination whereas extracted seeds germinate
within a week. Seedlings of about 15 month old are suitable for outplanting. Superior
selections are grafted or budded onto seedlings. Stem cuttings of mature wood, at
least two years old, can be used for propagation, which result in better yields.
Mangrove trees and shrubs
Mangroves
Environment
Mangroves are defined as assemblages of salt tolerant trees and shrubs
that grow in the intertidal regions of the tropical and subtropical coastlines.
They grow luxuriantly in the places where freshwater mixes with seawater
and where sediment is composed of accumulated deposits of mud.
Mangrove wetlands are normally classified into six types on the basis of
the geophysical, geomorphological and biological factors. They are (a)
river dominated, (b) tide dominated, (c) wave dominated, (d) composite
river and wave dominated, (e) drowned bedrock valley mangroves and (f)
mangroves in carbonate settings (Thom, 1984). The first five types of
mangrove wetlands can be seen on coasts dominated by terrigenous
sediments (shallow marine sediment consisting of material derived from
the land surface) whereas the last one can be seen in oceanic islands,
coral reefs and carbonate banks.
Mangroves of the Maldives belongs to carbonate setting type and within

this broad category mangroves of the Maldives are found in four different
environmental conditions: i) in the fringe area of some of the islands,
where wave energy and wind speed is less and brackish water is present
due to mixing of seawater with the margin of the freshwater lens, ii) in
between two islands, where the water is shallow and there is accumulated
deposits of sediments, iii) along the borders of lagoon that is connected to
the sea, iv) along the borders of lagoon that has lost connection to the sea
but receives seawater periodically through seepage and v) in shallow
depressions, where rain water accumulates. Freshwater enters into all
these types of mangroves through surface runoff and underground
seepage. These areas normally receive limited amount of terrestrial sediment
but they are rich in calcareous sediment or lime mud (marl).
Flora
Plants of mangroves are generally divided into two groups, namely, i) true
or exclusive mangroves species and ii) associated mangrove species. True
mangrove species grow only in mangrove environment and do not extend
into terrestrial plant community and are morphologically, physiologically
and reproductively adapted to saline, waterlogged and anaerobic condition.
A total number of 69 species in 27 genera, belonging to 20 families are
considered as true mangrove species (Duke, 1992; Bringham and Kathiresan,
2001; Selvam et al., 2004). In Maldives, a total number of 13 true mangrove
species are present and fact sheet for each of these species is given in this
book. Some of the plants that grow in the terrestrial environment and pure
halophytes (plants that grow only in saline environment) are also found
within or in the peripheral area of mangrove wetlands. These species are
considered as mangrove associates.
Adaptation
Mangrove environment is highly dynamic and harsh and mangrove
species are variously adapted to cope with these environmental conditions.
Breathing roots: Underground tissue of any plant requires oxygen for

respiration and in mangrove environment, oxygen in soil is very limited
or nil. This necessitates mangrove root system to take up oxygen from
the atmosphere. For this purpose, mangrove species have specialized above
ground roots called breathing roots or pneumatophores. In some species,
these roots are pencil sized and peg like whereas in some other species
they look like a knee. These roots have numerous pores through which
oxygen enters into the underground tissues. In some plants buttress roots
function as breathing roots and also provide mechanical support to the
tree.
Silt roots: In some mangrove species, roots diverge from stems and branches
and penetrate the soil some distance away from the main stem as in the
case of banyan trees. Because of their appearance and because they provide
the main physical support to these they are called as stilt roots. These
roots also have many pores through which atmospheric oxygen enters
into the roots.
Vivipary: Saline water, unconsolidated saline soil with little or no oxygen

is not a conducive environment for seeds to germinate and establish. To
overcome this, mangrove species have unique way of reproduction, which
is generally known as vivipary. In this method of reproduction, seeds
germinate and develop into seedlings while the seeds are still attached to
the parent tree. These seedlings are normally called as propagules and
they photosynthesize while still attached to the mother tree. The parent
tree supplies water and necessary nutrients. They are buoyant and float
in the water for sometime before rooting themselves on suitable soil.
Uses
Mangrove wetland is a multiple use ecosystem. It is considered as a best
form of coastal bioshield since it plays a critical role in reducing the impact
of cyclonic storms, hurricanes and tsunami on human lives and properties
(Danielsen et al., 2005; Selvam, 2005). It also avoids or reduces soil erosion.
It enhances fishery productivity of the adjacent coastal waters by acting
as a nursery ground for commercially important fish, prawn and crabs
and supplying organic and inorganic nutrients. They are also rich in
biodiversity and act as habitats for wildlife.
Avicennia marina - Baru
Avicennia marina (Forssk. ) Vierh. AVICENNIACEAE

Common name: Grey mangrove
Dhivehi name: Baru
Status: Occasional; restricted to northern islands. Only a very few seedlings

are noticed.
Description: An evergreen shrub or tree 2 to 10 m tall with pencil-sized peg type

above-ground roots, which are commonly called as pneumatophores or breathing
roots. Bark is whitish to greyish or yellow-green in colour, smooth, often powdery
and scaly. Leaves are single, opposite in arrangement, leathery, yellowish-green and
hairless above and silver-grey below with pointed apex. Underside of the leaf has
special glands for secreting excess salt. Flowers are small, 0.3 to 0.5 cm across, sessile,
fragrant, pale-yellow in colour in condensed terminal flower head. Fruit is heart
shaped, rounded or sometimes shortly beaked; outer skin is greyish with fine hairs
and inside is radiant green or russet brown or dark green.
Uses: Leaves are considered as one of the best fodder for camel. Cattle also feed on
shoots and leaves during the rainy season when the salt content is low in the leaves.
Wood is considered as excellent firewood. Roots and bark are used as stimulant.
Ecology, propagation and management: Grey mangrove grows luxuriantly in any

position in the intertidal regions of estuaries, lagoons (called kulhi in Dhivehi),
backwater etc. Though it is capable of growing in sandy soils and rocks it prefers fine
clay and alluvial soil for better performance. It is highly saline tolerant and tolerates
widest range of soil salinity. Its tolerance to aridity is also high. It can be easily
propagated by propagules and the position where it should be planted can be decided
on the basis of the distribution of species (zonation pattern) on that location.
Propagules of grey mangroves do not look like typical spindle-shaped propagules of
some other mangrove species because embryonic axis (hypocotyl) of the developing
embryo does not penetrate the seed coat. Hence, propagules of grey mangrove look
more or less like normal seeds in appearance and they are called cryptoviviparous
propagules. It is produced in large numbers and matured propagules float freely in
water and can be easily collected by hand or by a scoop net. They can also be collected
from trees. Collected propagules are soaked in brackish water for a day to facilitate
shedding of outer coat. These naked propagules are used for plantation. While
sowing, radicle (the part of plant embryo that develops into a root) side of the
propagules is lightly pushed into wet soil. Nursery raised seedlings of about 30 cm
can also be used for outplanting.
Bruguiera cylindrica - Kan’doo
Bruguiera cylindrica Bl. RHIZOPHORACEAE

Synonyms: Bruguiera caryophylloides, Rhizophora caryophylloides,
Rhizophora cylindrica
Common name: Small-leafed orange mangrove
Dhivehi name: Kan’doo
Status: Common; found either as a dominant or co-dominant species in

many of the mangrove ecosystem of the Maldives. It also found in the form
of pure stands. A large number of young seedlings are found growing in
the areas wherever this species is dominant.
Description: A small, erect, evergreen tree 6 to 10 m tall with knee-like above-ground

breathing roots. These knee roots comprise a sponge like system of air chambers,
which act as an air reservoir when the roots are submerged. These roots are also
covered with numerous pores, which allow air but not water to enter the root. Bark is
light to dark grey or pale pink in colour and scaly at the bottom. Leaves are simple,
opposite in arrangement, lanceolate in shape, about 7 to 12 cm long, shiny, dark
green in colour with pointed apex. Inflorescence is a three-flowered cyme with about
1 cm long peduncle and axillary in position. Flowers are small, white in colour with
8-lobed greenish-yellow calyx, which is persistent, forming a cap-like structure above
the propagules. Propagules are spindle shaped, 10 to 15 cm long, 0.5 to 1 cm in
diameter, smooth, slightly curved, cylindrical and green to purplish-green in colour,
which are buoyant and dispersed by currents.
Uses: In the Maldives, propagules are consumed after removing the skin and boiling
them three to four times, first with ash to remove the bitterness and then with salt for
taste. It is considered as a famine food and it was once planted in large areas in some
islands, primarily for use during famine. It is also considered as a timber tree. Timber
is hard and strong and used for boat building. Timber is normally buried in sand at
the edges of the sea for about six months to prevent easy decay. Poles are used for
house construction.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on light, medium and heavy soil
but prefers silty clay soil and high- and mid- tidal zone for better performance. Its
optimum soil salinity ranges from 8 to 34 ppt. It is propagated by propagules. Unlike
in Avicennia spp., propagules of Bruguiera spp. are spindle shaped because hypocotyl
penetrates the seed coat and elongates (called as viviparous propagules). Matured
propagules are purplish-green in colour which can be collected from water or plucked
from trees. They can be directly planted in the selected locations by inserting them up
to one-third of their length into the soil. Nursery-raised seedlings 20 to 30 cm height
can be also used for outplanting. Direct planting of propagules are economical and
less time consuming.
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza - Bodu Kandoo, Boda vaki
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L. ) Lam. HIZOPHORACEAE

Synonyms: Bruguiera conjugata, Rhizophora conjugata, Rhizophora
gymnorrhiza
Common names: Large-leafed mangroves, oriental mangroves
Dhivehi names: Bodu Kandoo, Boda vaki
Status: Common. It is found growing as a dominant or co-dominant species

in many of the mangrove ecosystem of the Maldives. In some areas it is
found in the form of pure stands.
Description: A small to moderately sized, evergreen tree that is capable of growing to

35 m tall but most of the trees found in the Maldives are 6 to 10 m in height. It is a
single-stemmed tree with short buttresses and characteristic knee-shaped above-
ground breathing roots. Bark is pale grey or brown, thick, hard and rough. Leaves are
simple, opposite in arrangement, leathery, dark green in colour, 8 to 22 cm long and
5 to 8 cm wide with 2 to 5 cm long leaf stalk. Flowers are single and axillary in
position. Calyx is reddish to scarlet in colour with ten to 14 pointed lobes, which are
smooth or with grooves above lobe junctures. Petals are orange-brown in matured
flowers, bilobed and each lobe has three to four long bristles. Viviparous propagules
are cigar shaped, 15 to 25 cm in length, 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, stocky with blunt
narrowed apex. Propagules detach with calyx, buoyant and dispersed by currents.
Uses: In the Maldives, propagules are consumed regularly during the fruiting season.
They are peeled, soaked and boiled three or four times in water and eaten. Sometimes
they are cooked with salt, dried and then consumed. Though the timber is hard and
tough it is not widely used because it easily decays. Bark is used for tanning fishing
nets.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is capable of growing well in somewhat

dry and well-aerated soil in the mid- and high- tidal areas of the intertidal zone. It
tolerates up to 50 ppt of soil salinity but optimal salinity range is reported to be
between 8 and 26 ppt. It is one of the most shade tolerant mangrove species and
seedlings may grow under a full forest canopy. It is propagated by propagules.
Matured propagules are reddish-brown or greenish-red in colour. Fresh and healthy
propagules can be collected from the mother trees or freshly fallen propagules without
any damage can be used for planting. Propagules can be stored for about a week by
keeping the lower portion in brackish water or by wrapping them with wet jute bags.
Propagules can be directly planted in selected fields by inserting them up to one–
third of their length. Nursery-raised seedlings about 35 cm in height can be used for
outplanting. Direct planting is most successful and economical.
Bruguiera sexangula - Boda vaki
Bruguiera sexangula (Lour. ) Poir. HIZOPHORACEAE

Synonyms: Bruguiera eriopetala, Rhizophora sexangula
Dhivehi name: Boda vaki
Status: Rare. It is observed only in Fuvamulah island, where 10 to 12 trees

are found growing on the landward portion of a brackish water lagoon
(kulhi). These are found growing among taro (cocoyam - Colocasia
esculenta) crops where a few wild trees of pond apple (Annona glabra)
are also present. A few healthy seedlings are also found in this area.
Description: A medium sized, erect, evergreen tree capable of growing to a height of

about 20 m but trees found in the Maldives are only about 5 m tall. Single stemmed,
multi-branched tree with spreading or diffused crown. Above-ground breathing
roots are knee shaped and small buttress can be seen at the base of the stem. Bark is
grey in colour and smooth. Leaves are simple, opposite in arrangement, clustered at
the tip, elliptic or lanceolate in shape, about 5 to 10 cm long and 4 to 5 cm wide.
Leaves of B. sexangula are normally more yellow-green and with shorter leafstalk than
those of B. gymnorhiza. Inflorescence is a single flowered pendulous cyme and axillary
in position. Calyx is either yellow or yellow-green in colour with 10 to 14 lobes. Petals
are white or brown in colour, 10 to 12 in number, bilobed with or without bristles at
the tip. Propagules are much shorter than those of B. cylindirca and B. gymnorhiza,
about 6 to 8 cm long and 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, smooth and green to purple tinted
brown in colour, detaches with calyx, is buoyant and is dispersed by currents.
Uses: Propagules are eaten after peeling, soaking and boiling. Timber, which is hard
and strong, can be used for boat building and carpentry work. It yields high-calorific
valued fuel woods.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is normally found in the landward zone

of mangrove forests and grows well in well-drained medium to heavy textured soil.
It is also capable of growing well in waterlogged, deep, slushy and anaerobic soil.
Among the six species of Bruguiera it is relatively less saline tolerant and prefers low
saline condition for better performance. Propagation is mainly by propagules. As in
the case of other Bruguiera spp. matured propagules can be collected from mother
trees or freshly fallen propagules can be used for planting. Matured propagules,
which are green or purple tinted, can be directly planted by inserting them up to one–
third of their length in wet soil and sprouting takes place within five weeks. Nursery
raised seedlings of about 20 to 35 cm in height, which is attained in about ten
months, can be used for outplanting. Direct planting is the most successful and
economical.
Ceriops tagal - Karamana
Ceriops tagal (Perr. ) Robins. RHIZOPHORACEAE

Synonyms: Ceriops candolliana, Rhizophora tagal
Common name: Yellow mangrove
Dhivehi name: Karamana
Status: Rare; found only in Farukolhu Funadhoo island in the northern

group of islands. It is present in two to three rows along the boarder of
a large lagoon, which is still connected to the sea by a channel. Only a
few seedlings are noticed indicating poor natural regeneration.
Description: An evergreen tree that grows up to 40 m in height in favourable sites,

but most of the trees found in the Maldives are only 4 to 10 m tall. It has short
buttress, which originate like stilt roots. It also has knee-like or knobby above-ground
breathing roots. Bark is pale grey to reddish brown in colour, smooth in young trees,
deeply fissured in old ones and flaky at the bottom. Leaves are simple, shiny, opposite
in arrangement and inverted-egg shaped. Leaves are dark green in colour in shade,
bright greenish-yellow in full sun and apex is rounded or notched. Inflorescence is a
condensed cyme with five to ten flowers and axillary in position. Calyx is deeply
divided into five lobes and green in colour. Petals are five in number and white and
brown coloured, two lobed and ending in two to four bristles. Viviparous propagules
are cylindrical, club-shaped, sharply angular, 25 cm or more in length, 0.8 to 1.2 cm
in diameter and green to brown in colour. Surface of the propagules is warty and
ridged, buoyant and dispersed by currents.
Uses: Bark yields high-quality tannin, which fetches good price in the international
market. This tannin is widely used in “batik” to provide warm yellowish-brown
colour to cotton cloth. Wood is heavy and moderately durable but in contact with
ground it decays in about two years. Wood yields excellent charcoal and good
firewood, but has been said to burn with too hot a flame for domestic use. No use is
attributed to this tree in the Maldives.
Ecology, propagation and management: It prefers mid- and high- tidal areas in the
intertidal zone for better survival and growth. In the Maldives it grows in soft,
shallow, sandy soil of coral origin and silt and clay is almost nil in the area where it
grows. It can tolerate soil salinity up to 45 ppt but optimum salinity range is between
0 and 15 ppt. It is propagated by propagules. Mature propagules can be identified by
yellow collar (cotyledon), which may be about 1 cm long or by brownish green
hypocotyl. They can be plucked from mother trees or freshly fallen propagules can be
used for planting. During plantation, one-third of the propagules is inserted into the
mud. Nursery-raised seedlings 20 cm height can be used for outplanting. Direct
plantation is preferred because of higher survival rate.
Excoecaria agallocha - Thela
Excoecaria agallocha L. EUPHORBIACEAE

Common names: Blinding tree, river poison tree
Dhivehi name: Thela
Status: Occasional; found on the landward side of the mangroves in some

of the northern islands. No seedling is noticed in the areas where the trees
are found, indicating poor rate of natural regeneration.
Description: A small or medium sized, low branching tree 6 to 12 m tall. Bark is grey,
smooth with longitudinal rows of corky air pores. No prominent above ground
breathing root is present. Leaves are simple, alternate in arrangement, shiny, leathery
with pointed tips and bluntly toothed margins. Leaves are 6 to 10 cm long, pinkish
in colour first, turning to green and then to bright red when about to drop off. Male
and female flowers are present on separate trees and inflorescence is spike. Male
spike is catkin like in appearance, yellowish and up to 7 cm long. Female spike is
shorter than male spike. Flowers are tiny, about 0.2 to 0.3 cm across, fragrant with
yellowish-green calyx and greenish white petals. It is a not a viviparous tree. Fruits
are small, round and clustered. Each fruit consists of three cells and each cell contains
a seed. One of the characteristic features of this tree is that when branches and leaves
are broken or bark is damaged it exudes a milky sap, which may cause intense pain
and blistering, if it makes contact with skin. It can cause temporary blindness, if it
gets into the eyes.
Uses: In the Maldives, poles are found being used as fencing stakes. Rarely used in
roof structures as purling. It is also reported to be used as firewood. Heartwood of
this tree was used in the past for burning as incense. In some countries it is a primary
pulping species for paper industry and also used in traditional medicine to treat
chronic ulcerous diseases such as leprosy.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows well in sandy soil with very low
salinity and in these places gregarious monospecific stands with large trunk and
profusely branched trees can be seen. Trees with lean stems and limited branches are
seen in places where soil salinity is high. It is normally propagated by nursery raised
seedlings, wildlings and stem cuttings. Seedlings, which are raised in the nursery
from seeds and about 40 cm in height, can be used for outplanting. More than 95%
survival has been reported with this method. Wildlings collected and transplanted
on the same day also perform well. Stems cuttings 20 cm in length and about 1 cm in
diameter can be used for propagation. These cuttings are kept in the nursery for
rooting and rooted cuttings with 10 to 12 leaves are used for outplanting.
Heritiera littoralis Aiton - Kaharuvah gas
Heritiera littoralis Aiton STERCULIACEAE

Synonym: Heritiera minor
Common name: Looking-glass mangroves
Dhivehi name: Kaharuvah gas
Status: Rare; a single tree is observed in Male.
Description: A medium to large sized, much branched, evergreen tree that can attain
heights up to 30 m. Presence of well-developed buttresses, which develop into plank
roots, is a characteristic feature of this species. They function like air-breathing roots
and also provide mechanical support to the trunk. Bark is greyish, fissured and scaly.
Leaves are simple, alternate in arrangement, elliptical to obovate in shape, 10 to 15
cm long, dark green on top and very white to silvery white underneath. Inflorescence
is loose panicles, up to 10 cm long and axillary or terminal in position. Flowers are
small, densely haired and unisexual. Male flowers are smaller than female flowers.
Calyx is bell shaped, four to six lobed and reddish in colour. Petals are purplish or
brown in colour. Fruit is large, woody, smooth and ellipsoid in shape with a prominent
dorsal ridge or ‘keel”. Fruit colour changes from green to brown when mature. Fruits
are buoyant and dispersed by currents and when the fruit is floating, the “keel” acts
as a sail, aiding dispersal.
Uses: It is one of the important timber trees found in the mangroves. Heartwood is
brown, red-brown or dark red brown in colour, coarse textured, fine grained, hard
and strong and takes polish well but is nondurable. It is considered as a utility
timber, used for boat building, flooring, furniture, interior finishing and decorative
veneers. It was informed by some of the elders that in the Maldives, trees of H. littoralis
were present in considerable numbers in some of the southern islands but now it has
become rare.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows well in the landward edge of

mangroves where soil salinity is low. It prefers sandy loam for better performance. It
is propagated by seeds and nursery-raised seedlings. Mature fruits, which are brown
in colour, become dark brown as soon as they come into contact with water or moist
soil. These fruits are collected from the forest floor and used for direct dibbling in
containers in the nursery since germination rate of naked seeds is very poor.
Germination, which starts in about eight days and complete within 50 days, is
nearly 75% when the matured fruits are dibbled. Seedlings attain a height of about 50
to 60 cm in about ten months, which can be used for outplanting and in this method
of propagation survival rate is nearly 90%.
Lumnitzera racemosa - Burevi
Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. COMBRETACEAE

Common name: Black mangrove
Dhivehi name: Burevi
Status: Common; found along the boarder of closed and open lagoons
both in the northern and the southern islands. Natural regeneration is
very high.
Description: An evergreen, medium sized, erect and much-branched tree that grows
up to 10 m tall but in the Maldives most of the trees are only around 4 to 6 m in
height. Above-ground breathing roots are normally absent but in moist environments,
small looping lateral roots may develop. Bark is grey in colour and fissured
longitudinally in older trees. Leaves are simple, alternate in arrangement, small in
size, 3 to 7 cm long and 2 to 3 cm wide, succulent, obovate in shape with an indent
in the tip; leaf margin is slightly wavy. Inflorescence is spike, 2 to 3 cm long and
axillary in position. Flowers are small and erect with green-coloured tube-like calyx,
which is divided into five lobes at the tip. Petals are five, white in colour and arranged
alternate to sepals. Stamens are ten in number, free, arranged in two whorls, five
stamens at the base of the petal and remaining five at the base of the lobes of the
calyx. There is no vivipary or cryptovivipary. Fruit is vase-shaped, 1 to 2 cm long,
yellowish green in colour, glossy, corky, buoyant and dispersed by currents. Each
fruit contains one oblong ovoid seed.
Uses: Main trunk provides a hard and durable timber. In the Maldives, timber is used
for wooden house construction and sticks of lesser diameter are used for rafters on
wooden roof houses. Larger wood is sometimes used in boat building. Stems are used
for pushing boats in shallow water. It is considered as excellent firewood. High-
quality charcoal is prepared from larger stems.
Ecology, propagation and management: It prefers relatively less moist, well drained,
sandy soil mixed with clay for better performance. It also prefers relatively higher
ground level than other mangrove plants. It is a non-viviparous mangrove species
and seeds are similar to terrestrial plants. It is normally propagated by nursery-raised
seedlings and wildlings. Mature fruits are brown in colour and can be easily collected
from trees or gathered from ground. Fruits are normally used for planting instead of
seeds. Fruits are sown in a slanting position in containers, keeping half of the fruit
inside the mud. Fruits should be stored in wet condition for three to five days before
sowing. Germination rate decreases with increasing salinity and no germination will
be seen if the salinity increases beyond 25 ppt. Nursery-raised seedlings 20 to 30 cm,
which can be obtained within a period of ten months, can be used for outplanting.
Pemphis acidula - Kuredhi, keredhi
Pemphis acidula J. R. & G. Forst. LYTHRACEAE

Common name: Iron wood
Dhivehi names: Kuredhi, keredhi
Status: Abundant; grows along the beaches of almost all islands and
forms contiguous stands in many places.
Description: An evergreen, much-branched, slow growing shrub or small tree 4 to 6

m tall with crooked and twisted stem. The lower branches, even though dry, are
persistent and rigid, and as the trees grow very closely, they form impenetrable
thickets. No prominent aerial roots are present. Twigs are angular and hairy. Bark is
light grey to brown, flaky in old trees. Leaves are simple, opposite in arrangement,
oblong to lanceolate in shape, 0.5 to 2.2 cm long and 0.2 to 1 cm wide, round or
bluntly acute at the tip and hairy on both the sides. Inflorescence is one to a few
flowered cymes, axillary in position and hairy. Flowers are white or pinkish-white in
colour and 0. 7 to 1.0 cm across; calyx is tubular, 12- lobed, green in colour and hairy.
Petals are six, white and inserted between calyx lobes. Fruit is tubular with rounded
apex, about 1 cm long and 0.3 to 0.5 cm wide, densely hairy and green in young and
brown when matured. Each fruit contains 20 to 30 small seeds.
Uses: It is one of the most favoured timbers in the Maldives. Heartwood is very hard,
heavy, strong and durable and resistant to wood-boring molluscs and termites. It is
used for boat building, particularly for internal beams and pegs to hold together
planks. It is also favoured for carved objects such as tool handles (long knife, axe
etc.), chess coins, toys and other handicrafts. It is a preferred firewood but with a
very hot flame.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on a variety of soil including

coastal fine sand, coastal limestone rock, cliffs, coral conglomerate, limestone bedrock
outcrops of atolls etc. It is able to grow in places where seawater wet its roots regularly
during the high tide. It is propagated by seeds, wildlings and roots suckers. Seeds are
not directly sown in the field. Nursery-raised seedlings are used for outplanting.
Mature fruits can be easily identified by their brown colour and each fruit contains 20
to 30 very small seeds which can be collected by gently pressing the matured fruits.
Collected seeds should be subjected to floating test and seeds that float are viable.
Seeds may be kept soaked for one to two days before planting in containers. Nursery-
raised seedlings 15 to 20 cm can be used for outplanting. Propagation by wildlings is
relatively less successful compared to nursery raised seedlings. It can also be propagated
by planting straight stems with roots in suitable places. It needs to be pruned to get
straight poles.
Rhizophora apiculata - Thakafathi
Rhizophora apiculata Bl. RHIZOPHORACEAE

Synonyms: Rhizophora candelaria, Rhizophora conjugata
Dhivehi name: Thakafathi
Status: Rare; a few individuals are found in the northern islands
Description: An evergreen, medium sized, much-branched tree that is capable of

reaching 20 m height but most of the individuals found in Maldives are only about
6 to 10 m tall. It is characterized by the presence of numerous stilt roots, which are
looping from branches and trunk bases and provide support to trees; they also
function as air-breathing roots. Bark is grey or dark grey in colour and sometimes
longitudinally fissured. Leaves are simple, opposite in arrangement, narrowly elliptic,
apiculate (with abrupt slender tip) and smaller than that of other Rhizophora species.
Inflorescence is a two-flowered cyme on short, stout, dark grey peduncle and axillary
in position. Calyx is four lobed, greenish yellow inside and reddish green outside.
Petals are four in number and white coloured; not hairy. Viviparous propagules are
shorter than that of R. mucronata, 25 to 30 cm long, green to brown in colour, warty
or relatively smooth, buoyant and dispersed by currents.
Uses: Wood, which is light weight and less durable, is not widely used. It is sometimes
used for docking the boat for repair and poles are used for boat plying. Stilt root,
which becomes smooth after removing the bark, was once used for window frames in
traditional houses. Though it is an excellent firewood, in the Maldives it is not used
for this purpose.
Ecology, propagation and management: It prefers deep soft mud for better performance
but is capable of growing in sandy soil and coral ramparts. In unfavourable conditions,
it develops a straggling or semi-prostrate habit. It is easily propagated by propagules.
Matured propagules can be identified by the red collar in the cotyledon. They can be
collected from trees or gathered from ground and water. If fallen propagules are used,
their surface should be checked for pinholes caused by borer insects. Propagules can
be stored for five days in buckets filled with brackish water. Daily dousing with water
is necessary to prevent desiccation. Propagules can be directly planted by inserting
one-third of their length into sediments. Nursery-raised seedlings can also be used
for plantation. Seedlings of at least 30 cm in height and at least with four leaves and
kept in nursery for four to five months should be used for outplanting. Survival rate
and performance is similar both in direct planting of propagules and planting of
nursery-raised seedlings.
Rhizophora mucronata - Ran’doo
Rhizophora mucronata Poir. RHIZOPHORACEAE

Synonym: Rhizophora macrorrhiza
Dhivehi name: Ran’doo
Status: Occasional; found growing as pure stand or mixed with Bruguiera

spp. both in the northern and southern islands. Natural regeneration is
found to be moderate.
Description: An evergreen, medium to tall tree that may reach 25 to 30 m height. As

in the case of Rhizophora apiculata numerous, much-branched, hoop or pile-like stilt
roots loop from branches and stems and provide support to trees. These stilt roots
also function as above-ground breathing roots. Bark is brown or reddish, smooth
and sometimes scaly. Leaves are single, opposite, leathery, broadly elliptic to oblong-
elliptic in shape with very distinct black dots on the under surface and tipped with
fine spine (mucor). Leaf stalk is 3 to 5 cm long. Inflorescence is dichotomously
branched cyme, four to eight flowered and axillary in position; peduncle is slender,
yellow and 2 to 3 cm long (in Rhizophora apiculata peduncle is stout and dark grey
in colour). Flowers are creamy white, fleshy and fragrant. Calyx is deeply four lobed
and pale yellow. Petals are four in number, light yellowish, densely haired along the
margin. Viviparous propagules are longer than that of Rhizophora apiculata, 40 to
70 cm long, 2 to 2.5 cm in diameter, cylindrical, warty, green to yellowish green in
colour, buoyant and dispersed by currents.
Uses: Stilt root, which becomes smooth after removing the bark, was used in the past
to make windows of traditional houses. Bark of the tree is used as a dying agent for
fishing lines. Dye produced from the bark is very thick and paint like, which makes
fishing lines water proof. Wood is light weight, less durable and small in size due to
short and crooked trunk. Poles are used for boat plying. Small pieces of wood are
used for docking the boats for repair. In many countries very fine quality charcoal are
produced from the wood.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows well in deep soft mud, which is rich
in humus. It is also capable of growing well in fine sands to coarse stones and coral
ramparts. In higher salinity it develops a straggling or semi-prostate habit. It can be
easily multiplied by propagules. Mature propagules have light green or yellow cotyledon
and they can be collected from trees or gathered from the forest floor and water.
Propagules of about 50 cm that have not yet started rooting alone are used for
plantation. They can be planted by inserting one-third of their length into the mud.
Sprouting completes within three weeks and in ten months it grows to a height of
100 to 125 cm.
Sonneratia caseolaris - Kuhlhavah
Sonneratia caseolaris (L. ) Engl. SONNERATIACEAE

Synonyms: Sonneratia acida, Rhizophora caseolaris
Common names: Crabapple, mangrove apple
Dhivehi name: Kuhlhavah
Status: Occasional; found growing as pure stand with a few individuals

both in the northern and the southern group of islands.
Description: A small- to medium- sized sized, evergreen tree 8 to 10 m tall with open
spreading crown, horizontal branches and slender twigs. Above-ground branching
roots (pneumatophores) are peg like, 50 to 90 cm tall and up to 7 cm in diameter with
spongy outer surface. Bark is grey and flaky in the older trees. Leaves are simple and
shiny; opposite in arrangement, oval to oblong in shape; apex is rounded but with a
prominent recurved tip. Leaves are 4 to 8 cm long with short petiole having a reddish-
pink base. Inflorescence is one to a few flowered cyme, terminal in position on outer
twigs. Flowers are large, 8 to 10 cm wide with prominent red and white stamens;
calyx six to eight lobed and green coloured and petals are red. Flowers open only in
the late evening, lasting one night only; nectar is plenty in the calyx. Fruit is round
but flattened, green in colour, with horizontally extended calyx and persistent long
style.
Uses: Timber is heavy and hard, resistant to wood boring molluscs and other pests.
In the Maldives, it is used for boat building and house construction. Fruit is edible,
which tastes like cheese, is eaten raw and relished by children and adult alike. It is
also sold in the market. It some countries fruits are used in and for making vinegar.
Pieces of pneumatophores are used as fishing floats.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is normally found in the places of mangrove

wetlands where soil and running water salinity is low. However, it can tolerate soil
salinity upto 35 ppt. In the Maldives, it is located mostly around very shallow
depressions situated somewhat away from the shoreline. It is propagated mainly by
nursery-raised seedlings. Mature fruits detach easily from the calyx and float in the
water. They can be easily collected during the low tide and collected fruits can be kept
in a heap for a few days to allow the outer skin to rot. After that seeds can be easily
separated by squeezing the fruit in water; viable seeds float. These seeds are kept in
brackish water for about five days and most of them sink in two days and sprout in
five days and then again float with extended roots. These sprouted seeds can be used
for sowing in containers in the nursery. Seedlings reach 30 to 40 cm in height within
a period of five to six months, which can be used for outplanting.
Xylocarpus rumphii - Maru gas
Xylocarpus rumphii (Kostel) Mabb. MELIACEAE

Common name: Cedar mangrove
Dhivehi name: Maru gas
Status: Rare; a few trees are found in the mangrove environment in some
of the northern islands. Natural regeneration is very poor and no seedling
is noticed.
Description: A small sized, evergreen tree that grows up to 6 to 10 m in height. No

prominent above-ground breathing root is present (in a related species Xylocarpus
granatum buttress and plank roots are present; in another related species Xylocarpus
moluccensis buttress, plank and peg-like pneumatophores are present). Bark is brown,
rough, fissured and peeling in thick narrow strips. Leaves are compound, alternate
in arrangement and leaflets are two to four pairs. Each leaflet is ovate to cordate in
shape, 7 to 10 cm long, shiny, green with curled margin and pointed tip (in X.
granatum leaf tip is rounded). Inflorescence is a panicle, up to 12 cm long and
mainly axillary in position. Flowers are small in size, 0.8 to 1.0 cm in diameter, with
four- lobed yellowish-green calyx and four creamy to greenish-white petals. Fruit is
round, about 15 to 20 cm in diameter, green in colour, glossy, contains four to ten
seeds. Seeds are buoyant and dispersed by currents.
Uses: It is one of the important timber trees of the mangrove forest. Heartwood is
brown and red in colour with streaks. Wood is strong, hard and durable. The wood
is a good cedar-like timber but long pieces can not be cut because trunk is usually
crooked and sometimes hallow. In the Maldives, it is used for boat building, house
construction and furniture. It is also widely used as wooden pegs. It is not resistant
to termites. Number of seeds in fruits varies from four to ten and they are beautifully
interlocked. It is very easy to dismantle these seeds but it is very difficult to put the
seeds back together and because of this reason it is popularly called as the monkey
puzzle nut.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is capable of growing well in deep rich soil
and also in coarse stones, rocky shores and coral ramparts. It is multiplied by seeds.
Normally nursery-raised seedlings are used for planting. Fruits, which are slightly
cracked, are collected from trees and kept in a bucket of water. Mature fruits float and
immature fruits sink and rot. Floating fruit gradually break up and viable seeds will
float. These seeds are placed in the container, keeping the radicle side down.
Germination initiates three weeks after sowing and continues up to 12 weeks and
normal rate of success is 60 to 65%. Seedlings, which attain 80 to 120 cm height in ten
months, can be used for outplanting. In some cases, seedlings 40 cm tall are also
used for outplanting.
Palm trees
Areca catechu - Fen-foah
Areca catechu L. ARECACEAE

Synonyms: Areca faufel, Areca hortensis, Areca himalayana
Common names: Betel nut, areca
Dhivehi name: Fen-foah
Status: Common; grown in home gardens and cultivated in large scale.
Description: An erect, slender-stemmed, single-trunked palm that can grow up to

30 m tall but normally trees are in between 10 to 15 m in height. Trunk is green when
young, grey coloured in old trees with prominent white leaf scars. Fronds (leaves) are
even-pinnately compound with a rigid but recurved rachis and 30 to 50 long
lanceolate-shaped leaflets. Frond base sheath is long, smooth and green in colour.
Flowers are yellow or creamy white in colour, fragrant and unisexual, with both male
and female flowers borne on the same inflorescence. Inflorescence is commonly called
as spadix (flower spike), much-branched and borne below the leaves and enclosed in
a spathe. Each terminal branch or spikelet of the inflorescence has a few female
flowers at the base and numerous male flowers extending from there to the tip. Male
flowers are small in size with three petals and calyx cut into three minute lobes.
Female flowers are much larger than male flowers with three sepals and three petals.
Fruit is ovoid, hard and orange or scarlet coloured with fibrous mesocarp (middle
layer) and a thin woody endocarp enclosing a seed. Seeds are ovoid or ellipsoidal and
1.5 to 1.8 cm in diameter with a flattened base.
Uses: Seeds of betel nut are normally cut into narrow pieces and rolled inside betel
leaf, rubbed over with lime and chewed by elders and young people alike. It is also
chewed alone. Betel nut has astringent, stimulative, digestive and cardiotonic
properties exerted by tannin and alkaloid substances present in it. It is a powerful
agent to stimulate secretion of saliva. Powered nut is effective in expelling tapeworms
from human beings and also combating round worms.
Ecology, propagation and management: It is capable of growing in a wide variety of

soil, from laterite to loamy soil, provided the soil has thorough drainage yet has
capacity to retain optimum moisture. Normally, light and sandy soils are unsuitable
unless well irrigated and manured. It has poor tolerance to drought and requires
uniform moisture year-round. Its tolerance to salt spray, salinity and wind is poor. It
is propagated only by seeds. Fully matured, heavy fruits that float vertically in water
have high germination rate and vigorous seedlings. Fruits are planted as a whole,
with husk for propagation. Nursery-grown seedlings of one to two years old, which
should bear at least five leaves, are transplanted from nursery bed to field.
Cocos nucifera - Dhivehi ruh
Cocos nucifera L. ARECACEAE

Common names: Coconut, coconut palm
Dhivehi name: Dhivehi ruh
Status: Abundant; cultivated in large scale and also grows wild, forming
coconut forests.
Description: A large, single-stemmed palm with stout, straight or slightly curved

trunk, rising from a swollen base surrounded by a mass of roots. Trunk is light
greyish brown in colour, smooth and marked with rings of leaf scars. Tall varieties
may attain a height of 20 to 30 m while dwarf varieties are much shorter in stature.
Fronds (leaves) are pinnate, up to 6 m long and 1.5 to 2 m wide with 200 to 250 linear
lanceolate-shaped leaflets arranged in a single plane on either side of the rachis. Leaf
stalks are about 1 to 1.5 m long and smooth. Male and female flowers are borne on
the same inflorescence, called a spadix that develops within a woody canoe shaped
sheath and have 10 to 50 branchlets (spikelets). Male flowers are small, light yellow
in colour, numerous and found towards the tips of branchlets. Each spikelet has zero
to three large female flowers at the base. Fruits are ovoid in shape and composed of
a thick, fibrous husk surrounding a somewhat spherical nut with a hard, hairy shell.
Three sunken holes (‘eyes’) of soft tissue are present at one end of the nut. Inside the
shell is present a thin, white, fleshy layer, about one inch thick at maturity, is present,
which is the kernel (meat) of the coconut. Fruits survive up to 120 days afloat in
seawater and are dispersed by ocean currents. There are two distinct varieties, tall
and dwarf and tall varieties are commonly cultivated around the world.
Uses: Coconut palm is a multiple use tree and considered as one of the ten most
useful trees in the world. It plays an important role in the economy and food and
nutritional security of the people of the Maldives. Mature kernel is eaten as food and
shredded kernel is used in curries, sweets and desserts. Cream extracted from the
kernel is also used in curries and sweets and flavouring of a variety of local dishes
including fish curries. Oil extracted from dried kernel (copra), which is rich in glycerine,
is widely used in cooking and used to make soaps, shampoos, shaving creams,
toothpaste, lotions, hydraulic fluid, etc. A sweet juice extracted from a clump of
unopened flowers is easily boiled down to syrup, called coconut molasses, which is
crystallized into a light brown or dark-coloured sugar. Left standing, it ferments
quickly into a beer called “toddy”. After a few weeks it becomes vinegar. Husk of the
nut contains fibre, which is combed out and sold as coir, a material for making rope
and coconut matting. Fibre is resistant to seawater and is used as cables and rigging
in ships, for making mats, rugs, bags, brooms and brushes and also as olive oil filter
in some European countries. In the Maldives, trunk wood is used for house
construction and outer wood, which is hard, heavy, strong and close-grained, is used
for boat building. Mature fronds are commonly woven into thatching material, walls
of temporary buildings and screens. Shell, which is hard and fine grained, is carved
into all kinds of objects including souvenirs, drinking cups, scoops, smoking pipe
bowl etc. Charcoal from the shell is used for cooking fires, air filters, in gas masks,
submarines and cigarette tips. Regarding uses in traditional medicine, young leaves
are used in the Maldives in the preparation of rughaglu beys used to treat muscle
sprains and bone fracture. It is an excellent source of firewood; various part of the
tree such as leaf stalk, husk of the nut, leaflets, rachis etc., are used as firewood. It is
one of the ideal species for coastal bioshield and can play an important role in it as a
commercially important tree.
Varieties of coconut: In the Maldives, the following varieties of coconut are commonly
found: Nulu ruh (tall variety with green-coloured fruit), Rathu ruh (tall with red-coloured
fruit), Kuhi ruh (tall variety with green- and red-coloured fruit), Jafanah ruh (short
variety with green-coloured fruit) and Dhanbu ruh (short variety with red-coloured
fruit). Among these, rathu ruh is more abundant and both rathu and nulu ruh are
cultivated mainly for oil. The famous kurumbapani of the Maldives is the coconut
milk of dhanbu ruh.
Ecology, propagation and management: Coconut palm prefers a year-round warm

and humid climate. Rainfall in the range of 1500 to 2500 mm, distributed evenly
throughout the year and relative humidity above 60% provide ideal climate for the
vigorous growth and yield. Presence of water table within easy reach of roots can
offset inadequate rainfall. It is well adapted to a wide variety of soils though coarse
sand in the coastal areas is its natural habitat. It grows well in deep soil and cultivated
in a large scale in loamy and clayey soil that has good drainage. It tolerates saline and
infertile soils but tolerance to drought is limited. It also tolerates wind-driven salt
very well. It has capacity to withstand cyclonic winds provided roots are well anchored.
It is propagated only by seed and does not multiply vegetatively. Seeds can be
collected from mature nuts, which are indicated by dryness of the husk and turning
of outer layer from green to brown. Seed nuts are buried two-third of their length in
coarse soil to reduce the loss of nut water through evaporation. Depending on the
type, germination can occur four to six weeks after sowing and continue over an
eight week period; regular watering during this period is necessary. Germinating
nuts with the first compound leaf fully developed are the best to be transferred to the
nursery. Seedlings raised in-ground should be outplanted not later than six months
old whereas seedlings raised in container can be planted at about eight to ten months.
Pandanus trees and shrubs
Pandanus odoratissimus - Maakashikeyo
Pandanus odoratissimus L. f. PANDANACEAE

Synonym: Pandanus leucanthus
Common names: Pandanus, screw pine
Dhivehi name: Maakashikeyo
Status: Abundant; found growing along the beaches of almost all the
islands
Description: An erect, evergreen, coarsely branched tree that looks like a large branched
candlestick or holder. It can grow to a height of 15 m. Branching is dichotomous
(repeated branching into two equal parts) or trichotomous or irregular. Prop roots are
numerous, thick and originate from the base of the trunk. Exposed stems are usually
pale buff or grey brown, grossly ringed by leaf scars. Stems are hollow. Leaves are
sword like, 1 to 2 m long and 4 to 7 cm wide, arranged spirally in three rows at the tips
of the branches. In fully exposed leaves, the midrib is bent, and the upper third or so
of the leaf hangs down, giving Pandanus plants their characteristic drooping
appearance. Leaf apex is long and flagella like. Underside the leaves, especially at the
base two clearly demarcated very pale dull green strips are present, one on either side
of the midrib. Margin of the leaves and midrib are prickled. Prickles are white or with
dark tip, 3 to 5 mm long, slender and slightly curved. Prickles of the midrib are
forwardly directed in the distal half of the leaves and downwardly directed in the
lower half. Male and female flowers are in separate trees. Male inflorescence is a
raceme of spikes, and male flowers are tiny, white, and fragrant with large showy
bracts. They last only for about a day, with the inflorescence decaying within three to
four days. Female inflorescence is pineapple like, composed of free or joined carpels,
ripening as drupes (phalanges). Fruits are variable in shape, ovoid, ellipsoid, sub-
globose or globose with tightly bunched, wedge shaped fleshy drupes, which are also
referred to as keys. Fruits are green when unripe, orange or red or vermilion when
ripe. Each drupe or phalange is covered with a pericarp (outer layer) and the middle
layer or mesocarp is divided into upper and lower mesocarp. Upper mesocarp
comprises an elongated cavern with tissue containing air spaces and lower mesocarp
is fleshy and fibrous and this is the portion of the fruit that is chewed and eaten.
Endocarp that covers the seed is hard and stony.
Uses: It is an important component in the food security system of the Maldives and
considered as the best source of food during famine and scarcity. Red portion of the
ripe fruit is eaten raw. Juice, locally called as baipainkandhi, is extracted from the fruits
by cutting them into small pieces, boiling them in water with sugar and then crushed
and strained. Fruit is also used in various food preparations. It is cooked with rice
and sugar to prepare a delicious traditional food called kashiko bondibaiy. A sweet
Pandanus tectorius - Boa kashikeyo
soup, called kashiko baypeen, is prepared from the fruit. A sweet namely, kashiko foa
is prepared by cooking pieces of fruits with sugar and wheat flour and sold in local
market. Leaves, after thoroughly dried and prickles removed, are used to make a kind
of soft mat called santhi. Prop root, locally called aloho, is used as a brush to paint
boats. Hollow stems were once used to build houses but now are widely used to
construct hargue, a place where boats are hauled for repair. Stems, which are fibrous
and very soft, are widely used in making hulhuashi, a resting platform commonly
found nearby the beach.
Pandanus tectorius Parkinson PANDANACEAE

Synonyms: Pandanus laevis, Pandanus moschatus, Pandanus spurius
Common names: Pandanus, screw pine
Dhivehi name: Boa kashikeyo
Status: Abundant
Description: It is more or less similar to P. odoratissimus in appearance and

morphological features. It also looks like a large branched candlestick or holder with
numerous prop roots but is comparatively smaller in size than P. odoratissimus. In P.
tectorius, prop roots sometimes emerge from the upper part of the trunk whereas in P.
odoratissimus they emerge only from the base of the trunk. Leaf spines are larger and
white or very pale in colour in P. odoratissimus whereas they are smaller and greenish
in P. tectorius. Leaves of P. odoratissimus have two strips at the base, one on either side
of the midrib. No such feature could be observed in P. tectorius. P. odoratissimus and P.
tectorius are very close to each other taxonomically and they are thought to hybridize
readily where they co-occur.
Uses: Fruits of P. tectorius is normally not consumed in the Maldives because it
causes an itching sensation on the tongue. Unlike P. odoratissimus, stems of P.
tectorius are not widely used. Both the Pandanus species help to bind sand and
prevent wind erosion, when they are grown on the seaward slopes and crests of
frontal sand dunes. They also function as wind break. Since both the species are
tolerant to salt spray, sand blasting, exposure to strong winds and high levels of solar
radiation they can be part of multispecies bioshield for coastal area protection.
Ecology, propagation and management: Pandanus spp. grow on a wide variety of
coastal soils, including sandy and rocky beaches, raised coralline terraces and recent
basalt (lava flows). They are adapted to shallow, saline, sodic, alkaline, and thin and
nutrient poor soils over limestone and peaty swamps. They also grow well in soils with
free or impeded drainage, including seasonally waterlogged soils. They are very tolerant
Pandanus amaryllifolius - Raampa, raampe faiy
of salt laden winds and salt spray and also of strong and steady winds. Pandanus
spp. have a capacity to regenerate rapidly from seed in fallen fruit segment. It is not
normally cultivated in the Maldives. However, it can be propagated by seed and
branch cuttings. Seed can be collected from intact phalanges (keys) by keeping them
in cool tap water for about five days, changing the water daily. Viable phalanges will
float. They can be sown directly or propagated in a nursery. Seedlings 4 to 12 months
old can be used for outplanting. Branch cuttings are made form shorter laterals
including one or more aerial or prop roots and the length of the cuttings normally
ranges from 20 to 40 cm. Leaf area of the branch cuttings is reduced by about 70% by
cutting or trimming the leaves. Cuttings should be planted immediately after collection
for high rate of establishment and growth.
Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. PANDANACEAE
Synonym: Pandanus odorus
Common names: Fragrant pandan, fragrant screwpine
Dhivehi names: Raampa, raampe faiy
Status: Occasional; grown in home gardens as a spice.
Description: A shrub that grows to 1 to 1.5 m height with spirally arranged sword-
like leaves. Adult leaves are about 80 to 110 cm long and 6 to 8 cm wide with rather
abruptly rounded or acute tip. Lateral pleats of leaves, well developed in other
Pandanus species, are obsolete in Pandanus amaryllifolius. There is no spine in the
midrib and margins of the leaves also lack any spine except at extreme apex where
there may be a few minute prickles present. Male flowers are extremely rare and there
is no scientific description of a female flower.
Uses: It is the only Pandanus species with fragrant leaves and the aroma is distinctly
pleasant, somewhat nutty and reminiscent of fresh hay. Scent of the Pandanus
leaves develops only on withering; the fresh, intact leaves have no odour. In the
Maldives, leaves are often used as a flavouring agent along with curry leaves or alone
while cooking various curries.
Ecology, propagation and management: Pandanus amaryllifolius is cultivated traditionally

and it is not recorded in the wild. It is propagated by root suckers. Suckers 30 to 40 cm
are carefully removed and planted in the kitchen garden. It requires regular but light
watering for better performance. If there is no sufficient watering, leaves will become
chloritic and aroma will not be strong.
Narrow leaved tree - Casuarina
Casuarina equisetifolia - Fithuroanu
Casuarina equisetifolia L. CASUARINACEAE

Synonyms: Casuarina litoralis, Casuarina litorea
Common names: Casuarina, beef wood, beach she-oak
Dhivehi name: Fithuroanu
Status: Occasional and recently introduced.
Description: A fast growing, evergreen tall tree that is capable of growing to height of
20 to 30 m. The shape of the crown is narrowly pyramidal, resembling some of the
conifers in appearance. Crown tends to be flat in old trees. Trunk is straight,
cylindrical, branchless up to 5 to 8 m. Buttress is commonly seen in old trees. Bark is
smooth and greyish-brown in young plants, turning to rough, thick, fissured and
splitting into strips and flakes and dark brown in old trees. Branches are long with
soft dark green and sometimes grey “needles”. These drooping needles are actually
multi-jointed branchlets with prominent angular ribs and 25 to 35 cm in length and
1 mm thick. Leaves are reduced to tiny scales, tooth like and arranged in whorls of
seven to eight at the nodes of the green branchlets. Flowers are unisexual. Male
flowers are terminal or sub-terminal, simple, elongated spikes, 0.8 to 4 cm long and
greenish-grey in colour. Infructescence (multiple fruits) is a woody, cone-like structure,
0.1 to 2.5 cm long and 0.15 to 2 cm wide, containing a number of small fruits, which
are grey or yellow-brown in colour and winged.
Uses: She-oak is considered as one of the best firewood because it readily catches fire
even when green and ashes retain heat for a long time. Wood is also used to produce
fine quality charcoal. Wood is hard to very hard and strong but difficult to season
due to severe warping and checking. In the Maldives, timber is sometimes used to
make fashan (keel) of dhonis. It is one of the main trees used to control soil erosion. It
has been reported that casuarina plantation played a role in reducing the impact of
tsunami on the lives and property of the coastal community and thus it can be an
important constituent of coastal bioshield.
Ecology, propagation and management: It grows on a variety of soil but it performs

well in sandy soil. It is highly tolerant to drought and aerosol salt. Its tolerance to soil
salinity is good. It is also capable of withstanding high temperatures and high
winds, and thus becoming a candidate species to plant along the shoreline.
Propagation is mainly by seeds. Seeds can be sown without any pretreatment and
seeds germinate within two weeks. Seedlings raised in nursery beds can be transplanted
to containers after attaining 5 to 10 cm height. Container seedlings, which are 25 to 30
cm height, are suitable for outplanting.
References
1. Danielsen, F., Sørensen, M. K., Olwig, M. F., Selvam, V., Parish, F.,
Burgess, N., Hiraishi, T., Karunagaran, V. M., Quarto, A., Suryadiputra
N. 2005. The Asian Tsunami: A Protective Role for Coastal Vegetation.
Science 310, 643.
2. Duke, N.C. 1984. Mangrove Floristics and Biogeography. In A.I
Robertson and D.M.Alongi (eds.). Tropical Mangrove Ecosystems. Coastal
and Estuarine Geophysical Union, Washington DC.
3. MFAMR, 1995. Maldives. Country Report to the FAO International
Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources (Leipzig, 1996).
Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources, Male.
Republic of Maldives.
4. Forsberg, F.R. 1957. The Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. Atoll Researc h
Bulletin 58, 1-37.
5. MEEW, 2006. Assessment of Eidhigali Kulhi and Koattey Area,
S.Hithadhoo, Maldives. Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water,
Male. Republic of Maldives.
6. MHAHE, 1999. Second National Environmental Action Plan.
Ministry of Home Affairs Housing and Environment, Male. Republic
of Maldives.
7. Morner, N.A., Tooley, M., Possenert G. 2004. New perspectives for
the future of the Maldives. Global and Planetary Changes 40, 177-182.
8. Pahram, B.E.V. 1971. The vegetation of the Tokelau Islands with special
reference to the plants of Nukunonu atoll. New Zealand Journal of Botany
9, 576-609.
9. Selvam, V., Eganathan, P., Karunagaran, V.M., Ravishankar, T.,
Ramasubramanian, R. 2004. Mangrove Plants of Tamil Nadu.
M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, India.
10. Selvam, V. 2005. Impact assessment for Mangrove and Shelterbelt Plantations
by Tsunami for Tamil Nadu Forestry Project. Report submitted to the Japan
Bank for International Cooperation, New Delhi.
11. Thom, B.G. 1984. Coastal landforms and geomorphic processes. In

S.C.Snedaker and J.G.Snedaker (eds.). The Mangrove Ecosystems: Research
Methods. Monograph on Oceanographic Methodology 8. UNSECO,
Paris.
12. Wills, J.G., Gardiner J.S. 1901. The botany of the Maldive Islands.
Annual Review of Botanical Garden of Peradeniya 1 (2), 45-164.
13. Zuhair, M. 1997. Country Report – Maldives. Asia-Pacific Forestry
Sector Outlook Study Working Paper Series. Working Paper No.
APFSOS/WP/30, FAO, Rome.
14. Kathiresan, K., and Bringham B.L. 2001. Biology of mangroves and
mangrove ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology, 40: 81-251.
Further readings
1. Bornhorst, H.L. 2005. Growing Native Hawaiian Plants: A How-to Guide
for the Gardener. The Bess Press, Honolulu.
2. Choudhury, J.K. 1993. Mangrove conservation and management in Maldives:
Report to the Government of the Republic of Maldives. FAO, Rome.
3. De Fonseka, R.N., and Balasubramanium, S. 1984. An illustrated
account of some Maldivian plants. Ministry of Education, Male. Republic
of Maldives
4. Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). 2006. Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands. Permanent
Agricultural Resources, Holualoa, Hawaii, USA.
5. Hachinohe, H., Suko, O. and Ida, A. 1998. Nursery manual for mangrove
species. The Development of Sustainable Mangrove Management
Project, Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops, Indonesia and Japan
International Cooperation Agency, Bali, Indonesia.
6. Jensen, M. 1999.Trees commonly cultivated in Southeast Asia: an illustrated
field guide. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP), Bangkok,
Thailand. 230 pp
7. Kanvinde, S.H. 1999. Maldivian Gender Roles in Bio-resource Management.
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand.
8. Krauss, B.H. 1993. Plants in Hawaiian Culture. University of Hawaii
Press, Honolulu.
9. Lemmens, R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I., and Wong, W.C. (eds.). 1995.Timber
trees: Minor commercial timbers. Plant Resources of Southeast Asia No.
5.2. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands.
10. Little, E.L.,Jr., and Skolmen, R.G. 1989. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii
(Native and Introduced). Agricultural Handbook 679. USDA,
Washington DC.
Ref erences, furt her readings and websit es
11. Mabberly, D.J. 1997. The plant book. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge. 858 pp.
12. Macmillan, H.F. 1935. Tropical planting and gardening with special
reference to Ceylon. Macmillan and Co Ltd., London. 560 pp.
13. MRDW, 2002. Overview of the Marshall islands’ Forest Resources. Ministry
of Resources, Development and Works, Agriculture Division,
Republic of the Marshall Islands.
14. Plant resources of South-East Asia, Backhuys Publisher, Leiden, The
Netherlands.
15. Ravishankar, T. 2005. Forestry Assessment and Programme Planning,
Maldives. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok,
Thailand.
16. Selvam, V., K.K.Ravichandran, V.M.Karunagaran, K.G.Mani and
G.Evanjalin Jessie Beula. 2004. Joint Mangrove Management in Tamil Nadu:
Processes, Experiences and Prospects: Part 1 to 4. M.S.Swaminathan
Research Foundation, Chennai, India.
17. Soerianegara, I., and Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (eds.). 1993. Timber trees:
Major commercial timbers. Plant Resources of Southeast Asia No. 5.1.
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands.
18. Sosef, M.S.M., Hong, L.T., and Prawirohatmodjo, S. (eds.). 1998. Timber
trees: Lesser-known timbers. Plant Resources of Southeast Asia No. 5.2.
Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, The Netherlands.
19. Stone,E.L., Migvar, L., and Robison, W.L. 2000. Growing Plants on Atoll
Soils. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore,
California.
20. Taniguchi, K., Takashima, S. and Suko, O. 1998. The silvicultural manual
f o r m a n g r o v e s . The Development of Sustainable Mangrove
Management Project, Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops,
Indonesia and Japan International Cooperation Agency, Bali,
Indonesia.. 62 pp.
21. Tejwani, K.G. 1994. Agroforestry in India. Centre for Natural Resources
and Environment Management, New Delhi, India.
22. Thaman, R.R., Elevitch, C.R., and Wilkinson, K.M. 2000. Multipurpose
Trees for Agroforestry in the Pacific islands. Agroforestry Guides for
Pacific Islands No.2. Permanent Agricultural Resources, Holualoa,
Hawaii, USA.
23. Valentine, N. 1999. A preliminary report on non-timber forest products

in some Pacific Islands countries. Working Paper 6, SPC/FAO Forests
and Trees Support Programme, Suva, Fiji.
24. Vaughen, J.G. and Geissler, C.A. 1999. The new Oxford book of food
plants. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 239 pp.
25. Weins, H.J. 1962. Atoll Environment and Agriculture. Yake University
Press, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
26. Wilkinson, K.M., and Elevitch, C.R. 2000. Non-timber Forest Products
for Pacific Islands: An introductory guide to producers. Agroforestry
Guides for Pacific Islands No.3. Permanent Agriculture Resources,
Holualoa, Hawaii.
27. Wilkinson, K.M., and Elevitch, C.R. 2000. Integrating Understory Cro p s
with Tre e C ro p s : An Introductory Guide for Pacific Islands.
Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands No.4. Permanent Agriculture
Resources, Holualoa, Hawaii, USA.
Important websites
1. Centre for New Crops and Plant Products: Purdue University. Website:
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/
2. Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk Project.
Website: http://www.hear.org/pier/
3. Permanent Agricultural Resources.
Website: http://www.agroforestry.net/
4. University of Florida. Environmental Horticulture: Plant Information
Database. Website: http://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/database/
5. World Agroforestry Centre. Agroforestree Database: A tree species
reference and selection guide.
Website: http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/SEA/Products/
AFDbases/AF/asp/BotanicSearch.asp
Index of scientific and common names
A Areca himalayana ................... 209
Adenanthera pavoniana .......... 17 Areca hortensis ........................ 209
Achras zapota .......................... 113 Artocarpus altilis ...................... 31
Adenanthera gersenii ............... 17 Artocarpus communis .............. 31
Agathi ....................................... 151 Artocarpus heterophyllus ........ 33
Agati grandiflora ..................... 151 Artocarpus integrifolia ............. 33
Albizia saman ............................ 19 Aveloz ......................................... 89
Alexander Laurel wood ............ 49 Averrhoa bilimbi ........................ 35
Allophylus cobbe ...................... 21 Averrhoa carambola .................. 37
Allophylus rheedii .................... 21 Avicennia marina .................... 181
Allophylus serratus .................. 21 Azadirachta indica ................... 39
Annona asiatica ........................ 29 B

Annona australis ...................... 23 Banyan tree ................................ 91
Annona bonplandiana ............. 25 Barringtonia asiatica ................ 41
Annona chrysocarpa ................ 23 Barringtonia speciosa ............... 41
Annona cinerea ......................... 29 Bay cedar .................................. 153
Annona glabra ........................... 23 Beach cordia ............................... 77
Annona humboldtiana ............. 27 Beach heliotrope ...................... 169
Annona humboldtii .................. 27 Beach hibiscus ......................... 105
Annona muricata ...................... 25 Beach she-oak .......................... 225
Annona peruviana .................... 23 Beef wood ................................. 225
Annona reticulate ...................... 27 Ben nut ...................................... 119
Annona squamosa .................... 29 Betel nut .................................... 209
Areca ......................................... 209 Bilimbi ........................................ 35
Areca catechu .......................... 209 Binacaea sappan ....................... 47
Areca faufel .............................. 209 Bitter orange ............................... 65
Black mangrove ....................... 195 Castor bean .............................. 147

Black plum ............................... 157 Castor oil plant ........................ 147
Blinding tree ............................. 191 Casuarina ................................. 225
Bowstring hemp ........................ 51 Casuarina equisetifolia ........... 225
Breadfruit ................................... 31 Casuarina litorea ..................... 225
Bruguiera caryophylloides ..... 183 Cedar mangrove ...................... 205
Bruguiera conjugata ................ 185 Ceriops candolliana ................ 189
Bruguiera cylindrica ............... 183 Ceriops tagal ............................ 189
Bruguiera eriopetala ............... 187 Cheesefruit ............................... 117
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza .......... 185 Chicle tree ................................. 113
Bruguiera sexangula ............... 187 Cicca acidus ............................. 129
Bullock’s heart ........................... 23 Citron .......................................... 71
Burmese rosewood .................. 143 Citrus aurantifolia ..................... 63
C Citrus aurantium ....................... 65
Caesalpinia bonduc .................. 43 Citrus decumana ....................... 69
Caesalpinia bonducella ............ 43 Citrus grandis ............................ 69
Caesalpinia minutiflora ........... 47 Citrus limon ............................... 67
Caesalpinia pulcherrima .......... 45 Citrus maxima ........................... 69
Caesalpinia sappan .................. 47 Citrus medica ............................. 71
Calophyllum inophyllum ........ 49 Citrus medica var. limonium .... 67
Calotropis gigantea ................... 51 Citrus var. medica ...................... 71
Carambola .................................. 37 Clerodendron neriifolium ........ 73
Carica papaya ............................ 53 Clerodendrum inerme ............... 73
Cassia auriculata ...................... 55 Coconut .................................... 211
Cassia fistula ............................. 57 Coconut palm .......................... 211
Cassia glauca ............................. 61 Cocos nucifera ......................... 211
Cassia occidentalis ................... 59 Coffee senna ............................... 59
Cassia surrattensis .................... 61 Colubrina asiatica ..................... 75

Index of Scient if ic and Common Names
Common guava ....................... 141 Erythrina orientalis ................... 85

Copper pod .............................. 127 Erythrina variegata ................... 87
Coral tree .................................... 85 Eugenia aquea ......................... 155
Coral wood ................................. 17 Eugenia jambolana ................. 157
Cordia moluccana ..................... 77 Eugenia jambos ....................... 159
Cordia orientalis ........................ 77 Eugenia javanica ..................... 155
Cordia subcordata ..................... 77 Euphorbia tirucalli .................... 89
Cork wood tree ......................... 125 Excoecaria agallocha .............. 191
Country almond ...................... 165 F
Country gooseberry ................. 129 Fedegoso ..................................... 59
Crabapple ................................. 203 Ficus benghalensis .................... 91
Cucumber tree ............................ 35 Ficus benjamina ......................... 93
Curry leaf .................................. 123 Ficus elastica .............................. 95
Custard apple ............................ 27 Ficus indica ................................ 91
D Ficus nitida ................................ 93
Delonix regia .............................. 79 Ficus rubra ................................. 95
Dendrolobium umbellatum ...... 81 Five-leaved chaste tree ............ 171
Desmodium umbellatum .......... 81 Flame of the forest ...................... 79
Dhakan’dhaa ........................... 139 Fragrant pandan ..................... 221
Dodonaea angustifolia ............. 83 Fragrant screwpine ................. 221
Dodonaea viscosa ..................... 83 Frangipanni ............................. 137
Drumstick tree .......................... 119 G
Dwarf poinciana ....................... 45 Galucocus cassia ....................... 61
E Garden quinine ......................... 73
Emblic myrabalan ................... 131 Giant bush hop .......................... 83
Emblica officinalis ................... 131 Giant milkweed ......................... 51
Entrolobium saman .................. 19 Gliricidia .................................... 99
Erythrina indica ........................ 87 Gliricidia sepium ...................... 99
Golden flame ............................ 127 Indian gooseberry .................... 131

Golden shower .......................... 57 Indian jujube ............................ 175
Grand devil’s claw .................. 133 Indian mulberry ....................... 117
Grey mangrove ........................ 181 Indian oak ................................ 163
Grey nickernut ........................... 43 Indian redwood ......................... 47
Guava ....................................... 141 Indian rubber fig ........................ 95
Guayabano ................................. 25 Indian rubber tree ...................... 95
Guettarda speciosa ................. 101 Indian sankewood .................... 75
Gul mohur .................................. 79 Inga dulcis ................................ 135
H Iron wood ................................. 197
Half flower ............................... 149 J

Henna tree ................................ 107 Jack fruit ..................................... 33
Heritiera littoralis .................... 193 Jack in the box .......................... 103
Heritiera minor ........................ 193 Jamaica cherry tree .................. 121
Hernandia ................................ 103 Jambolan ................................... 157
Hernandia nymphaeifolia ..... 103 Jambos ...................................... 159
Hernandia ovigera .................. 103 Jambosa jambos ....................... 159
Hernandia peltata ................... 103 Japanese cherry ....................... 121
Hernandia sonora ................... 103 Jujube ........................................ 175
Hibiscus populneoides ........... 167 L
Hibiscus tiliaceus .................... 105 Large-leafed mangroves ......... 185
Hog plum ................................. 173 Latherleaf ................................... 75
Horse bush ................................. 81 Lawsonia inermis .................... 107
Horseradish tree ...................... 119 Lemon ......................................... 67
I Lettuce tree ............................... 133
Indian banyan tree .................... 91 Leucaena .................................. 109
Indian blackberry .................... 157 Leucaena glauca ...................... 109
Indian coral tree ......................... 87 Leucaena latisiliqua ................ 109
Leucaena leucocephala .......... 109 N

Lime ............................................ 63 Narra ......................................... 143
Looking-glass mangroves ...... 193 Naseberry ................................. 113
Lumnitzera racemosa ............. 195 Neem ........................................... 39
M Nit pitcha ................................. 101
Mangifera indica ..................... 111 Noni .......................................... 117
Mango ....................................... 111 O
Mangrove apple ....................... 203 Ochrosia borbonica ................. 125
Manila tamarind ..................... 135 Ochrosia oppositifolia ............ 125
Manilkara achras .................... 113 Oriental mangroves ................. 185
Manilkara zapota .................... 113 P
Mature tea tree ........................... 55 Pagoda gum tree ...................... 115
Melia azadirachta ..................... 39 Pagoda tree ............................... 137
Melia indica ............................... 39 Pandanus ................................. 217
Messerschmidia argentea ....... 169 Pandanus amaryllifolius ........ 221
Mignonette ............................... 107 Pandanus laevis ...................... 219
Milk bush ................................... 89 Pandanus leucanthus ............. 217
Milo ........................................... 167 Pandanus moschatus ............. 219
Mimusops elengi ..................... 115 Pandanus odoratissimus ....... 217
Monkey pod ............................... 19 Pandanus odorus .................... 221
Morgosa-tree .............................. 39 Pandanus spurious ................. 234
Morinda bracteata ................... 117 Pandanus tectorius ................. 219
Morinda citrifolia .................... 117 Papaw ......................................... 53
Moringa oleifera ...................... 119 Papaya ........................................ 53
Moringa pterygosperma ......... 119 Peacock flower ........................... 45
Muntingia calabura ................ 121 Peltophorum ferrugineum ...... 127
Murraya koenigii ..................... 123 Peltophorum pterocarpum ..... 127
Pemphis acidula ...................... 197
Pencil cactus .............................. 89 R

Phyllanthus acidus ................. 129 Rain tree ..................................... 19
Phyllanthus distichus ............ 129 Red bead tree .............................. 17
Phyllanthus emblica ............... 131 Red frangipanni ...................... 137
Pisonia alba ............................. 133 Red jasmine .............................. 137
Pisonia grandis ....................... 133 Red sandalwood ....................... 17
Pithecellobium dulce .............. 135 Rhizophora apiculata ............. 199
Plumeria acuminate ................ 137 Rhizophora candelaria ........... 199
Plumeria acutifolia .................. 137 Rhizophora caryophylloides . 183
Plumeria krugii ........................ 137 Rhizophora caseolaris ............ 203
Plumeria obtusa ....................... 137 Rhizophora conjugata ............ 185
Plumeria rubra ......................... 137 Rhizophora gymnorrhiza ...... 185
Poinciana pulcherrima ............. 45 Rhizophora macrorrhiza ........ 201
Poinciana regia .......................... 79 Rhizophora mucronata .......... 201
Poinciana roxburghii .............. 127 Rhizophora sexangula ........... 187
Pomegranate ............................ 145 Rhizophora tagal .................... 189
Pond apple ................................. 23 Ricinus communis .................. 147
Portia tree ................................. 167 River poison tree ...................... 191
Premna integrifolia ................. 139 Rose apple ................................ 159
Premna obtusifolia .................. 139 S
Premna serratifolia .................. 139 Samanea saman ......................... 19
Psidium aromaticum .............. 141 Sand olive ................................... 83
Psidium guajava ...................... 141 Sapdilla .................................... 113
Pterocarpus blancoi ............... 143 Sappan wood ............................. 47
Pterocarpus indicus ................ 143 Scaevola .................................... 149
Pterocarpus pallidus .............. 143 Scaevola frutescens ................. 149
Pummelo ..................................... 69 Scaevola sericea ....................... 149
Punica granatum ..................... 145 Scaevola taccada ..................... 149
Scrambled egg tree ..................... 61 Syzygium cumini .................... 157

Screw pine ................................ 217 Syzygium jambolanum ........... 157
Sea hibiscus ............................. 105 Syzygium jambos .................... 159
Sea lettuce tree .......................... 149 T
Sea poison tree ........................... 41 Tamarind .................................. 161
Sea putat ..................................... 41 Tamarindus indica .................. 161
Sea trumpet ................................ 77 Tanjong tree .............................. 115
Sea vetch tree .............................. 81 Tassel plant .............................. 153
Seaside clerodendron ................ 73 Teak ........................................... 163
Senna auriculata ....................... 55 Tectona grandis ....................... 163
Senna occidentalis .................... 59 Temple tree ............................... 137
Sesban ....................................... 151 Terminalia catappa ................. 165
Sesbania formosa .................... 151 Terminalia procera .................. 165
Sesbania grandiflora ............... 151 Thakafathi ................................ 199
Small-leafed orange mangrove183 Thespesia ................................. 167
Sonneratia acida ...................... 203 Thespesia macrophylla .......... 167
Sonneratia caseolaris .............. 203 Thespesia populnea ................ 167
Sour lime ..................................... 63 Tournefortia argentea .............. 169
Sour orange ................................ 65 Tree of iron .................................. 99
Sour plum ................................. 173 Tulip tree ................................... 167
Soursop ....................................... 25 V
Star gooseberry ........................ 129 Vitex negundo .......................... 171
Start fruit ..................................... 37
W
Sugar apple ................................ 29
Water apple .............................. 155
Suriana maritima .................... 153
Wax apple ................................ 155
Sweet inga ................................ 135
Weeping fig ................................ 93
Sweetsop ..................................... 29
Wild berry ................................... 21
Syzygium aqueum ................... 155
Wild plum ................................ 173
X Y
Ximenia americana ................. 173 Yellow mangrove ..................... 189
Ximenia laurina ....................... 173 Yellow Poinciana .................... 127
Ximenia rogersii ...................... 173 Z
Xylocarpus rumphii ................ 205 Ziziphus mauritiana .............. 175
Index of Dhivehi names
Aavi an’bu ................................ 111 Dhivehi ruh .............................. 211
Ahi ............................................ 117 Dhoalhan’bu .............................. 67
Amanaka .................................. 147 Dhon’moosa ............................... 21
An’bu ........................................ 111 Dhun’buri ................................ 125
An’malthassh ............................ 57 Dhun’gethi ................................. 73
Annaaru ................................... 145 Dhunnika ................................. 171
Anoanaa ..................................... 25 Eggamu muraka ........................ 89
Ban’bukeyo ................................ 31 En’boo ....................................... 173
Ban’bulhabos ............................. 69 Fa’thangu ................................... 45
Baru ........................................... 181 Faiy kudhi nika ......................... 93
Berebedhi .............................. 85, 87 Faiy kurehi ................................. 87
Bey’s fathangu ........................... 47 Falho ........................................... 53
Beys goan’bili .......................... 131 Feerumuran’ga ........................ 151
Bilamagu .................................... 35 Fen-foah .................................... 209
Bilimagu ..................................... 35 Feyru ......................................... 141
Boa kashikeyo .......................... 219 Fithuroanu ............................... 225
Boda vaki .......................... 185, 187 Funa ............................................ 49
Bodu gas ..................................... 19 Ginimaa ...................................... 79
Bodu gulchampa ..................... 137 Goan’bili ................................... 129
Bodu Kandoo ........................... 185 Gobu gas ................................... 165
Bodu Lun’boa ............................ 71 Haalhala ..................................... 81
Boshi ......................................... 169 Haivakaru ................................ 163
Burevi ........................................ 195 Halaveli .................................... 153
Dhakan’dhaa ........................... 139 Haulhala .................................... 81
Dhan’bu gas ............................. 157 Heenaa ...................................... 107
Dhan’digandu atha .................. 27 Helen’beli ................................. 161
Dhigga ...................................... 105 Hikan’dhi faiy ......................... 123
Dhigu thiyara ............................ 59 Hikan’dhi gas .......................... 123
Dhivehi atha .............................. 29 Hirun’dhu ................................ 167
Hithi gas ..................................... 39 Maakashikeyo .......................... 217

Hudu kiruthona ........................ 89 Madhoshi ................................... 17
Ipil-ipil ...................................... 109 Madhu gas ............................... 165
Jambhoshi .................................. 67 Magoo ....................................... 149
Jan’buroalu .............................. 155 Maru gas ................................... 205
Janbu ......................................... 159 Mas kandhu ............................. 103
Jeymu ........................................ 121 Midhili gas ............................... 165
Kaamaranga ............................... 37 Moonimaa ................................ 115
Kaani ........................................... 77 Muran’ga gas ........................... 119
Kaharuvah gas ........................ 193 Naarin’gu ................................... 65
Kalhuthumeyvaa ....................... 23 Nika ............................................ 91
Kan’doo .................................... 183 Ofi elay gas ............................... 143
Kandhu ..................................... 103 Raampa/Raampe faiy ............ 221
Karamana ................................. 189 Raarohi ....................................... 75
Kashi helebeli .......................... 135 Raaruhi ....................................... 75
Kashi kaburan ........................... 43 Rabaru gas ................................. 95
Kauni .......................................... 77 Raiy gulchampa ...................... 137
Keredhi ..................................... 197 Ran’doo .................................... 201
Kim’bi ......................................... 41 Ranauraa .................................... 55
Kin’bi .......................................... 41 Rangu falho ............................... 53
Kiri gas ........................................ 91 Ranuwia ..................................... 61
Koi an’bu .................................. 111 Reendho varey ......................... 127
Kudhi-ruuvaali .......................... 83 Ruvaa .......................................... 51
Kuhlhavah ............................... 203 Sabhudheli ............................... 113
Kunnaaru ................................. 175 Sakkeyo ....................................... 33
Kuredhi ..................................... 197 Thakafathi ................................ 199
Laami .......................................... 97 Thela ......................................... 191
Laamiaa ...................................... 97 Uni ............................................ 101
Lhos .......................................... 133 Veyo falho ................................... 53
Lun’boa ...................................... 63 Vilaathu atha ............................. 27

Trees and Shrubs of Maldives

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Trees and Shrubs of Maldives

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RAP Publication No.

Trees and shrubs of the Maldives

Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture FAO Regional Office for

First edition: 2007

© FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

Printed by Thammada Press Co.,Ltd., Bangkok

For copies of the book, write to:

1 Int roduct ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 How t o use t his book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2. 1 How t his book is organized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2. 2 Technical t erms relevant f or

3 Broadleaved t rees and shrubs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4 Mangrove t rees and shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

5 Palm t rees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

6 Pandanus t rees and shrubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

7 Narrow leaved t ree - Casuarina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

8 Ref erences, f urt her readings and

import ant websit es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

9 Index of scient if ic and common names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

10 Index of Dhivehi names. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

He Changchui Abdhullah Kamaludeen

The author wishes to express his sincere thanks to Mr. Abdullah

As in many small islands, vegetation in the Maldives has changed both

Fig. 1. Map of the Maldives

The islands of the Maldives can, in general, be divided physiographically

i) Plant communities of the foreshore

ii) Plant communities of the beach crest

a) the Scaevola taccada scrub community, which forms an effective

The microclimate of the inner islands, protected by the beach-crest

extensive coconut plantations. As a result, beach-crest scrub communities

The above description of the plant communities of the Maldives islands

How to use this book

trees and shrubs flourish and their tolerance to various environmental

Technical terms relevant for the identification of trees and shrubs

Entire: simple leaf that has no incisions

Palmately lobed: simple leaf that is divided into three or

Bi-lobed: simple leaf that is divided into two lobes

Paripinnately compound leaf: pinnately compound leaf

Imparipinnately compound leaf: pinnately compound leaf

Bipinnately compound: compound leaf that is twice pinnate

Palmately compound: compound leaf with many leaflets

Trifoliate: compound leaf that has only three leaflets, one

Linear: leaf that is long and narrow, with parallel or nearly

Lanceolate: leaf that looks like a lance, very long but

Oblanceolate: leaf that is shaped like an inverted lance,

Ovate: leaf that looks like a hen’s egg, broadest point of

Obovate: leaf that has an inverted egg shape

Elliptic: leaf that is longer than wide, narrow to round

Oblong: leaf that is longer than broader with the sides

Acute: sharply pointed tip

Acuminate: tapering to a long point

Apiculate: tip with a short, sharp, but not stiff, point

Obtuse: blunt, rounded tip

Emarginate: tip with a swollen notch at the apex

Mucronate: terminating abruptly by a short sharp point

Attenuate: tapering gradually

Acute: pointed, forming less than a right angle

Obtuse: blunt, usually more than a right angle

Truncate: appearing as if the base is cut off, nearly straight

Auriculate: having an ear shaped part at the base

Entire: even and unbroken margin

Sinuate: margin with deep and rounded incisions

Serrate: margin toothed like a saw, with fine teeth