Stability Notes

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Stability/Instability and Equillibrium

Stability: An equillibrium state or configuration of a structural element, structure or
mechanical system is stable if every perturbation (small disturbance) of the system results
only in a small response after which the structure always returns to its original equilibrium
state. Note: the term small is a relative term to ensure that the behavior remains in the
immediate vicinity of the equilibrium state.
The simplest example of a stable mechanical system is a rigid ball in a valley as shown in
Fig.1. The ball can be disturbed slightly, but the ball always returns to the bottom of the
valley. Any slight disturbance of the ball from its position of equilibrium will rise its centre
of gravity and hence an increase in potential energy. Thus the equilibrium position of the
ball corresponds to that of minimum energy (local) and hence the ball, when disturbed, will
always try to regain this equilibrium position. Hence the equilibrium is a stable
equillibrium.
Fig.1. Stable equilibrium
Note: if we give a big disturbance to the ball, we cannot say precisely what will happen to
the ball (perhaps the ball could even be displaced out of this valley) since we do not know
anything about the topography of the surrounding hills and valleys.
Instability: An equillibrium state or configuration of a structural element, structure or

mechanical system is unstable if any perturbation of the system results in a sudden change
in deformation mode or displacement value after which the system does not return to its
original equilibrium state.
Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

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Fig.2. Unstable equilibrium
The simplest example of an unstable equilibrium is a rigid ball placed on top of a hill as
shown in Fig.2. The ball, if disturbed from its position of equilibrium, does not return but
continues to move down from its original equilibrium position. Any slight displacement
from the position of equilibrium will lower the CG and hence will lower the potential
energy of the ball. Hence the original equilibrium position is associated with maximum
energy (local). In this case, the original equilibrium configuration is called an unstable
equillibrium.
The ball in Fig.3, after being displaced slightly, neither returns to its original equilibrium
position nor continues to move away upon removal of the disturbing force. Such form of
equilibrium is called neutral equilibrium. If the equilibrium is neutral, there is no change
in energy during a displacement in a conservative system.
Fig.3. Neutral equillibrium

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Why the energy associated with stable and unstable equillibrium called local
Fig.4. Local minima and maxima of energy and concept of metastability

The ball shown in Fig 4. is in equilibrium in a valley surrounded by hills and other valleys
as well. It can be seen that though the ball is in equilibrium, this equilibrium position is not
corresponding to the absolute minimum potential energy. Such form of equilibrium is still
stable so long as small deformations are considered. i.e. so long as the displacements given
to ball are less than ‘d’, the ball will come back to its original equilibrium position. Hence
such an equilibrium position, though stable, is said to be associated with a minimum energy
which is local. If the displacement is large enough i.e. greater than ‘d’, then the ball can
take a new equilibrium position which is again stable.
Another situation is where there is no stable equilibrium position in the vicinity. In such as
case, if the ball is given a sufficiently large displacement, exceeding ‘d’ for the case in
Fig.4., then the ball originally in stable equilibrium for small perturbations (less than ‘d’),
will become unstable. Thus, we can say the ball in equilibrium at the bottom of small
valley, is stable in the small, but unstable in the large. Such an equilibrium position is
sometimes called metastable.
Buckling and Instability

When a slender structure is loaded in compression, for small loads it deforms in the axial
direction with hardly any noticeable change in geometry and load carrying ability. On
reaching a critical load value, the structure suddenly experience a large deformation (in
orthogonal direction) and it may lose its ability to carry the load. At this stage, the structure

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is considered to have buckled. For eg., when a rod is subjected to axial compression, it first
shortens (axially) slightly but at a critical load the rod bows out (bends laterally) and the
rod is said to have buckled. The major issue with buckling failure is that the structure can
fail at stresses which occurs below the elastic, plastic or even fatigue limit and fracture
strength of the material. Moreover buckling or instability failures are often catastrophic
and will not give sufficient warning before the impending failure as against a ductile failure
mode.
Buckling is also known as structural instability. It is generally classified into two

categories:
1. Bifurcation buckling and 2. Limit load buckling.
In bifurcation buckling, the deflection under the compressive load changes from one
direction to a different direction (for eg. from axial shortening to lateral deflection). The
load at which the bifurcation occurs in the load-deflection curve is called the critical
buckling load or simply critical load. The deflection path that exists prior to bifurcation is
known as the primary path and the deflection path of structure after bifurcation is called
the secondary or post buckling path.
Depending on the structure (material, geometry and boundary conditions) and loading, the
post buckling path may be symmetric or asymmetric, and it may rise or fall below the
critical buckling load.

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Fig.1. Bifurcation buckling: symmetric bifurcation and stable post buckling curve
Fig.2. Bifurcation buckling: symmetric bifurcation and unstable post buckling curve

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Fig.2. Bifurcation buckling: asymmetric bifurcation
In limit load buckling, the structure attains a maximum load without any previous
bifurcation, i.e with only a single mode of deflection. The load deformation behavior of
the structure, after achieving the maximum deformation point A (called the limit point)
suddenly falls off from A to B i.e. the structural element suddenly jumps from A to B under
a fixed level of loading. This snap-through buckling (observed in case of shallow arches
and thin walled spherical domes). The finite-disturbance buckling (unique to shells) is also
an example of limit load buckling.
In limit load buckling, the structural element jumps from one stable equilibrium
configuration to one that is not adjacent and considerable deformation occurs accompanied
by a snapping sound.

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Fig.4. Limit load buckling: Snap-through buckling

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Fig.5 Limit load buckling: finite-disturbance buckling
Few other classifications of buckling:

(a) Small or large deformation buckling: based on the displacement magnitude.
(b) Static or dynamic buckling
(c) Elastic or inelastic buckling (based on material behavior.)
Note: A careful examination of buckling phenomenon reveals that there are in fact only
two kinds of buckling: (1) Bifurcation-type buckling and (2) deflection amplification type
buckling. In fact, most, if not all, buckling phenomenon in the real life situation are the
deflection-amplification type. A bifurcation-type buckling is a purely conceptual one that
occurs in a perfectly straight (geometry), homogenous (material) member subjected to a
compressive loading of which the resultant strictly passes through the centrod of the
member i.e purely concentric loading. It is highly unlikely that any ordinary column will
meet these three conditions perfectly.

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P P
Ideal column (No imperfections)
Bifurcation point Real column (with imperfections)
δ
P
Fig. 6 Load Vs buckling deformation behavior in typical column buckling
Buckling load and its Significance
Buckling load is the load at which the current equilibrium state of a structural element or
a structure suddenly changes from stable to unstable configuration. It is also the load at
which the equilibrium state suddenly changes from a previous stable configuration to
another stable configuration with or without an accompanying large deformation.
Generally, strength and stiffness governs the design of structures. Strength is defined as
the ability of the structure to withstand the applied loads, whereas stiffness is the resistance
to deformation. In case of slender or thin walled structures, the structure become unstable
even before the strength and stiffness criteria are violated and hence buckling is an
important consideration in structural design
Linear elastic bifurcation buckling of structural members is the most elementary form of
buckling and its study is an essential step towards understanding the buckling behavior of

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complex structures, including structures incorporating inelastic behavior, initial

imperfections, residual stresses etc. The load at which linear elastic buckling occurs is
important, because it provides the basis for commonly used buckling formulae used in
design codes.
Estimation of elastic buckling loads – Methods of Stability Analysis

The methods for estimation of buckling loads can be broadly classified into three:
1. Equillibrium or bifurcation approach: In this approach, Newton’s second law is
used to obtain the governing equations. The governing equations are in the form of
an eigenvalue problem in which the eigenvalues represents the buckling load and
eigenvectors represent the buckling modes. The smallest buckling load is termed
the critical buckling load.
2. Energy or variational approach: In energy approach, the total energy (which is the
sum of internal energy and potential energy due to the loads) is minimized to obtain
the governing equations. The critical buckling load is associated with the state of
neutral equilibrium which is characterized by the stationarity condition of the load
with respect to the displacement.
3. Dynamic approach: In dynamic approach, the equations of dynamic equilibrium of
the system is written. Since instability can be seen as the situation when stiffness of
the system reduces to zero, this in turn corresponds to the situation when the natural
frequency of the system reduces to zero. Thus dynamic equillibrium equation of the
system can be solved to obtain the system frequency and equating the same to zero
yields the critical buckling load.
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. The selection of the method can be
problem specific since it will be easier to use one approach for a specific problem.
The equilibrium or bifurcation approach is appropriate for determining the critical buckling
load under the following conditions

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i. The deformations are assumed to be small

ii. The system does not have any imperfections
iii. Informations regarding the post-buckling load deformation path is not required
(the method will not give that information).
The energy approach on the other hand, can be used under the following situation:
i. The deformations can be small or large

ii. The system can have imperfections
iii. The method provides information regarding the post-buckling path if large
deformations are assumed.
The method however has the major limitation that it requires the assumption of the
deformation state, and it should include all possible degrees of freedom.
Q. Obtain the elastic buckling load of the system composed of a rigid bar partially fixed at
the base by a rotation spring as shown in Fig.7.a. Use bifurcation approach.
P P
L (1-cos)
L
L cos

k k
A
A
Fig.7.a. Fig.7.b

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Soln. Consider the deformed configuration of the system under the applied load as shown
in Fig 7.b.
Equillibrium equation at the deformed state can be developed by writing the moment
equillibrium equation about the support
M A =0 −k + PL sin  = 0
k
P =
L sin 
For small deformations sin  = 
k k
 Pcr = =
L L
When P<Pcr, the structure will not be in the deformed state. The structure will buckle into
the deformed state when P=Pcr
Q. Estimate the elastic buckling load for the rigid bar shown in Fig 8 using equilibrium
method
P
Fig.8.

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Q. Obtain the elastic buckling load of the system composed of a rigid bar partially fixed
at the base by a rotation spring as shown in Fig.9.a. Use energy approach
P
P L (1-cos)
L
L cos

k
k
A
Fig.9.a. Fig. 9.b A
Soln.
the total potential energy of system:
 = U − We
1
U= k 2
2
We = P L (1 − cos  )
1
= k  2 − P L (1 − cos  )
2
For the system to be in equilibrium, its total potential energy must be stationary. That is,
the first derivative of P must be equal to zero.

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d
= k  − P L sin 
d
d
For equilibrium; =0
d
Therefore, k  − P L sin  = 0
For small deflections; k − P L = 0
k
Therefore, Pcr =
L
Note: the first derivative of the functional represents the stationarity condition alone. That
is it can either correspond to the maximum or minimum energy. i.e. the equilibrium
configuration can be either stable or unstable. To examine the stability of the equilibrium
state, i.e., whether the equilibrium is stable or unstable, the higher variations of the total
potential energy needs to be investigated.
Q. Estimate the elastic buckling load for the rigid bar shown in Fig 10 using energy
approach.
Fig.10

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Q. Obtain the elastic buckling load of the system composed of a rigid bar partially fixed at
the base by a rotation spring as shown in Fig.11.a. Use dynamic approach
P P
L (1-cos)
L
L cos

k
k
A A
Fig.11.a. Fig. 11.b
Let I be the mass moment of inertia of the rod about the point A.
For dynamic equilibrium condition, the inertial effects need also be accounted. Therefore
using Newton’s 2nd law:
𝑃 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑘𝜃 = 𝐼𝜃̈
Or
𝐼𝜃̈ + 𝑘𝜃 − 𝑃 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
Or
𝑘𝜃 − 𝑃 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜃̈ + =0
𝐼
For small deformations, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
Therefore,

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𝑘−𝑃𝐿
𝜃̈ + ( )𝜃 = 0
𝐼
Or
𝜃̈ + 𝜔2 𝜃 = 0
𝑘−𝑃𝐿
𝜔2 = ( )
𝐼
The condition of instability is defined by the condition 𝜔 = 0 (since stiffness is zero)
𝑘−𝑃 𝐿
Therefore( )=0
𝐼
Or
𝑘−𝑃𝐿 =0
Or
𝑘
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿
Elastic Instability of Columns: Euler theory (Leonhard Euler, 1744)

To determine the critical load of a column, one must find the load under which the member
can be in equilibrium both in the straight and in a slightly bent configuration. The technique
that uses this criterion for evaluating critical loads is called the method of neutral
equilibrium.
Assumptions
1. The member is perfectly straight and the load is applied along its centroidal axis.
2. The material obeys Hooke’s law
3. The deformation of the member is small enough so that the curvature can be
approximated as 𝑦 "

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Case-1 : Pinned – Pinned column x
𝑦
X X
𝑥
Fig.a. Fig.b.
In accordance with the criteria of neutral equilibrium, the critical load is that load for which
equilibrium in the slightly bent configuration as in Fig.b. is possible.
Consider section X-X at x from origin.
The moment at section XX is 𝑀𝑥 = 𝑃 𝑦 (Sagging: +ve)
𝐸𝐼𝑦 " = −𝑃 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 " + 𝑃 𝑦 = 0
𝑃
𝑦" + ( ) 𝑦 = 0
𝐸𝐼
The above is a homogenous linear DE with constant coefficients. Substituting for

𝑃
𝑘2 = ( )
𝐸𝐼
𝑦" + 𝑘 2𝑦 = 0 ;
Soln. 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑥

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𝐴𝑠 2 𝑒 𝑠𝑥 + 𝑘 2 𝐴𝑒 𝑠𝑥 = 0
𝑠2 + 𝑘2 = 0
𝑠 = ±𝑖𝑘
∴ 𝑦 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑥
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑦 = 𝐴1 𝑒 +𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴1 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑘𝑥 ] + 𝐴2 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑘𝑥 ]
𝑦 = (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑖 (𝐴1 − 𝐴2 ) sin 𝑘𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 sin 𝑘𝑥
To evaluate the constants A and B, the boundary conditions for the problem is made use
of:
@ 𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0 (i)
@ 𝑥 = 𝐿; 𝑦 = 0 (ii)
Substituting the first of the BC, A = 0
Thus
𝑦 = 𝐵 sin 𝑘𝑥
Substituting the 2nd BC;
𝐵 sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0
The above equation is called characteristic equation. (typical eigen value problem)
𝐵 = 0 is the trivial solution, since it gives y = 0. Physically stating, this is called trivial
solution since the condition confirms what is already known. i.e. a column is in equilibrium
under any axial load P as long as the member remains perfectly straight.
For non-trivial solution

sin 𝑘𝐿 = 0
i.e. 𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋; where 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …

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The above condition represents the solution to the characteristic equation and are called the
characteristic values or eigen values of the problem.
Note: though negative values of n also represents solution to the above mathematical
statement, it doesn’t represent a physical solution.
From the above expression

𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝑃 𝑛2 𝜋 2
. 𝑘= or 𝑘 2 = i.e = or
𝐿 𝐿2 𝐸𝐼 𝐿2
𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃=
𝐿2
and
𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐵 sin
𝐿
Mode 1:
substituting n=1, the critical buckling load (lowest) corresponding to first buckling mode
i.e.
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟1 = 2
𝐿
corresponding buckling mode:

𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐵 sin
𝐿
Mode 2
4𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟2 =
𝐿2
2nd buckling mode

2𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐵 sin
𝐿

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Fig. # Buckling mode shapes

Mode shapes with n =2 and higher are possible only if the column is physically constrained
from buckling into all lower modes. For eg., if a column cannot move transversely at its
mid height, then the buckling mode n=1 is not possible and the column will buckle into
n=2 mode.
For the hinged-hinged column analyzed here, the column mid height location for n=2 does
not move transversely (but will rotate). Such a point in the buckled mode shape is called a
node.
The constant B which is the amplitude of the half-sine wave in the buckled mode shapes,
is indeterminate because there is no additional condition (equation) left from which B can
be calculated. The indeterminate status of the constant B is a characteristic of all eigen
value problems wherein we find the eigen value and the eigen vector (here buckled mode
shape), but we cannot find the amplitude of the buckling mode shape.
Limitation of Euler buckling load

In addition to the assumptions made while deriving the Euler’s buckling load, the
applicability of Euler’s buckling load is also limited by the maximum stress at buckling.
That maximum stress must be in the elastic range of the material or else alternative methods

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must be used in which plastic deformation is considered. In order to find the limiting value
of buckling load, the buckling load must be expressed in terms of stresses:
The lowest buckling load corresponds to n=1
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 2
𝐿
𝑃𝑐𝑟 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = = 2
𝐴 𝐿 𝐴
But, 𝐼 = 𝐴 𝑟 2 ; where 𝑟 is the radius of gyration. hence
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴 𝑟 2 𝜋 2𝐸
𝜎𝑐𝑟 = =
𝐿2 𝐴 𝐿 2
( )
𝑟
Fig. # Buckling stress Vs Slenderness ratio
From Fig.# it can be seen that as the slenderness ratio 𝐿⁄𝑟 increases, i.e. as the bar becomes
more and more slender. At the same time when 𝐿⁄𝑟 decreases, i.e. as the bar becomes
shorter and fatter, 𝜎𝑐𝑟 increases and is not valid for 𝜎𝑐𝑟 > 𝜎𝑦 ; where 𝜎𝑦 is the yield stress
of the material. Buckling load for stresses above the yield stress of the material needs to be
determined using techniques which employ plastic deformation of the material as well.
Hence it can be said that slender bars or columns buckle elastically, whereas nonslender

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columns might buckle at stresses above the yield stress or could crush or deflect
excessively in the axial directon.
Case 2: One end fixed and other end free
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑐𝑟
𝛿
𝑦
X X
L
𝑥
𝑋
𝑌
Fig. #
At the buckling load, let the column buckle and take a configuration as shown in fig above
and let δ be the lateral deflection at the top. Consider a section XX at x from the origin
𝑀𝑋 = −𝑃(𝛿 − 𝑦) 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: (𝐻𝑜𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔: −𝑣𝑒)

𝐸𝐼 𝑦 " = 𝑃(𝛿 − 𝑦)
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 " + 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝛿
𝑃 𝑃
𝑦" + 𝑦= 𝛿
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑃
Substituting 𝑘 2 =
𝐸𝐼
𝑦" + 𝑘2 𝑦 = 𝑘2 𝛿
Non-homogeneous 2nd order linear DE with constant coefficients
Complimentary solution
𝑦" + 𝑘2 𝑦 = 0
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑠𝑥

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Substitution in to the above equation

(𝑠 2 + 𝑘 2 ) 𝐴 𝑒 𝑠𝑥 = 0
𝑠2 + 𝑘2 = 0
𝑠 = ±𝑖𝑘
𝑦 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴1 𝑒 +𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥
Particular solution
𝑑2
(𝐷2 + 𝑘 2 ) 𝑦 = 𝑘 2 𝛿; where 𝐷2 =
𝑑𝑥 2
1
𝑦= 𝑘2 𝛿
(𝐷2 + 𝑘 2 )
1
𝑦= 𝑘2 𝛿
𝐷2
𝑘 2 (1 + 2 )
𝑘
−1
1 𝐷2
𝑦 = 2 [1 + 2 ] 𝑘2 𝛿
𝑘 𝑘
𝐷2
𝑦 = [1 − 2 ] 𝛿 = 𝛿
𝑘
Therefore total solution = CF + PS
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝛿
The unknown constants A and B can be found using the BCs’
@ 𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0;
𝑑𝑦
@ 𝑥 = 0; =0
𝑑𝑥
Applying condition 1
0=𝐴+𝛿
𝐴 = −𝛿

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𝑑𝑦
= −𝐴𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 ) + 𝐵𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Applying condition 2
0 = 𝐵𝑘 => 𝐵 = 0
∴ 𝑦 = −𝛿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝛿
𝑦 = 𝛿 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 )
To get buckling load

The condition @ 𝑥 = 𝐿; 𝑦 = 𝛿 is utilized
i.e. 𝛿 = 𝛿 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝐿)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝐿 = 0
𝜋
𝑘𝐿 = (2𝑛 − 1) ; n = 1,2,3…
2
2
𝜋2
𝑘 = (2𝑛 − 1 )2
4𝐿2
Or
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 = (2𝑛 − 1 )2
4𝐿2
And
𝜋
𝑦 = 𝛿 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 {(2𝑛 − 1) } 𝑥)
2𝐿
Buckling mode 1: n=1

The smallest value of 𝑘𝐿 which satisfies the equation
𝜋
𝑘𝐿 = (2𝑛 − 1)
2
is for n=1. This represents the simplest mode of deformation
The corresponding value of P will be the lowest buckling load
i.e.

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𝜋
𝑘𝐿 =
2
2
𝜋2
𝑘 =
4𝐿2
𝑃 𝜋2
=
𝐸𝐼 4𝐿2
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
4𝐿2
Buckling Mode shape 1; n=1
𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 𝛿 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 { })
2𝐿
Case: 3 Fixed-fixed bar / column

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Fig. #. Column / bar with fixed-fixed BC under axial compression

𝑀𝑋 = 𝑃. 𝑦 − 𝑀0 Note: 𝑃. 𝑦-> sagging moment and 𝑀0 -> hogging
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 " = −𝑃. 𝑦 + 𝑀0
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 " + 𝑃. 𝑦 = 𝑀0
𝑃 𝑀0
𝑦" + .𝑦 =
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑀0
𝑦" + 𝑘2𝑦 =
𝐸𝐼
Non-homogeneous linear DE with constant coefficients
Solution to homogenous part (CF)
𝑦" + 𝑘2𝑦 = 0
Particular solution:
1 𝑀0
𝑦=
(𝐷2 + 𝑘 2 ) 𝐸𝐼
1 𝑀0
=
𝐷2 𝐸𝐼
𝑘 2 (1 + )
𝑘2
−1
1 𝐷2 𝑀0
= 2 (1 + 2 )
𝑘 𝑘 𝐸𝐼
1 𝐷2 𝑀0 1 𝑀0 1 𝑀0 𝑀0
= 2 (1 − 2 ) = 2 = =
𝑘 𝑘 𝐸𝐼 𝑘 𝐸𝐼 ( 𝑃 ) 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
𝐸𝐼
∴ Total solution:
𝑀0
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 +
𝑃
Arbitrary constants needs to be evaluated using the BC
@𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0

27
𝑀0
0=𝐴+
𝑃
𝑀0
𝐴=−
𝑃
𝑑𝑦
= −𝐴𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
@𝑥 = 0; =0
𝑑𝑥
𝐵=0
𝑀0 𝑀0 𝑀0
∴𝑦=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 )
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
The buckling load can be estimated utilizing the additional condition at x=L/2
𝐿 𝑑𝑦
@𝑥 = ; =0
2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑀0
= . 𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑃
𝐿 𝑀0 𝑘 𝑘𝐿
@𝑥 = ; . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 =0
2 𝑃 2
𝑘𝐿
i.e. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 =0
2
𝑘𝐿
= 𝑛𝜋
2
2𝑛𝜋
𝑘=
𝐿
Mode 1:
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝐿
4𝜋 2
𝑘2 =
𝐿2

28
4𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
Pc𝑟 =
𝐿2
Mode shape
𝑀0 2𝜋𝑥
𝑦= (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
𝑃 𝐿
Case 4: Fixed-Pinned bar/column
𝑀𝑋 = 𝑃. 𝑦 − 𝐻 (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 " = −𝑃. 𝑦 + 𝐻 (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 " + 𝑃. 𝑦 = 𝐻 (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝐻
𝑦" + 𝑘2𝑦 = (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝐸𝐼

29

𝑦" + 𝑘2𝑦 = 0
1 𝐻
𝑦= (𝐿 − 𝑥)
(𝐷2 2
+ 𝑘 ) 𝐸𝐼
1 𝐻
= (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝐷2 𝐸𝐼
𝑘 2 (1 + )
𝑘2
−1
1 𝐷2 𝐻
= 2 (1 + 2 ) (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑘 𝑘 𝐸𝐼
1 𝐷2 𝐻 1 𝐻 𝐻
= 2 (1 − 2 ) (𝐿 − 𝑥) = 2 (𝐿 − 𝑥) = (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑘 𝑘 𝐸𝐼 𝑘 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
∴ Total solution:
𝐻
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑃
Arbitrary constants needs to be evaluated using the BC
@𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0
𝐻𝐿
0=𝐴+
𝑃
𝐻𝐿
𝐴=−
𝑃
𝑑𝑦 𝐻
= −𝐴𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 −
𝑑𝑥 𝑃
𝑑𝑦
@𝑥 = 0; =0
𝑑𝑥
𝐻
0 = 𝐵𝑘 −
𝑃

30
𝐻
𝐵=
𝑃𝑘
𝐻𝐿 𝐻 𝐻
𝑦=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + (𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝑃 𝑃𝑘 𝑃
𝐻 1
𝑦= [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 − 𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 + (𝐿 − 𝑥) ]
𝑃 𝑘
To determine crippling load
@𝑥 = 𝐿; 𝑦 = 0
𝐻 1
0= [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝐿 − 𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝐿]
𝑃 𝑘
Or
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝐿 − 𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝐿 = 0
𝑘
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝐿
𝑘
i.e.
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘𝐿 = 𝑘𝐿
This is a transcendental equation which can only be solved numerically or graphically.
The smallest root or solution is obtained numerically as
𝑘𝐿 = 4.493
𝑘 2 𝐿2 = 20.19
𝑃 2
𝐿 = 20.19
𝐸𝐼
20.19 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
i.e.

31
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 2
(𝐿⁄ )
√2
Case V 𝑃
𝑀0
𝑋 𝑦 𝑋
𝑀0
𝑀𝑋 = −𝑃. (𝛿 − 𝑦) + 𝑀0
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 " = 𝑃. (𝛿 − 𝑦) − 𝑀0
𝐸𝐼 𝑦 " + 𝑃. 𝑦 = 𝑃𝛿 − 𝑀0

𝑦" + 𝑘2𝑦 = 0

32
1
𝑦= 𝑃𝛿 − 𝑀0
(𝐷2 + 𝑘 2 )
1
= 𝑃𝛿 − 𝑀0
𝐷2
𝑘2 (1 + 2 )
𝑘
1 𝐷2 1 𝑃 𝑀0
2
(1 − 2 ) 𝑃𝛿 − 𝑀0 = 2 (𝑃𝛿 − 𝑀0 ) = 2 𝛿 − 2
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝑀0 𝐸𝐼
= 𝐸𝐼 𝛿 −
𝑃
Total solution:
𝑀0 𝐸𝐼
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝐸𝐼 𝛿 −
𝑃
@𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0
𝑀0 𝐸𝐼
0 = 𝐴 + 𝐸𝐼 𝛿 −
𝑃
𝑀0 𝐸𝐼
𝐴= − 𝐸𝐼 𝛿
𝑃
𝑑𝑦
= −𝐴𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
@𝑥 = 0; =0
𝑑𝑥
𝐵=0
𝑀0 𝐸𝐼 𝑀0 𝐸𝐼
𝑦=[ − 𝐸𝐼 𝛿] 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐸𝐼 𝛿 −
𝑃 𝑃
𝑀0 𝐸𝐼
𝑦 = [𝐸𝐼 𝛿 − ] (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 )
𝑃
𝑑𝑦 𝑀0 𝐸𝐼
= [𝐸𝐼 𝛿 − ] 𝑘. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑃

33
The critical buckling load can be evaluated by using the BC

𝑑𝑦
@𝑥 = 𝐿; =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑀0 𝐸𝐼
0 = [𝐸𝐼 𝛿 − ] 𝑘. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝐿
𝑃
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝐿 = 0
𝑘𝐿 = 𝑛𝜋
𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋2
𝑘= ; 𝑘2 =
𝐿 𝐿2
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
Mode 1, n=1
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 2
𝐿
Mode shape
𝑀0 𝐸𝐼 𝑛𝜋
𝑦 = [𝐸𝐼 𝛿 − ] (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)
𝑃 𝐿

34
EFECTIVE LENGTH CONCEPT
Estimation of Crippling Load using Higher order Differential Equations

Till now, buckling loads were estimated utilizing second order governing differential
equations valid for the member. The application of such as method is case specific,
dependent on the section moment and boundary conditions.
A general fourth order governing differential equation, applicable to any column regardless
of the boundary conditions is presented in this section

35
Consider a uniform column subjected to an axial load P as shown:
𝑃 𝑃
𝑑𝑥
𝑥
/
𝑀 𝑀 + 𝑑𝑀
𝑃 𝑃
𝑑𝑦 ∆
𝑑𝑥
𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑥
Consider the equilibrium of an element of length 𝑑𝑥 as shown.
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 =>
𝑑𝑦
𝑀+𝑃 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 − (𝑀 + 𝑑𝑀) = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑃 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑀 = 0
𝑑𝑥
Dividing throughout by 𝑑𝑥,
𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑦
=𝑉+ 𝑃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Or
𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑦
𝑉= −𝑃 (1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
i.e.

36
𝑑𝑉 𝑑2 𝑀 𝑑2 𝑦
= −𝑃 (2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2
But,
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑀 = −𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑥 2
Therefore Eq (3) becomes
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑉 = −𝐸𝐼 3 − 𝑃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉 𝑑4 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
= −𝐸𝐼 4 − 𝑃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
For the problem considered, since transverse loading on the bar is zero
𝑑𝑉
=0
𝑑𝑥
Therefore,
𝑑4 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
𝐸𝐼 +𝑃 =0
𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥 2
The above fourth order DE represents the equation governing the behavior of an axially
loaded column.
The above equation can be rewritten as
𝑑4 𝑦 𝑃 𝑑2 𝑦
+ =0
𝑑𝑥 4 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑4 𝑦 2
𝑑2 𝑦
+ 𝑘 =0
Here we have four unknown coefficients to be determined as against the two in case of
determination of buckling load using second order differential equation. However, here we
have the advantage that the bending moment expression need not be explicitly determined.

37
The four constants can be determined by the The general solution to the above fourth
order DE can be written as
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
application of the boundary conditions.
Case 1: Two ends pinned
𝑦
X X
𝑥
Governing differential equation
𝐸𝐼 +𝑃 =0
𝑑4 𝑦 2
𝑑2 𝑦
+𝑘 =0
The general solution

Applying the boundary conditions:
1. @𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0

38
𝐵+𝐷 =0 (I)
2. @𝑥 = 0; 𝐵𝑀 = 0
2
But BM, 𝑀 = −𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑦2
Or
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑀∝
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦
= 𝐴𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 − 𝐵𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
2
= −𝐴𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 − 𝐵𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
@𝑥 = 0; 𝐵𝑀 = 0 => 𝐸𝐼 = 0
𝑑𝑥2
−𝐵𝑘 2 = 0 => (II)
𝐵=0
But from (I) 𝐵 + 𝐷 = 0
∴𝐷=0
3. @𝑥 = 𝑙; 𝑦 = 0
0 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 + 𝐶. 𝑙 + 𝐷 (III)

4. @𝑥 = 𝑙; 𝐵𝑀 = 0
0 = −𝐴𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − 𝐵𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙
Or:
𝐴. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝐵. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 = 0 (IV)
Considering Eqs. (I) to (IV)

39
0 1 0 1 𝐴 0
[ 0 −𝑘 2 0 0] {𝐵 } = {0} (V)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 𝑙 1 𝐶 0
−𝑘2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 −𝑘2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 0 0 𝐷 0
For non-trivial solution the determinant of coefficient matrix =0

0 1 0 1
2
i.e. | 0 −𝑘 0 0| = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 𝑙 1
2 2
−𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 −𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 0 0
0 0 0 0 −𝑘 2 0
∴ −1 | 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑙 1| − 1 | 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 𝑙 | =0
−𝑘2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 0 0 −𝑘2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 −𝑘2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 0
−1[0 + 𝑘 2 (0 − −𝑘2 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙) + 0] = 0
−𝑘4 𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 = 0
Or
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 = 0
𝑘𝑙 = 𝑛𝜋; 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝑘= ; 𝑘2 =
𝑙 𝑙2
𝑛2 𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
Or 𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝑙2
Lowest buckling load corresponds to n=1

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝑙2
Substituting for 𝑘𝑙 = 𝑛𝜋 in Eq. (V)

0 1 0 1 𝐴 0
2
0 −𝑘 0 0 𝐵
[ sin (𝑛𝜋) cos (𝑛𝜋) ] { } = {0}
𝑙 1 𝐶 0
−𝑘2 sin (𝑛𝜋) −𝑘2 cos (𝑛𝜋) 0 0 𝐷 0

40
0 1 0 1 𝐴 0
0 −𝑘 2 0 0 𝐵
[ (−1)𝑛 ] { } = {0}
0 𝑙 1 𝐶 0
0 −𝑘2 (−1)𝑛 0 0 𝐷 0
𝐵+𝐷 =0
−𝐵𝑘 2 = 0
∴ 𝐵 = 0 and 𝐷 = 0
From Eq.(3)
(−1)𝑛 × 0 + 𝐶 𝑙 + 𝐷 = 0;
𝐶𝑙+𝐷 =0
∴𝐶=0
∴ 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥
𝑛𝜋𝑥
∴ 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑙
For n=1
𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑙

41
Case 2: Both ends fixed
Governing DE
𝐸𝐼 +𝑃 =0
𝑑4 𝑦 2
𝑑2 𝑦
+𝑘 =0

Applying the boundary conditions:
1. @𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0
0=𝐵+𝐷 (I)
𝑑𝑦
2. @𝑥 = 0; =0
𝑑𝑥

42
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
@𝑥 = 0
0 = 𝐴𝑘 + 𝐶 (II)
3. @𝑥 = 𝑙; 𝑦 = 0
𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 + 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐷 = 0 (III)
𝑑𝑦
4. @𝑥 = 𝑙; =0
𝑑𝑥
0 = 𝐴𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − 𝐵𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝐶 (IV)
0 1 0 1 𝐴 0
𝑘 0 1 0 𝐵
[ ] { } = {0}
sin (𝑘𝑙) cos (𝑘𝑙) 𝑙 1 𝐶 0
𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 −𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑙) 1 0 𝐷 0
For non-trivial solution,

0 1 0 1
𝑘 0 1 0
| cos (𝑘𝑙) |=0
sin (𝑘𝑙) 𝑙 1
𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 −𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑙) 1 0
𝑘 1 0 𝑘 0 1
∴ −1 | 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑙 1| − 1 | 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 𝑙 | =0
𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 1 0 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 −𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑙) 1
−1[𝑘(0 − 1) − 1(0 − 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 ) + 0]

− 1[𝑘(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 + 𝑘𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙) − 0 + 1(−𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑘𝑙 − 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑘𝑙 ))] = 0
−1[−𝑘 + 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙] − 1[(𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 + 𝑘 2 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙) − 𝑘(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑘𝑙 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑘𝑙))] = 0
[𝑘 − 𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 ] − 1[(𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 + 𝑘 2 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙) − 𝑘(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑘𝑙 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑘𝑙 ))]=0
𝑘 − 2𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − 𝑘 2 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝑘=0
2𝑘 − 2𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − 𝑘 2 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙=0

43
2𝑘 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 ) − 𝑘 2 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙=0
2𝑘 × 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑘𝑙⁄2) − 𝑘 2 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙=0\
4𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑘𝑙⁄2) − 2𝑘2 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑙⁄2)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑙⁄2) = 0
4𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑙⁄2)[𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑙⁄2) − (𝑘𝑙⁄2)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑙⁄2)] = 0 (V)
The above equation is satisfied if

(i) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑙⁄2) = 0 or (ii) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑙⁄2) − (𝑘𝑙 ⁄2)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑙⁄2) = 0
(i) If 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑙⁄2) = 0 , then
𝑘𝑙
= 𝑛𝜋, n= 1,2,3…
2
Hence
4𝑛2 𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = n= 1,2,3…
𝐿2
To get mode shapes:
𝑘𝑙
Since = 𝑛𝜋; 𝑘𝑙 = 2𝑛𝜋
2
Substituting for 𝑘𝑙 = 2𝑛𝜋 in the below equations:
0 1 0 1 𝐴 0
𝑘 0 1 0 𝐵
[ cos (𝑘𝑙) ] { } = {0}
sin (𝑘𝑙) 𝑙 1 𝐶 0
𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 −𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑙) 1 0 𝐷 0
0 1 0 1 𝐴 0
𝑘 0 1 0 𝐵 0
[ sin (2𝑛𝜋) cos (2𝑛𝜋) 𝑙 1] { 𝐶 } = {0}
𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝑛𝜋) −𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2𝑛𝜋) 1 0 𝐷 0

44
0 1 0 1 𝐴 0
[𝑘 0 1 0] {𝐵 } = {0}
0 1 𝑙 1 𝐶 0
𝑘 0 1 0 𝐷 0
Implies
𝐵+𝐷 =0
𝑘. 𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0
𝐵 + 𝐶. 𝑙 + 𝐷 = 0
𝑘. 𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0
From 3rd eq.

(𝐵 + 𝐷) + 𝐶. 𝑙 = 0
But 𝐵 + 𝐷 = 0; Hence 𝐶. 𝑙 = 0; or 𝐶 = 0
𝑘. 𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0
With C = 0; A = 0
Hence, left with one condition,

𝐵+𝐷 =0
∴ 𝐵 = −𝐷
Substituting in
𝑦 = 𝐷 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥)
2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐷 [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )]
𝑙

45
(ii) If 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑙⁄2) − (𝑘𝑙⁄2)𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑙⁄2) = 0
Then
𝑘𝑙
𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑘𝑙⁄2) =
2
The above equation is a transcendental equation. The lowest root the same
can be numerically obtained as
𝑘𝑙
= 4.493
2
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 8.18𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼⁄𝐿2
This critical load is higher than the one obtained from the condition 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑙⁄2) = 0
Since the column buckles for the first critical buckling load obtained corresponding
to the condition of 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑙⁄2) = 0 , this case alone is of practical utility.

46
Case 3: Fixed- hinged column
𝑑4 𝑦 2
𝑑2 𝑦
+𝑘 =0

BC.
(i) @𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0
𝐵+𝐷 =0
𝑑𝑦
(ii) @𝑥 = 0; =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑘 + 𝐶 = 0
(iii) @𝑥 = 𝑙; 𝑦 = 0

47
𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 + 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐷 = 0
𝑑2 𝑦
(iv) @𝑥 = 𝑙; =0
𝑑𝑥2
−𝐴𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − 𝐵𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 = 0
0 1 0 1 𝐴 0
[ 𝑘 0 1 0] {𝐵 } = {0}
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 𝑙 1 𝐶 0
−𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 −𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 0 0 𝐷 0
0 1 0 1
| 𝑘 0 1 0| = 0
−𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 −𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 0 0
𝑘 1 0 𝑘 0 1
−1 | 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑙 1| − 1 | 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 𝑙| = 0
−𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 0 0 −𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 −𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 0
−1[𝑘(0) − 1(0 + 𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 ) + 0]

− 1[𝑘(𝑘 2 𝑙. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 ) − 0 + 1(−𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 + 𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 )] = 0
𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − 𝑘 3 𝑙. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 = 0
𝑘 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − 𝑘𝑙. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 ] = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − 𝑘𝑙. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 = 0
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑙 = 𝑘𝑙
𝑘𝑙 = 4.493
20.19𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = = 2
𝑙2 (𝑙 ⁄√2)

48
Case 4:
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑐𝑟
𝛿
𝑦
X X
L
𝑥
𝑋
𝑌
𝑑4 𝑦 2
𝑑2 𝑦
+𝑘 =0

BC.
(i) @𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0
𝐵+𝐷 =0
𝑑𝑦
(ii) @𝑥 = 0; =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑘 + 𝐶 = 0
(iii) @𝑥 = 𝑙; 𝐵𝑀 = 0

49
𝑑2 𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥 2
−𝐴𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − 𝐵𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 = 0
(iv) @𝑥 = 𝑙; 𝑆𝐹 = 0
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑉 = −𝐸𝐼 3 − 𝑃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑3𝑦
= −𝐴𝑘 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑘 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑥 3
𝑑3𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑉
+ 𝑘 = −
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
−𝐴𝑘 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 + 𝐵𝑘 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝐴𝑘 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − 𝐵𝑘 3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝑘 2 𝐶 = 0
i.e.
𝑘2 𝐶 = 0
0 1 0 1 𝐴 0
𝑘 0 1 0 𝐵
[ 2 2 ] { } = {0}
−𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 −𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 0 0 𝐶 0
0 0 𝑘2 0 𝐷 0
0 1 0 1
𝑘 0 1 0
| 2 2 |=0
−𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 −𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 0 0
0 0 𝑘2 0
𝑘 1 0 𝑘 0 1
2 2 2
−1 |−𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 0 0| − 1 |−𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 −𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 0|=0
0 𝑘2 0 0 0 𝑘2

50
4
−1[𝑘(0) − 1(0) + 0] − 1 [𝑘 (−𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙) − 0 + 0] = 0
𝑘 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 = 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 = 0
𝑛𝜋
𝑘𝑙 = ; n= 1,2,3…
2
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
4𝑙 2
Columns with elastic support

The boundary conditions for columns considered till now were ideal ones. In real-
life structures, such ideal situations are rare. Instead, the columns are usually
connected to other members. The column deformations are hence influenced by the
member deformations. This type of support is in general referred to as elastic
restraint. The support reactions depend on the relative rigidities of the members.

51
Consider a column hinged at the lower end and elastically restrained by a beam at
the upper end. For simplicity, assume that the length and the bending stiffness of the
beam and column are the same. Bending of the beam is initiated by buckling of
column and there is no bending of beam on account of the load P. In order to maintain
compatibility, the beam and column rotations at joint B has to be the same.
The governing differential equation for the column is

𝑑4 𝑦 2
𝑑2 𝑦
+𝑘 =0


52
The boundary conditions for the column are:

(i) @𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0
(ii) @𝑥 = 0; 𝐵𝑀 = 0
(iii) @𝑥 = 𝑙; 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦
(iv) @𝑥 = 𝑙; = 𝜓
𝑑𝑥
Expression for 𝜓
The rotation of the beam at the point B ( 𝜓 ) can be obtained by treating member BC as a
beam fixed at one end and hinged at the other end and subjected to a bending moment (M)
at B. From the slope deflection equations, the rotation at B for the beam can be written as:
2𝐸𝐼
𝑀= [2𝜓 + 0]
𝐿
𝜓 = 𝑀𝐿⁄4𝐸𝐼
the rotation for the column also being the same, the column moment at B can be written as
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑀 = −𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑥2
Substituting for M in the expression for 𝜓

2
𝐿 𝑑 𝑦
𝜓= −
4 𝑑𝑥2
Applying the boundary conditions to the general solution:
(i) @𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0
𝐵 + 𝐷 = 0 (I)
(𝑖𝑖 ) @𝑥 = 0; 𝐵𝑀 = 0
−𝐴𝑘 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 − 𝐵𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 = 0

53
−𝐵𝑘 2 = 0 (II)
(iii) @𝑥 = 𝑙; 𝑦 = 0
𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 + 𝐶𝑙 + 𝐷 = 0 (III)
𝑑𝑦
(iv) @𝑥 = 𝑙; = 𝜓
𝑑𝑥
𝐴𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − 𝐵𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝐶 = 𝜓
𝐿 𝑑2 𝑦
But 𝜓 = −
4 𝑑𝑥 2
Therefore,
𝐴𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − 𝐵𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝐶 = − 4𝐿 [−𝐴𝑘2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − 𝐵𝑘2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙]
𝑙 2 2
𝐴𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − 𝐵𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝐶 = [𝐴𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + 𝐵𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙]
4
𝑘2 𝑙 𝑘2 𝑙
𝐴 [𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 −
4
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙] + 𝐵 [−𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙] + 𝐶 = 0 (IV)
0 1 0 1 𝐴
0 −𝑘 2 0 0 𝐵
[ ]{ }
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 𝑙 1 𝐶
[𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − (𝑘 𝑙⁄4)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 ] [−𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − (𝑘 2 𝑙⁄4) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 ]
2
1 0 𝐷
0
= {0}
0
0

54
0 1 0 1
0 −𝑘 2 0 0
| |=0
[𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − (𝑘 𝑙⁄4)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 ] [−𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − (𝑘 2 𝑙⁄4) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 ]
2
1 0
0 0 0
−1 | 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑙 1|
(𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − (𝑘 2 𝑙⁄4)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 ) 1 0
0 −𝑘 2 0
−1 | 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 𝑙| = 0
2 2
(𝑘𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − (𝑘 𝑙⁄4)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙) (−𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − (𝑘 𝑙⁄4) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 ) 1
−1 × 𝑘 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − (𝑘𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − (𝑘 2 𝑙 2 ⁄4)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 ] = 0
𝑘 2 [−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 + (𝑘𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − (𝑘 2 𝑙 2 ⁄4)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 ] = 0
𝑘 2 [𝑘𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − (1 + (𝑘 2 𝑙 2 ⁄4))𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙] = 0
𝑘𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 − (1 + (𝑘 2 𝑙 2 ⁄4))𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 = 0
4𝑘𝑙
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑙 =
4 + 𝑘2 𝑙2
Using numerical technique, the smallest root of practical interest for the above
transcendental equation can be obtained as 𝑘𝑙 = 3.83
Therefore
14.67 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝑙2
i.e
1.49 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝑙2

55
The above critical load lies between the critical load for a column with simply supported
and fixed boundary conditions. (𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼⁄𝑙 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 ⁄𝑙 2 )
Hence it can be seen that the ideal boundary conditions provide the upper and lower bounds
for the buckling load of a column. Hence from a design point of view, a structure designed
on the basis of the lower bound value is quite safe. But for an optimal design, estimate of
the buckling load corresponding to the realistic boundary conditions needs to be made.
Behaviour of Imperfect Columns
Estimation of Euler buckling load was made based on the assumption that the column
member is initially perfectly straight and the loading concentric at every cross section of
the member. These idealizations were made to simplify the problem though such members
do not exist in actual engineering structures. Minor imperfections in the form of shape
(initial curvature) and small eccentricities of loading are present in all real columns.
Columns with initial curvature
The buckling load of columns with initial bent configuration (initial curvature) will be
estimated in this section. All other assumptions in Euler theory i.e. linear elastic material
behavior, small deformations and concentric loading holds except for initially straight
configuration.

56
Fig. #
Consider a pinned-pinned column whose centroidal axis has an initial curvature as shown
in Fig.#. Due to the initial curvature, let the lateral deformation of the member be 𝑦0 .
Due to the application of axial compressive load P, let the additional lateral deformation
be 𝑦.
Without loss of generality it is assumed that the initial curvature is of the form
𝜋𝑥
𝑦0 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑙
Note: the shape of initial curvature is assumed to be similar to that of first buckling mode.
The resisting moment at any section can be related to the curvature of the column through
the relation
𝑀𝑥 = −𝐸𝐼𝑦 "

57
Note: bending strains are caused by the change in curvature 𝑦 " and not by the total
curvature 𝑦0" + 𝑦 "
External moment at section XX , at x from base:
𝑀 = 𝑃(𝑦 + 𝑦0 )
Utilizing the condition at neutral equilibrium
𝐸𝐼𝑦 " = −𝑃(𝑦 + 𝑦0 )
𝐸𝐼𝑦 " + 𝑃(𝑦 + 𝑦0 ) = 0
𝑃 𝑃
𝑦" + 𝑦 = − 𝑦0
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 𝑃 𝜋𝑥
𝑦" + 𝑦 = − 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑙
𝜋𝑥
𝑦 " + 𝑘 2 𝑦 = −𝑘 2 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑙
Solution
Solution to homogenous part:
Particular solution
𝜋𝑥
(𝐷2 + 𝑘 2 )𝑦 = −𝑘 2 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑙
Standard solution
1 sin (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)
sin (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 ) = ; 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑓(−𝐴2 ) ≠ 0
𝑓(𝐷2 ) 𝑓(−𝐴2 )
1 2
𝜋𝑥
𝑦= (−𝑘 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 )
(𝐷2 + 𝑘 2 ) 𝑙

58
1 𝜋𝑥
𝑦= (−𝑘 2 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 )
𝜋2 𝑙
(− + 𝑘2)
𝑙2
1 𝜋𝑥
𝑦= (−𝑘 2 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 )
𝜋2 𝑙
𝑘 2 (1 − )
𝑘 2. 𝑙2
−𝑎 𝜋𝑥
𝑦= 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝜋 𝑙
(1 − 2 2 )
𝑘 .𝑙
Therefore total solution,
−𝑎 𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝜋2 𝑙
(1 − 2 2 )
𝑘 .𝑙
𝑃
In the above equation 𝑘 2 =
𝐸𝐼
Taking the Euler buckling load for a pinned pinned column which is initially straight as
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸 = 2
𝑙
𝑃
And 𝛼 =
𝑃𝐸
−𝑎 −𝑎 −𝑎 −𝛼 𝑎 𝛼
= = = = 𝑎
2
𝜋 𝐸𝐼 1 (𝛼 − 1) (1 − 𝛼 )
𝜋2 (1 − ) (1 − )
(1 − 𝑃 ) 𝑃. 𝑙 2 𝛼
. 𝑙2
𝐸𝐼
Therefore, the total solution becomes
𝛼 𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
(1 − 𝛼 ) 𝑙
Estimation of arbitrary constants

59
@𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0 => 𝐴 = 0
@𝑥 = 𝑙; 𝑦 = 0
0 = 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙
Thus either B or 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 should vanish.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 = 0 limits the solution for y to 𝑃 = 𝑃𝐸 . This is undesirable since the solution leads
to the case for a perfect column.
Therefore letting B =0
Note: A=0 does not render the solution y=0 in this case due to initial curvature
𝛼 𝜋𝑥
𝑦= 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
(1 − 𝛼 ) 𝑙
Now, the total deflection from the straight configuration is given by,
𝑦𝑡 = 𝑦 + 𝑦0
𝑖. 𝑒.
𝛼 𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑥
𝑦𝑡 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) + 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
(1 − 𝛼 ) 𝑙 𝑙
𝛼 𝜋𝑥
𝑦𝑡 (𝑥) = [ + 1] 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
(1 − 𝛼 ) 𝑙
𝑎 𝜋𝑥
𝑦𝑡 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
(1 − 𝛼 ) 𝑙
Total deflection at the mid height is:
𝑎 𝑎
𝑦𝑡 (𝐿⁄2) = =
(1 − 𝛼 ) (1 − 𝑃⁄ )
𝑃𝐸

60
It can be seen that as 𝑃 -> 𝑃𝐸 , the deflection at mid height tends to infinity. It is to be noted
that the problem of an initially bent column is not an eigen value problem since for every
load, there is a definite displacement.
The variation of 𝑃⁄𝑃 w.r.t the total midspan deflection for various amplitudes of
𝐸
imperfection at mid height is shown in the above figure.
Based on these curves, the following observations related to the behavior of imperfect
columns can be made:
1. Unlike the perfect column, which remains straight up to the Euler load, the initially
deformed member begins to bend as soon as the load is applied.
2. As the applied load approaches the Euler load, the deflection increases without
bound regardless of the magnitude of the initial imperfection.
3. The load carrying capacity of an imperfect column is always smaller than the Euler
load, regardless of how small the initial imperfection is. Members with large initial
imperfections can thus be expected to fail at loads considerably below the Euler
load, while relatively straight columns will support axial loads only slightly less
than 𝑃𝐸

61
Eccentrically loaded columns
Consider an initially straight column with pinned-pinned boundary conditions. It is

assumed that the member is initially straight and material obeys Hooke’s law and the
deformations are small.
At any section x from the base,
𝑀 = 𝑃(𝑒 + 𝑦)
𝐸𝐼𝑦 " = − 𝑃(𝑒 + 𝑦)
𝐸𝐼𝑦 " + 𝑃𝑦 = −𝑃𝑒
𝑦 " + 𝑘 2 𝑦 = −𝑘 2 𝑒
Solution to homogenous part
Particular solution
1
𝑦= (−𝑘 2 𝑒)
(𝐷2 + 𝑘2)

62
𝑦 = −𝑒
Total solution,
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 − 𝑒
Estimation of constants
@𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0
𝐴=𝑒
@𝑥 = 𝑙; 𝑦 = 0
0 = 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 − 𝑒
𝑒(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙)
𝐵=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙
Therefore,
𝑒(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙)
𝑦 = 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 − 𝑒
(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙)
𝑦 = 𝑒 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 − 1)
The peak deflection at mid-height is obtained by letting 𝑥 = 𝑙⁄2. Thus
𝑘𝑙 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙) 𝑘𝑙
𝛿 = 𝑒 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 1)
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 2
𝑘𝑙
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑙 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2
2
𝑘𝑙 𝑘𝑙
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑙 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2 2
𝑘𝑙
𝑘𝑙 (2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ) 𝑘𝑙
𝛿 = 𝑒 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 1)
2 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑙 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑙 2
2 2

63
2 𝑘𝑙
𝑘𝑙 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 )
𝛿 = 𝑒 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 + − 1)
2 𝑘𝑙
𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
𝑒 𝑘𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑘𝑙
𝛿= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
𝑘𝑙 2 2 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
𝑒 𝑘𝑙
𝛿= (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 )
𝑘𝑙 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
1
𝛿 = 𝑒( − 1)
𝑘𝑙
𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
𝑘𝑙
𝛿 = 𝑒 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( ) − 1)
2
𝑘𝑙 𝑙 𝑃
= √
2 2 𝐸𝐼
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
Sub. 𝑃𝐸 =
𝑙2
Therefore,
𝑘𝑙 𝑙 𝜋 2𝑃
= √2
2 2 𝑙 𝑃𝐸
𝑘𝑙 𝜋 𝑃
= √
2 2 𝑃𝐸
𝜋 𝑃
𝛿 = 𝑒 [𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( √ ) − 1]
2 𝑃𝐸

64
Fig. # Variation of 𝛿 with (𝑃⁄𝑃𝐸 )
Variation of 𝛿 with (𝑃⁄𝑃𝐸 ) is plotted for two values of the eccentricity 𝑒. Comparison of
these curves with those of initially curved columns indicates that the behavior of an
eccentrically loaded column is essentially the same as that of an initially bent column. In
both cases, bending begins as soon as the load is applied. The deflection increases slowly
at first and then more and more rapidly as P approaches 𝑃𝐸 . At P = 𝑃𝐸 the deflection
increases without bound. Column with large load eccentricities deflect considerably at
loads well below the Euler load, whereas columns with very small eccentricities of loading
do not bend appreciably until the load is fairly close to the Euler load.
Energy Methods for Buckling Load Estimation
The exact solution techniques for buckling loads through solution of differential equations
can be difficult when the cross section varies or loading is complicated. Under such
circumstances approximate techniques such as energy methods, finite difference methods,
finite element based methods are resorted to.

65
In the energy based methods the equilibrium will be established by satisfying the law of
conservation of energy, which can be stated as:
For a conservative system in equilibrium the strain energy stored is equal to the work done
by the external loads. A conservative system is one in which the work done by both internal
and external forces is independent of the path traversed by these forces and depends only
on the initial and final positions.
Estimation of buckling load
Fig. # Stages of column deformation- prior to and after buckling
A pinned-pinned column at two stages of deformation is shown in figure above. Assuming

the axial load being increased from zero, with increasing load the column exhibits axial
shorting till ∆𝑎 . For this stage (stage 1), ∆𝑎 is the limiting axial deformation just before
the column starts to buckle laterally.
Applying the principle of conservation of energy for stage 1:

66
1 𝑃2 𝑙
𝑃 ∆𝑎 =
2 2𝐴𝐸
End of stage 1 coincides with the start of buckling. So the load corresponding to end of
stage 1 is the critical load. This at critical load, the member has two equilibrium
configurations (i) the straight configuration and (ii) the curved buckled configuration
(neutral equilibrium configuration)
Let the displacement for the load critical load P (along its original line of action) due to the
lateral buckling be ∆𝑏 .
The work done by this critical load is
∆𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑏
1
Note: is absent due to the fact that 𝑃 remains constant during the displacement ∆𝑏
2
This increment in work done ∆𝑊 by the critical load causes an increase in internal strain
energy (∆𝑈) due to bending of the member (during the transition from straight to curved
configuration).
The energy criterion for determination of the critical load is thus:
∆𝑊 = ∆𝑈
To evaluate ∆𝑊, ∆𝑏 is required
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑠

67
∆𝑏 can be estimated from the above figure as the difference between the arc length and
chord length.
∆𝑏 = 𝑆 − 𝐿
The elemental arc length 𝑑𝑠 can be expressed as

𝑑𝑠 = [𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑦 2 ]1⁄2
1⁄2
𝑑𝑦 2
𝑑𝑠 = [1 + ( ) ] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝐿 1⁄2 𝐿
𝑑𝑦 2 1 𝑑𝑦 2
∴ 𝑆 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ [1 + ( ) ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 + ( ) ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝐿
1 𝑑𝑦 2
∴ 𝑆 = 𝐿 + ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥
0
Hence
𝐿
1 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑆 − 𝐿 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥
0
𝐿
1 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑖. 𝑒. ∆𝑏 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥
0
Hence the work done by the critical load during buckling stage is
𝐿
𝑃 𝑑𝑦 2
∆𝑊 = 𝑃 ∆𝑏 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥
0
2
𝐸𝐼 𝐿 𝑑2𝑦
Similarly ∆𝑈 = ∫0 (𝑑𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2
Conservation of energy principle is

68
∆𝑊 = ∆𝑈
𝐿 𝐿 2
𝑃 𝑑𝑦 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑑2𝑦
∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
0 0
This energy balance equation can be used for the solution of buckling load.
But to evaluate the above integrals, it is necessary to assume a suitable function consistent
with the boundary conditions for the deflection 𝑦 which in turn is introducing the
approximation.
For the column with pinned-pinned BC, a sinusoid function is a good approximation (in
fact the exact buckling mode shape). Hence letting
𝜋𝑥
𝐿
Therefore:
𝑑𝑦 𝜋 𝜋𝑥
= 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝐿
And
𝑑2𝑦 𝜋2 𝜋𝑥
2
= −𝐴 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝐿
Substituting into the energy expression

𝐿 𝐿
𝑃𝐴2 𝜋 2 2
𝜋𝑥 𝐸𝐼𝐴2 𝜋 4 𝜋𝑥
2
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 4
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2𝐿 𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿
0 0
𝐿 𝐿
𝑃𝐴2 𝜋 2 2𝜋𝑥 𝐸𝐼𝐴2 𝜋 4 2𝜋𝑥
∫ [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )] 𝑑𝑥
4𝐿2 𝐿 4𝐿4 𝐿
0 0
𝑃𝐴2 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝐴2 𝜋 4
=
4𝐿 4𝐿3

69
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
Note: in this case, the exact solution for lowest buckling load was obtained because of the
selection of exact buckling shape.
Calculation of buckling load using an approximate deflection curve
The energy method leads to good approximations of the critical load, provided the assumed
shape is reasonably close to the actual deflection curve. The following characteristics of
the approximate curve requires special attention for the same to yield a good approximaton
of the buckling load. The assumed shape must satisfy as many of the boundary conditions
of the system as possible. If it is not possible to satisfy both the geometric conditions and
natural boundary conditions (force BC), then at least the geometric boundary conditions
should be satisfied.
In general, trignometric functions and polynomials are preferred as they are easy to
integrate and are the most convinient functions for approximating deflection curves.
Application example: a hinged-hinged column
Energy conservation statement:

𝐿 𝐿 2
𝑃 𝑑𝑦 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑑2𝑦
∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 0
Assume a polynomial of the form
𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2
𝑦 ′ = 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑥
And

70
𝑦 " = 2𝑐
Geometric BC:
@𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 => a=0
@𝑥 = 𝑙, 𝑦 = 0 =>
0 = 𝑏𝑙 + 𝑐𝑙 2
Or 𝑏 = −𝑐𝑙
Therefore
𝑦 = 𝑐(𝑥 2 − 𝑙𝑥 )
The above approximation satisfies the displacement and slope BC at the two boundaries.
But since the approximate curve yields a constant curvature, it does not satisfy the force
boundary conditions at the boundaries.
𝑦 ′ = 𝑐(2𝑥 − 𝑙)
𝑦 " = 2𝑐
Substituting into the energy conservation expression

𝐿 𝐿
𝑃 𝐸𝐼
∫(𝑐(2𝑥 − 𝑙))2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(2𝑐 )2 𝑑𝑥
2 2
0 0
𝐿 𝐿
𝑃𝑐 2
∫(4𝑥 2 − 4𝑙𝑥 + 𝑙 2 )𝑑𝑥 = 2𝐸𝐼 ∫ 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑥
2
0 0
𝑃𝑐 2 4 3
[ 𝐿 − 2𝐿3 + 𝐿3 ] = 2𝐸𝐼𝑐 2 𝐿
2 3
12𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
Exact solution is

71
9.869𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝐿2
Error = 21.59 %

72
Variational approach for Buckling load estimation
In buckling problems, similar to all structural mechanics problems, the total potential
energy of the system (defined as the sum of potential of external loads and internal strain
energy, 𝛱 = 𝑈 + 𝑉) is taken as the functional. The following two results from the calculus
of variations can be utilized for the computation of buckling loads:
(i) Equilibrium condition can be established by equating the first variation of total
potential to zero.
(ii) The second variation of total potential energy of the system determines whether
the equilibrium is stable or not.
It is possible to calculate the critical load of the system using either of these two results.
Since the critical load is the load at which a system in equilibrium passes from stable to
unstable equilibrium, the critical load can be determined by finding the load at which the
second variation of the total potential energy of the system changes from positive to
negative, i.e. the load at which 𝛿 2 (𝑈 + 𝑉) = 0.
A second approach for finding the critical load is the load at which equilibrium in a
deformed configuration is possible, i.e. the load corresponding to neutral equilibrium. In
this case, one only has to establish the equilibrium of a deformed configuration and this
can easily be accomplished by requiring that 𝛿(𝑈 + 𝑉) = 0 for the deformed
configuration.
This second approach is simpler compared to the first one for establishing equilibrium. But
whenever it is required to establish the stability of the equilibrium configuration, the first
approach should be resorted to.
The condition to be satisfied in variational approach (first variation condition) for

establishing the condition of neutral equilibrium:

73
Consider an initially straight column with pinned-pinned boundary conditions
Fig. # Stages of column deformation- prior to and after buckling
the bending srain energy in the system when the column deforms laterally as the load
reaches the critical load is
𝑙 2
𝐸𝐼 𝑑 2 𝑦
𝑈 = ∫ ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥
0
The potential energy of the external loads consists of the negative product of the axial load
and the vertical distance that the load moves as the member bends.
𝐿
𝑃 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑉 = − ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥
0

74
The total potential energy functional for a column buckling problem hence is:
𝑙 2
𝐸𝐼 𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑃 𝑑𝑦 2
𝛱 = 𝑈 + 𝑉 = ∫ [ ( 2 ) − ( ) ] 𝑑𝑥
0
Rayleigh-Ritz method
In this method, a suitable shape for deformation is assumed in terms of unknown

coefficients. This assumed shape is substituted into the variational statement (total potential
energy in this case) of the problem and the condition for stationarity is enforced. In caseof
buckling problems, the total potential energy corresponding to the state of neutral
equillibrium is written and the approximation for deformation is substituted. The condition
of stationarity i.e. 𝛿𝛱 = 0, is established. Since the total potential function is now in terms
of the unknown coefficients in the deformation approximation, the variation in potational
can be written like
𝜕𝛱
𝛿𝛱 = 0 => 𝛿𝑎 = 0
𝜕𝑎𝑖 𝑖
Where 𝑎𝑖 are the unknown coefficients in the deformation function approximation.
𝜕𝛱
This means =0
𝜕𝑎𝑖
Q. Find the buckling load for a fixed free column using Rayliegh-ritz method. A 2nd degree
polynomial may be used to approximate the deformation shape.

75
Deformation approximation:
𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2
The approximate deflection function should be consistent with the boundary conditions.
@𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0 => 𝑎 = 0
@𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 ′ = 0 => 𝑏 = 0
Thus
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 2
Internal strain energy:
𝑙
𝐸𝐼
𝑈= ∫(𝑦 " )2 𝑑𝑥
2
0
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 2 ; 𝑦 " = 2𝑐
𝑙
𝐸𝐼
∴𝑈= ∫(2𝑐 )2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑐 2 𝐸𝐼𝑙
2
0
Potential of applied load:
𝑙
𝑃 2
𝑉 = − ∫(𝑦 ′ )2 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑃𝑐 2 𝑙 3
2 3
0
Therefore, total potential energy of the system:
2
𝛱 = 𝑈 + 𝑉 = 2𝑐 2 𝐸𝐼𝑙 − 𝑃𝑐 2 𝑙3
3

76
For the approximated deflection to be an equillibrium configuration, thetotal potential

energy corresponding to the same has to be a stationary value.
The stationarity condition is given by
𝜕𝛱
𝛿𝛱 = 0 => 𝛿𝑐 = 0
𝜕𝑐
𝛿𝑐 cannot be zero as this indicates a variation in the approximation for deflection (alternate
path)
𝜕𝛱
Hence has to be zero
𝜕𝑐
𝜕𝛱 𝜕(𝑈 + 𝑉 )
= 0 => =0
𝜕𝑐 𝜕𝑐
2
𝜕 (2𝑐 2 𝐸𝐼𝑙 − 𝑃𝑐 2 𝑙 3 )
3 =0
𝜕𝑐
4
4𝑐𝐸𝐼𝑙 − 𝑃𝑐𝑙 3 = 0
3
3𝐸𝐼
=> 𝑃 =
𝑙2
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
Exact solution is 𝑃 = ;
4𝑙 2
Therefore error: 21.6 %
Note: the accuracy can be improved by choosing a higher order polynomial
𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 3
Applying the BC
@𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0 => 𝑎 = 0
@𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 ′ = 0 => 𝑏 = 0

77
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 3
𝑦 ′ = 2𝑐𝑥 + 3𝑑𝑥 2
𝑦 " = 2𝑐 + 6𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
∴𝑈= ∫(2𝑐 + 6𝑑𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(4𝑐 2 + 24𝑐𝑑𝑥 + 36𝑑 2 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
2 2
0 0
𝑈 = 2𝐸𝐼𝑙(𝑐 2 + 3𝑐𝑑𝑙 + 3𝑑 2 𝑙2 )
𝑙 𝑙
𝑃 𝑃
𝑉 = − ∫(𝑦 ′ )2 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫(2𝑐𝑥 + 3𝑑𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥
2 2
0 0
𝑙
𝑃
𝑉 = − ∫(4𝑐 2 𝑥 2 + 12𝑐𝑑𝑥 3 + 9𝑑 2 𝑥 4 )𝑑𝑥
2
0
𝑃𝑙 3
∴𝑉= − (20𝑐 2 + 45𝑐𝑑𝑙 + 27𝑑 2 𝑙 2 )
30
2 2 2)
𝑃𝑙 3
𝛱 = 2𝐸𝐼𝑙(𝑐 + 3𝑐𝑑𝑙 + 3𝑑 𝑙 − (20𝑐 2 + 45𝑐𝑑𝑙 + 27𝑑 2 𝑙2 )
30
𝜕𝛱 𝜕𝛱
𝛿𝛱 = 0 => 𝛿𝑐 + 𝛿𝑑 = 0
𝜕𝑐 𝜕𝑑
The above condition is satisfied
𝜕𝛱 𝜕𝛱
= 0 and =0
𝜕𝑐 𝜕𝑑
𝜕𝛱
= 0 =>
𝜕𝑐

78
𝑃𝑙 3
2𝐸𝐼𝑙 (2𝑐 + 3𝑑𝑙 ) − (40𝑐 + 45𝑑𝑙 ) = 0
30
40𝑃𝑙 3 45𝑃𝑙 4
(4𝐸𝐼𝑙 − ) 𝑐 + (6𝐸𝐼𝑙 2 − )𝑑 = 0 I
30 30
𝜕𝛱
= 0 =>
𝜕𝑑
2)
𝑃𝑙 3
2𝐸𝐼𝑙 (3𝑐𝑙 + 6𝑑𝑙 − (45𝑐𝑙 + 54𝑑𝑙 2 ) = 0
30
45𝑃𝑙 4 54𝑃𝑙 5
(6𝐸𝐼𝑙 2 − ) 𝑐 + (12𝐸𝐼𝑙 3 − )𝑑 = 0 II
30 30
40𝑃𝑙 3 45𝑃𝑙 4
(4𝐸𝐼𝑙 − ) 𝑐 + (6𝐸𝐼𝑙 2 − )𝑑 = 0 I
30 30
45𝑃𝑙 4 54𝑃𝑙 5
(6𝐸𝐼𝑙 2 − ) 𝑐 + (12𝐸𝐼𝑙 3 − )𝑑 = 0 II
30 30
Multiplying Eq. (I) and (II) by 3
(12𝐸𝐼𝑙 − 4𝑃𝑙 3 )𝑐 + (18𝐸𝐼𝑙 2 − 4.5𝑃𝑙 4 )𝑑 = 0 III
(18𝐸𝐼𝑙 2 − 4.5𝑃𝑙 4 )𝑐 + (36𝐸𝐼𝑙 3 − 5.4𝑃𝑙 5 )𝑑 = 0 iV
Eq. III / (𝐸𝐼𝑙) and Eq.IV/ (𝐸𝐼𝑙 2 )
𝑃𝑙 2 𝑃𝑙 2
(12 − 4 ) 𝑐 + 𝑙 (18 − 4.5 )𝑑 = 0 V
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑙 2 𝑃𝑙 2
(18 − 4.5 ) 𝑐 + 𝑙 (36 − 5.4 )𝑑 = 0 VI
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑙 2
Sub. 𝛼 =
𝐸𝐼
(12 − 4𝛼 )𝑐 + 𝑙(18 − 4.5𝛼 )𝑑 = 0 VII
(18 − 4.5𝛼 )𝑐 + 𝑙(36 − 5.4𝛼 )𝑑 = 0 VIII

79
(12 − 4𝛼 ) 𝑙(18 − 4.5𝛼 ) 𝑐 0

[ ]{ } = { }
(18 − 4.5𝛼 ) 𝑙(36 − 5.4𝛼 ) 𝑑 0
The coefficients 𝑐 and 𝑑 can be solved using Cramer’s rule.
0 𝑙(18 − 4.5𝛼 )
| |
0 𝑙(36 − 5.4𝛼 )
∴𝑐=
(12 − 4𝛼 ) 𝑙(18 − 4.5𝛼 )
| |
(18 − 4.5𝛼) 𝑙(36 − 5.4𝛼 )
(12 − 4𝛼 ) 0
| |
(18 − 4.5𝛼) 0
∴𝑑=
(12 − 4𝛼 ) 𝑙(18 − 4.5𝛼 )
| |
(18 − 4.5𝛼) 𝑙(36 − 5.4𝛼 )
Since the numerator for both cases is zero, this leads to the trivial solution of 𝑐 = 𝑑 = 0
But this corresponds to the case of zero deflection i.e. non-buckling and hence not
acceptable.
For non-trivial solution the denominator has to be zero
(12 − 4𝛼 ) 𝑙 (18 − 4.5𝛼)

i.e. | |=0
(18 − 4.5𝛼 ) 𝑙 (36 − 5.4𝛼)
(12 − 4𝛼 ) × 𝑙 (36 − 5.4𝛼) − (18 − 4.5𝛼) × 𝑙 (18 − 4.5𝛼 ) = 0
(432𝑙 − 64.8𝛼𝑙 − 144𝛼𝑙 + 21.6𝛼 2 𝑙) − (324𝑙 − 81𝛼𝑙 − 81𝛼𝑙 + 20.25𝛼 2 𝑙) = 0
108𝑙 − 46.8𝛼𝑙 + 1.35𝛼 2 𝑙 = 0
108 − 46.8𝛼 + 1.35𝛼 2 = 0
𝛼 = 32.18 or 𝛼 = 2.486

80
Lowest value of 𝛼 = 2.486
𝑃𝑙 2 𝐸𝐼
But 𝛼 = ; 𝑃 = 2.486
𝐸𝐼 𝑙2
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
Exact solution is 𝑃 = ;
4𝑙 2
Error = 1.85 %
Estimation of buckling load for column section with variable cross-section
Consider an initially straight column with pinned-pinned boundary conditions, with a

stepped crossesction whose MI’s are as marked in figure.
The approximate deflection functon is assumed as
𝜋𝑥
𝑙
The expression satisfies the essential and natural boundary conditions.

81
𝜋 𝜋𝑥
𝑦 ′ = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
𝑙 𝑙
And
𝜋2 𝜋𝑥
𝑦 " = −𝐴 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑙 𝑙
Making use of symmetry, the internal strain energy in bending is:
𝑙 ⁄4 𝑙 ⁄2
𝐸𝐼0 𝐸𝐼0
𝑈 = 2[ ∫ (𝑦 " )2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑦 " )2 𝑑𝑥 ]
8 2
0 𝑙 ⁄4
𝑙 ⁄4 𝑙 ⁄4 𝑙 ⁄4
𝜋4 𝜋𝑥 𝜋4 2𝜋𝑥 0.045𝐴2 𝜋 4
∫ (𝑦 " )2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴2 4 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴2 4 ∫ [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )] 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑙 𝑙 2𝑙 𝑙 𝑙3
0 0 0
𝑙 ⁄2 𝑙 ⁄2
𝜋4 𝜋𝑥
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 4 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
( " )2 2
𝑙 𝑙
𝑙 ⁄4 𝑙 ⁄4
𝑙 ⁄2
4
𝜋2
2𝜋𝑥 0.205𝐴2 𝜋 4
= 𝐴 ∫ [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )] 𝑑𝑥 =
2𝑙 4 𝑙 𝑙3
𝑙 ⁄4
Therefore the total internal strain energy
𝐸𝐼0 𝐴2 𝜋 4
𝑈 = 0.216
𝑙3
The potential energy of the applied load:
𝑙 𝑙
𝑃 ′ 2
𝑃𝐴2 𝜋 2 2
𝜋𝑥 𝑃𝐴2 𝜋 2
𝑉 = − ∫(𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = −
2 2𝑙 2 𝑙 4𝑙
0 0

82
𝐸𝐼0 𝐴2 𝜋4 𝑃𝐴2 𝜋2
Therefore total potential energy, 𝛱 = 0.216 −
𝑙3 4𝑙
For the deflected shape to be an equillibrium configuration, it is necessary for the total
potential energy to have a stationary value. The condition for stationarity is
𝜕𝛱
=0
𝜕𝐴
𝐸𝐼0 𝐴𝜋 4 𝑃𝐴𝜋 2
0.432 − =0
𝑙3 2𝑙
𝐸𝐼0 𝜋 4 𝑃𝜋 2
𝐴 [0.432 3 − ]=0
𝑙 2𝑙
𝐸𝐼0 𝜋4 𝑃𝜋2
For non-trivial solution, 0.432 − =0
𝑙3 2𝑙
0.864𝜋2 𝐸𝐼0
Or, 𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝑙2
Note: the exact solution to the problem (Timoshenko & Gere) is
0.65𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼0
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝑙2
Hence the error in solution is ~ 33%
The approximate solution can be improved by increasing the number of terms in the
approximation
𝜋𝑥 3𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 + 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑙 𝑙

83
Galerkin’s method
Galerkin technique is another method for obtaining an approximate buckling load. The
main difference between Galerkin method and Rayleigh-Ritz method is that Galerkin’s
method requires the integration of the governing differential equation whereas Rayleigh-
Ritz method requires the integration of the energy expression of a system.
The total potential energy of an axially loaded column in buckling is
𝑙 2
𝛱 = 𝑈 + 𝑉 = ∫ [ ( 2 ) − ( ) ] 𝑑𝑥
0
Assume that a deformation 𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑥) exists for which 𝛿 (𝑈 + 𝑉 ) = 0. The function 𝑦(𝑥)
must therefore satisfy all the boundary conditions, viz. essential and natural boundary
conditions and must be continuous in the domain. Thus,
𝑙 2
𝛿 (𝑈 + 𝑉 ) = 𝛿 [∫ ( ( 2 ) − ( ) ) 𝑑𝑥 ] = 0
0
Since 𝑦(𝑥) simultaneously satisfies the essential and natural boundary conditions, 𝑦(𝑥)
corresponds to the minimum total potential.
Applying the calculus of variation
𝑙
𝐸𝐼 𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑑 2 (𝛿𝑦) 𝑃 𝑑𝑦 𝑑(𝛿𝑦)
𝛿𝛱 = 0 => [∫ ( × 2 ( 2 ) − × 2 ( )( )) 𝑑𝑥 ] = 0
2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
Applying integration by parts:

84
𝑙 𝑙
𝑙
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑑(𝛿𝑦) 𝑑 3 𝑦 𝑑(𝛿𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
|𝐸𝐼 ( 2 ) ( )| − 𝐸𝐼 ∫ ( 3 ) ( ) 𝑑𝑥 − |𝑃 ( ) (𝛿𝑦)|
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0
0
𝑙
𝑑2𝑦
+ 𝑃∫( ) 𝛿𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
0
Applying integration by parts onece more to 2nd term
𝑙 𝑙
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑑(𝛿𝑦) 𝑑3𝑦
|𝐸𝐼 ( 2 ) ( )| − |𝐸𝐼 ( 3 ) 𝛿𝑦|
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0
𝑑𝑥 0
𝑙 𝑙
𝑙
𝑑4𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
+ 𝐸𝐼 ∫ ( 4 ) 𝛿𝑦𝑑𝑥 − |𝑃 ( ) (𝛿𝑦)| + 𝑃 ∫ ( 2 ) 𝛿𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥
0 0
Rearranging the terms:
𝑙
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑(𝛿𝑦) 𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑙 𝑑4𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
|𝐸𝐼 ( 2
)( ) − 𝐸𝐼 ( ) 𝛿𝑦 − 𝑃 ( ) (𝛿𝑦)| + ∫0 [𝐸𝐼 ( 4 ) + 𝑃 ( 2 )] 𝛿𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0𝑑𝑥
Since 𝛿𝑦 is arbitary, the above equation can be satisfied only if each of the terms
individually is zero
i.e.
𝑙 𝑑4𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
∫0 [𝐸𝐼 (𝑑𝑥 4 ) + 𝑃 (𝑑𝑥 2 )] 𝛿𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (A)
And
𝑙
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑(𝛿𝑦) 𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑦
|𝐸𝐼 ( 2
)( ) − 𝐸𝐼 ( 3
) 𝛿𝑦 − 𝑃 ( ) (𝛿𝑦)| =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0
The second expression represents the natural boundary conditions.
The first term can be satisfied only if

85
𝑑4𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 ( 4
)+𝑃( )=0 (B)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
This expression represents the governing differential equation of the probem.
The second terms leads to the following natural boundary conditions:
𝑙
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑑(𝛿𝑦) 𝑑2𝑦
|𝐸𝐼 ( 2 ) ( )| = 0 => 𝐸𝐼 ( 2 ) = 0; 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0
𝑑𝑥
Similarly
𝑙
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑦
|−𝐸𝐼 ( 3 ) 𝛿𝑦 − 𝑃 ( ) (𝛿𝑦)| = 0 =>
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 0
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 ( 3 ) + 𝑃 ( ) = 0; 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
It is possible to approximate the deflection of the column by a series consisting of n

independent functions 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥), each multiplied by an undetermined coefficient 𝑎𝑖 . Thus
𝑛
𝑦̅ = ∑ 𝑎𝑖 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥)
𝑖=1
The above approximation is made such that each function 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥) satisfies the essential as
well as the natural boundary conditions.
To satisfy the variation statement in Eq. (A) above, the coefficients 𝑎𝑖 must be chosen in
such a way that 𝑦̅ satisfies the differential equation (B).
Let 𝐿̅ be an operator defined as
𝑑4 𝑑2
𝐿̅ = 𝐸𝐼 +𝑃 2
𝑑𝑥 4 𝑑𝑥

86
Substituting for the approximate solution 𝑦̅ in the variation statement (A)
𝑙
∫0 𝐿̅(𝑦̅)𝛿𝑦̅ 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (C)
But
𝑛
𝑦̅ = ∑ 𝑎𝑖 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥)
𝑖=1
𝜕𝑦̅ 𝜕𝑦̅ 𝜕𝑦̅

Therefore 𝛿𝑦̅ = 𝛿𝑎1 + 𝛿𝑎2 + ⋯ . . + 𝛿𝑎𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥) 𝛿𝑎𝑖
𝜕𝑎1 𝜕𝑎2 𝜕𝑎𝑛
Now making the substitution for 𝛿𝑦̅ in Eq. (C.)
𝑙 𝑛
∫ 𝐿̅(𝑦̅) ∑ 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥) 𝛿𝑎𝑖 𝑑𝑥 = 0; 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … 𝑛

0 𝑖=1
Since 𝛿𝑎𝑖 are arbitrary and 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥 ) being independent, the only way for the above
condition to be satisfied is that
𝑙
∫0 𝐿̅(𝑦̅) ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0; 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … 𝑛
The above equation is called Galerkin equations. For a given problem, these lead to a set
of n simultaneous algebraic equations. In an equilibrium problem these n equations can be
solved for the n unknown coefficients in the assumed deflection. In a linear buckling
problem, the n equations will be homogenous and the critical load is obtained by setting
their determinant to zero.
It is to be noted that it is difficult to choose displacement function which satisfies both

geometric and natural boundary conditions. Hence Rayleigh-Ritz method is generally
preferred over Galerkin method.

87
Eg. Buckling of a clamped-pinned column
Boundary conditions of the problem
Geometric:
𝑦(0) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦(𝑙 ) = 0
𝑦 ′ (0) = 0
Natural
𝐸𝐼𝑦 " (𝑙 ) = 0
Since it is difficult to choose a trigonometric function which satisfies the above BC, a
polynomial is chosen instead.
𝑦̅ = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 3 + 𝑒𝑥 4
Note: the polynomial should be chosen such that the number of terms should be one more
than the number of BC available.
The unknown coefficients are initially determined using the BC
𝑦̅(0) = 0 => 𝑎 = 0
𝑦̅ ′ (0) = 0 => 𝑏 = 0

88
𝑦̅ " (𝑙 ) = 0 => 2𝑐 + 6𝑑𝑙 + 12𝑒𝑙 2 = 0
Or 𝑐 = −3𝑑𝑙 − 6𝑒𝑙 2
𝑦̅(𝑙 ) = 0 => 𝑐𝑙 2 + 𝑑𝑙 3 + 𝑒𝑙 4 = 0
Or 𝑐 = −𝑑𝑙 − 𝑒𝑙 2
3𝑑𝑙 + 6𝑒𝑙 2 = 𝑑𝑙 + 𝑒𝑙 2
2𝑑𝑙 = −5𝑒𝑙 2
2𝑑𝑙 = −5𝑒𝑙 2
5
𝑑 = − 𝑒𝑙
2
But,
𝑐 = −𝑑𝑙 − 𝑒𝑙 2
5 3
𝑐 = 𝑒𝑙 2 − 𝑒𝑙 2 = 𝑒𝑙 2
2 2
Therefore
3 5
𝑦̅ = 𝑒𝑙 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑒𝑙𝑥 3 + 𝑒𝑥 4
2 2
𝑒
Sub = 𝐴
2
𝑦̅ = 3𝐴𝑙 2 𝑥 2 − 5𝐴𝑙𝑥 3 + 2𝐴𝑥 4
𝑦̅ = 𝐴(3𝑙 2 𝑥 2 − 5𝑙𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 4 )
Here 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 3𝑙 2 𝑥 2 − 5𝑙𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 4

89
Using the Galerkin equation
𝑙 𝑛
∫ 𝐿̅(𝑦̅) ∑ 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0; 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … 𝑛

0 𝑖=1
𝑦̅ = 𝐴(3𝑙 2 𝑥 2 − 5𝑙𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 4 )
𝑦̅ ′ = 𝐴(6𝑙 2 𝑥 − 15𝑙𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 3 )
𝑦̅ ′′ = 𝐴(6𝑙 2 − 30𝑙𝑥 + 24𝑥 2 )
𝑦̅ ′′′ = 𝐴(−30𝑙 + 48𝑥 )
𝑦̅ ′′′′ = 𝐴(48)
∴ 𝐿̅(𝑦̅) = 𝐸𝐼 48𝐴 + 𝑃. 𝐴(6𝑙 2 − 30𝑙𝑥 + 24𝑥 2 )
∫ 𝐿̅(𝑦̅)𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 0; =>
0
∫ 𝐴 [ 48𝐸𝐼 + 𝑃(6𝑙 2 − 30𝑙𝑥 + 24𝑥 2 ) ] × (3𝑙2 𝑥2 − 5𝑙𝑥3 + 2𝑥4 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 0;

0
∫ 𝐴[48𝐸𝐼(2𝑥 4 − 5𝑙𝑥 3 + 3𝑙 2 𝑥 2 ) + 𝑃(48𝑥 6 − 60𝑙𝑥 5 + 12𝑙 2 𝑥 4 − 120𝑙𝑥 5 + 150𝑙 2 𝑥 4

0
− 30𝑙 3 𝑥 3 + 72𝑙 2 𝑥 4 − 90𝑙 3 𝑥 3 + 18𝑙 4 𝑥 2 )]𝑑𝑥 = 0

90
Integrating the above expression
36 12
𝐴[ 𝐸𝐼 − 𝑃] = 0
5 35
Since 𝐴 ≠ 0
21𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝑙2
Exact solution
20.2𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝑙2
Effect of Shear on Buckling Load
The governing differential equation for buckling of a column was derived based on the
assumption that the cross-section dimensions of the column are small compared to its
length and hence the effect of shear deformations on buckling load was neglected. But
when the depth of column increases, the effect of shear deformations needs to be accounted
as it lowers the critical load.
𝑃 𝑃
𝜓
𝑄
𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑦

91
Consider a column subjected to an axial load P. At buckling, the column configuration is

as shown. At any section x from origin, let the rotation of tangent to the elastic curve w.r.t
vertical be 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
. Due to the shear deformation effects this angle will not be equal to the rotation of normal
to elastic curve with the horizontal.
These two rotations are related as:

𝑑𝑦
𝜓= 𝛾+
𝑑𝑥
Where 𝛾 is the shear strain of the cross section at x.
But the shear strain and shear stress are related as:
𝜏
𝛾=
𝐺
Where, 𝜏 is the shear stress at the cross section and G is the rigidity modulus.
The shear stress 𝜏 can be related to the average shear stress for the cross section through
the relation:
𝑄
𝜏= 𝑘
𝐴
Where A is the column cross section area and 𝑘 is a factor dependent on the cross section
3 4
shape. 𝑘 = for rectangular section and 𝑘 = for circular section.
2 3
Hence
𝑘𝑄
𝛾=
𝐴𝐺
The shear strain, can be treated as the additional rotation (slope) of normal due to shear
deformations.
The total curvature at any section x can be expressed as the sum of curvature produced by
moment and the curvature produced by shear.
Curvature due to moment is −𝑀⁄𝐸𝐼 and curvature due to shear rotation is 𝑑𝛾⁄𝑑𝑥 .
For the column with pinned BC, 𝑀 = 𝑃. 𝑦
Therefore the total curvature of the column axis can be written as:

92
𝑑2𝑦 −𝑃. 𝑦 𝑑𝛾
2
= +
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 −𝑃. 𝑦 𝑑 𝑘𝑄
2
= + ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝐺
𝑑2𝑦 −𝑃. 𝑦 𝑘 𝑑𝑄
2
= +
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐴𝐺 𝑑𝑥
At any section x, the transverse shear Q and axial load P are related through:
𝑑𝑦
𝑄=𝑃
𝑑𝑥
Therefore,
𝑑2𝑦 −𝑃. 𝑦 𝑘 𝑃 𝑑2𝑦
= + ( ) 2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐴𝐺 𝑑𝑥
Or
𝑑2𝑦 𝑘𝑃 −𝑃. 𝑦
[1 − ( )] =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐴𝐺 𝐸𝐼
𝑑2𝑦 −𝑃
= 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘𝑃
𝐸𝐼 [1 − ( )]
𝐴𝐺
i.e.
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃𝑦
+ =0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑘𝑃
𝐸𝐼 [1 − ( )]
𝐴𝐺
Taking

93
𝑃
𝛼2 =
𝑘𝑃
𝐸𝐼 [1 − ( )]
𝐴𝐺
The solution to DE can be written as
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑥 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑥
Applying BC
@ 𝑥 = 0; 𝑦 = 0 => 𝐴 = 0
@ 𝑥 = 𝑙; 𝑦 = 0 =>
𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑙 = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑙 = 0
𝛼𝑙 = 𝑛𝜋
2
𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝛼 =
𝑙2
For first mode, n=1
Therefore,
𝑃 𝜋2
= 2
𝑘𝑃 𝑙
𝐸𝐼 [1 − ( )]
𝐴𝐺
Or
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑘𝑃
𝑃= 2
[1 − ( )]
𝑙 𝐴𝐺
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
Denoting 𝑃𝐸 = as the critical load corresponding to the column without shear
𝑙2
deformation effects

94
𝑘𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑃𝐸 [1 − ( )]
𝐴𝐺
𝑘 𝑃 𝑃𝐸
𝑃 = 𝑃𝐸 −
𝐴𝐺
𝑘 𝑃𝐸
𝑃 [1 + ] = 𝑃𝐸
𝐴𝐺
Or
𝑃𝐸
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝑘 𝑃𝐸
[1 + ]
𝐴𝐺
𝑘 𝑃𝐸
Note: [1 + ] being always > 1; 𝑃 < 𝑃𝐸
𝐴𝐺
Hence the effect of shear deformations is to reduce the buckling load
Using energy method: Pinned-Pined Column

𝜋𝑥
Take, 𝑦 = 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑙
Internal strain energy,
𝑙
𝑀2 𝜏2
𝑈= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑉
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐺
0 𝑣
But
𝑄 ′ 𝑄
𝜏= 𝐴 𝑦̅ = 𝑆
𝐼𝑏 𝐼𝑏
Where b is the breadth of column section

95
Therefore
𝑙 𝑙
𝑀2 𝜏2
𝑈= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ [∫ 𝑑𝐴] 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐺
0 0 𝐴
𝑙 𝑙
𝑀2 𝑄2 𝑆 2
𝑈= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ [∫ 2 2 𝑑𝐴] 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 𝐼 𝑏 2𝐺
0 0 𝐴
𝑙 𝑙
𝑀2 𝑄2 𝐴 𝑆 2
𝑈= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ [ ∫ 𝑑𝐴] 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐺𝐴 𝐼 2 𝑏 2
0 0 𝐴
𝑙 𝑙
𝑀2 𝛼 𝑄2
𝑈= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐺𝐴
0 0
Where
𝐴 𝑆2
𝛼 = 2 ∫ 2 𝑑𝐴
𝐼 𝑏
𝐴
Note: 𝛼 is a dimensionless constant that is a function of the shape of the column section.
But 𝛼 is not the same as 𝑘 used earlier to define the magnification factor for shear stress at
the neutral axis compared to the average shear stress on the cross section. Here, 𝛼 is defined
to make strain energy of a uniform shear stress on the beam cross-sectional area equal to
the strain energy of the actual shear stress distribution.
Since the shear force at any section is related to axial load through the relation

96
𝑑𝑦
𝑄=𝑃
𝑑𝑥
2
𝑙 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑙
𝑀 𝛼 𝑃
2 ( )
𝑑𝑥
𝑈= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐺𝐴
0 0
Finally, replacing 𝑀 = 𝑃. 𝑦
𝑙 𝑙 𝑑𝑦 2
2 2
𝑃 𝑦 𝛼 𝑃2 ( )
𝑑𝑥
𝑈= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐺𝐴
0 0
𝜋𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑙
𝜋 𝜋𝑥
𝑦′ = 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ;
𝑙 𝑙
𝜋2 𝜋𝑥
𝑦 ′′ = −𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑙2 𝑙
𝑙 𝑙
𝑃2 𝐵2 𝜋𝑥 𝛼 𝑃2 𝐵2 𝜋 2 𝜋𝑥
𝑈= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 𝑙 2𝐺𝐴 𝑙 2 𝑙
0 0
𝑙 𝑙
𝑃2 𝐵2 2𝜋𝑥 𝛼 𝑃2 𝐵2 𝜋 2 2𝜋𝑥
𝑈= ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝑑𝑥
4𝐸𝐼 𝑙 4𝐺𝐴 𝑙 2 𝑙
0 0
𝑃2 𝐵2 𝑙 𝛼 𝑃2 𝐵2 𝜋 2
𝑈= +
4𝐸𝐼 4𝐺𝐴 𝑙
Work done by external load:

97
𝑙
𝑃 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑉 = − ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑙
𝑃𝐵2 𝜋 2 2
𝜋𝑥
𝑉= − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
2𝑙 2 𝑙
0
𝑙
𝑃𝐵2 𝜋 2 2𝜋𝑥
𝑉= − 2
∫ (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ) 𝑑𝑥
4𝑙 𝑙
0
𝑃𝐵2 𝜋 2
𝑉= −
4𝑙
𝛱 =𝑈+𝑉
𝑃2 𝐵2 𝑙 𝛼 𝑃2 𝐵2 𝜋 2 𝑃𝐵2 𝜋 2
𝛱= + −
4𝐸𝐼 4𝐺𝐴 𝑙 4𝑙
𝛿𝛱 = 0 =>
𝜕𝛱
𝛿𝐵 = 0
𝜕𝐵
Or
𝜕𝛱
=0
𝜕𝐵
𝑃2 𝐵𝑙 𝛼 𝑃2 𝐵 𝜋 2 𝑃𝐵𝜋 2
+ − =0

98
𝑃2 𝑙 𝛼 𝑃2 𝜋 2 𝑃𝜋 2
𝐵 [ + − ]=0
𝑃2 𝑙 𝛼 𝑃2 𝜋 2 𝑃𝜋 2
+ − =0
Dividing by 𝑃 𝑙
𝑃 𝛼𝑃 𝜋 2 𝜋 2
+ − =0
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐺𝐴 𝑙 2 2𝑙 2
𝑃 𝛼𝑃 𝜋 2 𝜋 2
+ = 2
𝐸𝐼 𝐺𝐴 𝑙 2 𝑙
Multiplying by 𝐸𝐼
𝛼𝑃 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 + = 2
𝐺𝐴 𝑙 2 𝑙
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
= 𝑃𝐸
𝑙2
𝛼𝑃
𝑃 + 𝑃 = 𝑃𝐸
𝐺𝐴 𝐸
𝛼 𝑃𝐸
𝑃 [1 + ] = 𝑃𝐸
𝐺𝐴
𝑃𝐸
𝑃𝑐𝑟 =
𝛼 𝑃𝐸
[1 + ]
𝐺𝐴

99
Buckling of Columns with elastic lateral support

P
𝛽 (𝑁/𝑚2 )
𝛼 (𝑁/𝑚)
𝑎 (𝑚)
P
Consider a simply supported column with equally spaced elastic support of equal rigidity
in the lateral direction. In such a case, the lateral supports can be replaced by an elastic
medium. In such a case, the reaction offered by the medium at any section of the column
will be proportional to the deflection of the column at that section. If 𝛼 is the spring
constant of the individual lateral supports and 𝑎 is the distance between them, then the
rigidity of the equivalent elastic medium is given by
𝛼
𝛽=
𝑎
This quantity 𝛽 is called the modulus of the subgrade (in case of foundations) and has the
dimensions of force / length2. The subgrade modulus represents the magnitude of reaction
of the subgrade per unit length of the bar if the deflection of the bar is unity.
𝑚𝜋𝑥
Assume a deflection shape for nth mode to be 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑙

100
Internal strain energy is the sum of flexural strain energy of column and the strain energy
Flexural strain energy:
𝑙 2 𝑙 2
𝐸𝐼 𝑑 2 𝑦 𝐸𝐼 𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑈1 = ∫ ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (−𝐴𝑛 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑙 𝑙
0 0
𝑙
𝐸𝐼 2 𝑛4 𝜋 4 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑈1 = 𝐴𝑛 4 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑙 𝑙
0
𝑙
𝐸𝐼 2 𝑛4 𝜋 4 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑈1 = 𝐴𝑛 4 ∫ [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )] 𝑑𝑥
4 𝑙 𝑙
0
𝑛4 𝜋 4 𝐸𝐼 𝐴2𝑛
𝑈1 =
4𝑙 3
Strain energy due to subgrade spring deformation:
𝑙 𝑙
1 1
𝑈2 = ∫ (𝛽𝑦)𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝛽𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
2 2
0 0
𝑙
𝛽 𝐴2𝑛 𝛽 𝐴2𝑛 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑈2 = 𝑈2 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 2 𝑙
0
𝑙
𝛽 𝐴2𝑛 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
= ∫ 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
4 𝑙
0
𝛽𝑙 𝐴2𝑛
𝑈2 =
4

101
External work done
𝑙 𝑙
𝑃 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑃 𝐴2𝑛 𝑛2 𝜋 2 2
𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑃𝑛2 𝜋 2 2
𝑉 = − ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝐴𝑛
2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑙2 𝑙 4𝑙
0 0
Total potential
𝛱 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 + 𝑉
𝑛4 𝜋 4 𝐸𝐼 𝐴2𝑛 𝛽𝑙 𝐴2𝑛 𝑃𝑛2 𝜋 2 2

𝛱= + − 𝐴𝑛
4𝑙 3 4 4𝑙
𝛿𝛱 = 0
𝜕𝛱
=0
𝜕𝐴𝑛
𝑛4 𝜋 4 𝐸𝐼 𝐴𝑛 𝛽𝑙 𝐴𝑛 𝑃𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝐴𝑛
+ − =0
2𝑙 3 2 2𝑙
𝑛4 𝜋 4 𝐸𝐼 𝛽𝑙 𝑃𝑛2 𝜋 2
𝐴𝑛 [ + − ] =0
2𝑙 3 2 2𝑙
𝑛4 𝜋 4 𝐸𝐼 𝛽𝑙 𝑃𝑛2 𝜋 2
+ − =0
2𝑙 3 2 2𝑙
𝑛2 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝛽𝑙 4
𝑃= [1 + ]
𝑙2 𝑛4 𝜋 4 𝐸𝐼
Ref: S.P. Timoshenko & Gere
Note: It can be seen that the critical load is dependent on the subgrade modulus 𝛽. n is an
integer (1,2,3..) which represents the number of half sine waves for the buckled
configuration.

102
To determine the value of n which makes the critical load a minimum.
For the special case when 𝛽 = 0 (i.e. no subgrade resistance) n =1 corresponds to the
lowest value of buckling load.
For non-zero and very small values of , n =1 corresponds to the case of lowest buckling
load. Thus for very flexible elastic medium, the column buckles without any intermediate
node formation (point of inflection).
With increasing 𝛽, a condition is arrived when the critical load P corresponds to n =2rather
than n =1. At this value of 𝛽, the buckled column will have an inflection point at mid
height.
The limiting value of the modulus 𝛽 at which the transition from n =1 to n =2 occurs is
found from the condition that at this limiting value of 𝛽 the expression for P should give
the same value of P independent of whether n =1 or n =2
Thus
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝛽𝑙 4 4𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝛽𝑙 4
[1 + ] = [1 + ]
𝑙2 𝜋 4 𝐸𝐼 𝑙2 16𝜋 4 𝐸𝐼
4𝜋 4 𝐸𝐼
𝛽=
𝑙4

103
Large Deformation theory for column buckling
The buckling theory for column discussed till now was based on elastic material behavior
and small deformation theory. The small deformation assumption is reflected in the
formulation through the approximation for curvature i.e.,
1 𝑑2𝑦
=
𝑅 𝑑𝑥 2
The above approximation being valid only when the deformations are small, the buckling
load expressions resulting from the above approximation is valid only for small lateral
deformations of the column.
𝑑𝑦
𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑠
Fig. # [Galambos]
Consider a column with pinned boundary conditions as shown. Here the assumption of
small deformations is relaxed but all other assumptions in Euler theory such as initial

104
straightness, axial load application and linear elastic material behavior etc. are valid.
Consider that the lateral deformation y is large.
For the equilibrium configuration of the column in the bent configuration,
the external moment at any section x from origin = 𝑃. 𝑦
𝐸𝐼
From the theory of bending, the internal resisting moment = −
𝑅
1
here is the curvature.
𝑅
At any section x from origin, let the tangent to the elastic curve makes angle 𝜃 with the
vertical. Thus 𝜃 represents the slope of the curve at x. let s be the distance measured along
the elastic curve to this point.
Thus the curvature can be exactly represented as
1 𝑑𝜃
=
𝑅 𝑑𝑠
𝐸𝐼
Substituting in the moment curvature relation 𝑃. 𝑦 = −
𝑅
𝑑𝜃
𝐸𝐼 + 𝑃. 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝜃 𝑑2𝑦
Since is used instead of , the above equation is nonlinear.
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑃
Introducing 𝑘 2 =
𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝜃
+ 𝑘2. 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑦
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t s and replacing = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑠
𝑑2𝜃
+ 𝑘 2 . 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑠 2

105
Multiplying by 𝑑𝜃 and integrating
𝑑2𝜃
∫ 2
𝑑𝜃 + 𝑘 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝜃
But 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑠. Therefore
𝑑𝑠
𝑑 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
∫ 2 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑘 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
The above equation can be written as
1 𝑑 𝑑𝜃 2
∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑠 + 𝑘 2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 0
2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
Integrating the above expression
1 𝑑𝜃 2
( ) = 𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐶
2 𝑑𝑠
The constant of integration can be evaluated from the condition that at origin (x=0), 𝜃 = 𝛼
and 𝑑𝜃⁄𝑑𝑠 = 0. Hence
𝐶 = −𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
Therefore,
1 𝑑𝜃 2
( ) = 𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑘 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
2 𝑑𝑠
Or
𝑑𝜃 2
( ) = 2𝑘 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
𝑑𝑠
Taking root on both sides

106
𝑑𝜃
= ±√2 𝑘 √ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
𝑑𝑠
Since 𝑑𝜃⁄𝑑𝑠 is always negative, the positive sign in the above expression will be dropped
and hence solving for 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑠 = −
√2 𝑘 √ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
𝑑𝑠 when integrated from 0 to L gives the length of column. Similarly 𝑑𝜃 is integrated from
𝛼 (alpha) to – 𝛼.
𝐿 −𝛼
𝑑𝜃
𝐿 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ −
0 𝛼
√2 𝑘 √ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 )
i.e
𝐿 𝛼
𝑑𝜃
𝐿 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫
0 −𝛼
√2 𝑘 √ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 )
Note: the minus sign in the equation has been eliminated by reversing the limits of
integration.
The following identities are made use of for performing the integration
𝜃 𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( )
2 2
𝛼
1 𝑑𝜃
𝐿= ∫
2𝑘
−𝛼 𝛼 𝜃
√ (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ))
2 2

107
To perform the integration of above equation, the following substitutions are made:
𝛼
𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) (A)
2
In addition, a new variable ∅ is defined such that
𝜃
𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) (B)
2
The earlier integral in espression for L can be expressed in terms of the new variable ∅ if
𝑑𝜃 can be expressed in ters of ∅ and the limits of 𝜃 are transformed to that for ∅.
For this, consider the expression identity (B)
𝜃
𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
2
Taking the differential on both sides,
1 𝜃
𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑑∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑑𝜃
2 2
Or
2𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑑∅
𝑑𝜃 =
𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
2
Using the identity
𝜃 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( )
2 2
𝑑𝜃 =
√1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃 )
2

108
But
𝜃
𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
2
Therefore
𝑑𝜃 =
√1 − 𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
Limits of ∅
utilizing identity (A), indentity(B) can be written as
𝛼 𝜃
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
2 2
From the above expression it can be seen that as 𝜃 varies from −𝛼 𝑡𝑜 + 𝛼; 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ varies
𝜋 𝜋
from -1 to 1. That means the variation of ∅ is from − ( ) 𝑡𝑜 ( ) .
2 2
Utilizing the above transformations the original integral expression for L

𝛼
1 𝑑𝜃
𝐿= ∫
2𝑘
−𝛼 𝛼 𝜃
√ (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( ))
2 2
can be written as
𝜋⁄2
1 √1 − 𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
𝐿= ∫
2𝑘 √ (𝑝2 − 𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅)
−𝜋⁄2

109
𝜋⁄2
1 √1 − 𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
𝐿= ∫
2𝑘 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
−𝜋⁄2
𝜋⁄2
1 2𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑑∅
𝐿= ∫
2𝑘 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠∅√1 − 𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
−𝜋⁄2
𝜋⁄2
1 𝑑∅
𝐿= ∫
𝑘 √1 − 𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
−𝜋⁄2
𝜋⁄2
2 𝑑∅
𝐿= ∫
𝑘 √1 − 𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
0
2𝐾(𝑝)
𝐿=
𝑘
Where
𝜋⁄2 𝑑∅
𝐾(𝑝) = ∫0
√1−𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
This integral is known as the complete elliptic integral of the first kind. The value of 𝐾
depends only on p and its values can be obtained from a table of integrals, which tabulates
𝛼
𝐾 for various values of 𝑝 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) in many engineering handbooks. (Timoshenko and
2
Gere).
𝑃
Since 𝑘 = √
𝐸𝐼
2𝐾(𝑝)
𝐿=
√𝑃⁄𝐸𝐼
Or

110
2
4𝐾 2 (𝑝)𝐸𝐼
𝐿 =
𝑃
4𝐾 2 (𝑝)𝐸𝐼
𝑃 =
𝐿2
4𝐾 2 (𝑝)
𝑃𝑐𝑟 = 𝑃𝐸
𝜋2
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
Where, 𝑃𝐸 =
𝐿2
Note: if the deflection of the member is very small, 𝛼 and consequently 𝑝 are very small
and the term 𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ in the denominator of 𝐾 is negligible. In such a case the value of
𝜋
𝐾 (𝑝) → and hence
2
𝑃𝑐𝑟 → 𝑃𝐸

111
Buckling under Self weight
𝛿
𝑞0 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑦1
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥1
𝜋𝑥
Assume 𝑦 = 𝛿 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ))
2𝑙
SE due to bending:
𝑙 2 𝑙
𝐸𝐼 𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑀2
𝑈= ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥 2 2𝐸𝐼
0 0
BM at x
𝑀 = ∫ 𝑞0 𝑑𝑥 (𝑦1 − 𝑦)
𝑥
𝑙
𝜋𝑥1 𝜋𝑥
𝑀 = ∫ 𝑞𝑑𝑥1 [{𝛿 − 𝛿𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )} − {𝛿 − 𝛿𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )}]
2𝑙 2𝑙
𝑥
𝑙
𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑥1
𝑀 = 𝑞𝛿 ∫ {𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )} 𝑑𝑥1
2𝑙 2𝑙
𝑥

112
𝜋𝑥 2𝑙 𝜋𝑥1 𝑙
𝑀 = 𝑞𝛿 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) 𝑥1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )]
2𝑙 𝜋 2𝑙 𝑥
𝜋𝑥 2𝑙 𝜋𝑥
𝑀 = 𝑞𝛿 [(𝑙 − 𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) − {1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )}]
2𝑙 𝜋 2𝑙
Now,
𝑙
𝑀2
𝑈= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼
0
𝑙
𝑞2 𝛿 2 𝜋𝑥 2𝑙 𝜋𝑥 2
𝑈= ∫ [(𝑙 − 𝑥 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) − {1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )}] 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2𝑙 𝜋 2𝑙
0
𝑙
𝑞2 𝛿 2 𝜋𝑥 4𝑙 (𝑙 − 𝑥 ) 𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑥
𝑈= ∫ [(𝑙 − 𝑥 )2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) {1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )}
2𝐸𝐼 2𝑙 𝜋 2𝑙 2𝑙
0
4𝑙 2 𝜋𝑥 2
+ {1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )} ] 𝑑𝑥
𝜋2 2𝑙
𝑙
𝑞2 𝛿 2 𝜋𝑥 4𝑙 (𝑙 − 𝑥 ) 𝜋𝑥 𝜋𝑥
𝑈= ∫ [(𝑙 − 𝑥 )2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) {1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )}
2𝐸𝐼 2𝑙 𝜋 2𝑙 2𝑙
0
4𝑙 2 𝜋𝑥 2
𝜋𝑥
+ {1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) }] 𝑑𝑥
𝜋2 2𝑙 2𝑙
𝑞2 𝛿 2 𝑙3 1 𝑞 32
𝑈= [ + 2 − 3]
2𝐸𝐼 6 𝜋 𝜋

113
Work done by 𝑞

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Stability/Instability and Equillibrium

Fig.1. Stable equilibrium

Instability: An equillibrium state or configuration of a structural element, structure or

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Fig.2. Unstable equilibrium

Fig.3. Neutral equillibrium

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Fig.4. Local minima and maxima of energy and concept of metastability

Buckling and Instability

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Buckling is also known as structural instability. It is generally classified into two

1. Bifurcation buckling and 2. Limit load buckling.

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Fig.2. Bifurcation buckling: asymmetric bifurcation

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Fig.4. Limit load buckling: Snap-through buckling

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Fig.5 Limit load buckling: finite-disturbance buckling

Few other classifications of buckling:

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Bifurcation point Real column (with imperfections)

Fig. 6 Load Vs buckling deformation behavior in typical column buckling

Buckling load and its Significance

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

complex structures, including structures incorporating inelastic behavior, initial

Estimation of elastic buckling loads – Methods of Stability Analysis

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

i. The deformations are assumed to be small

i. The deformations can be small or large

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

For small deflections; k − P L = 0

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Fig.11.a. Fig. 11.b

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Elastic Instability of Columns: Euler theory (Leonhard Euler, 1744)

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Case-1 : Pinned – Pinned column x

The above is a homogenous linear DE with constant coefficients. Substituting for

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

For non-trivial solution

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

From the above expression

corresponding buckling mode:

2nd buckling mode

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Fig. # Buckling mode shapes

Limitation of Euler buckling load

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

The lowest buckling load corresponds to n=1

Fig. # Buckling stress Vs Slenderness ratio

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Case 2: One end fixed and other end free

𝑀𝑋 = −𝑃(𝛿 − 𝑦) 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: (𝐻𝑜𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔: −𝑣𝑒)

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

Substitution in to the above equation

Structural Stability Compiled by: Dr. Arun S. CET

To get buckling load

Buckling mode 1: n=1