Contents

第一章 函數與建模（Functions and Models） 1

Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Plane Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Trigonometry: Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Trigonometry: Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Graphs and Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2 CONTENTS
 第一章 函數與建模（Functions and Models）

以下是陽明交通大學的微積分網站：
https://calculus.math.nycu.edu.tw/

這一章是微積分預備知識，主要是高中數學的基本函數族群複習。微積分主要在是探
索函數的動態（dynamics of functions）或求極限的藝術（art of taking limits）。
本課程所鎖定探討的函數有以下的基本函數族群：

1. Polynomials and rational functions;

2. Root functions;

3. Trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions;

4. Exponential and logarithmic functions,

sin x √ x−1
以及由四則運算（例如： , x + ex ）或合成（例如：cos x, arctan 2 ）等等函數的求
x x +1
極限（含微分和積分都是求極限） 。
4 CONTENTS

Fundamentals

Number Systems

We shall use the following notations:

N = The set of all positive integers = {1, 2, 3, · · · }

Z = The set of all integers = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }
nm o
Q = The set of all rational numbers = : m, n ∈ Z, n ̸= 0
n
R = The set of all real numbers

In R, we have two arithmetic operations:

addition and multiplication.

They satisfy the following properties:

Property
Commutative Property
a+b=b+a
a·b=b·a
Associative Property
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(a · b) · c = a · (b · c)
Distributive Property
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c
(a + b) · c = a · b + a · c
Example
1+2=2+1
3·4=4·3
(1 + 3) + 5 = 1 + (3 + 5)
(2 · 4) · 7 = 2 · (4 · 7)
2 · (3 + 5) = 2 · 3 + 2 · 5
(3 + 4) · 5 = 3 · 5 + 4 · 5

⇒ (a + b)(c + d) = a(c + d) + b(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd

What happen to substraction and division?

 
1 a
a − b = a + (−b), a ÷ b = a · = where b ̸= 0.
b b
CONTENTS 5

The Real Line: Sets and Intervals

Absolute Value and Distance

Definition 1. Let a be a real number, then the absolute value of a is
(
a if a ≥ 0,
|a| =
−a if a < 0.
√ √
For example, | ± 2| = 2.
Definition 2. Suppose a and b are two real numbers, then the distance between two points
a and b on the real line is
d(a, b) = |a − b|.
For example, the distance between −3 and 5 is
d(−3, 5) = | − 3 − 5| = | − 8| = 8.

Exponents
Definition 3. If a ∈ R and n ∈ N, then the n-th power of a is

| · a ·{z· · · · a}.
an = a
n factors
The number a is called the base, and n is called the exponent.
If a ∈ R \ {0} and n ∈ N, then
 n
0 −n 1 1
a = 1 and a = n = .
a a
 3
−3 1 1 1 1 1 1
0
For example, (−π) = 1, 2 = 3 = = · · = and 34 = 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 = 81 =
2 2 2 2 2 8
 −4
1
.
3
6 CONTENTS

Laws of Exponents
For a, b ∈ R \ {0} and m, n ∈ Z, we have
Law Example
m n
a a =a m+n
2 · 2 = 23+7 = 210
3 7

am 32
= am−n = 32−(−2) = 34
an 3−2
(am )n = amn (72 )3 = 72·3 = 76
(ab)m = am bm (2 · 3)5 = 25 · 35
 a m a m  5
2 25
= m = 5
b b 3 3
1 1
a−m = m 3−5 = 5
a 3
c c c c)
Question: ab = (ab )c or a(b ) ? Answer: ab = a(b and (ab )c = ab·c .

Radicals
Definition 4. If n ∈ N, then the principal nth root of a ∈ R is defined as follows:
√ 1
n
a = an = b means bn = a
If n is even, we must have a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0.
We notice that the exponent laws of the previous page all hold true with positive real
bases and rational exponents!
p √ √
Examples 5. 1. (−3)2 = 3 = 32 ⇐ n an = |a| if n is even.
q h 1 i1
3 √ √ √
= 2 5 · 3 = 2 15 =
5 3 1 1 1 3·5 15
2. 2 = (2) 5 2= 2
√3
√
3
√
3
2 2 32 2 32 2 32
3. (Rationalization) √ = √ √ = √ =
3 · 32 3 · 32
3 3 3
3 3
3

Algebraic Expressions
Definition 6. A polynomial in the variable x is an expression of the form
an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ R, and n ∈ N ∪ {0}. If an ̸= 0, then the polynomial has degree n, the
monomial ak xk that make up the polynomial are called the terms of the polynomial.

Examples: Adding and Subtracting Polynomials

1. (2x3 +x2 −5x+1)+(x2 +3x+5) (by grouping like terms using commutative, associative
and distributive laws)
= (2x3 ) + (x2 + x2 ) + (−5x + 3x) + (1 + 5)
= 2x3 + 2x2 − 2x + 6
CONTENTS 7

2. (x5 − 6x3 + x − 7) − (x8 − 2x5 + 6)

= x5 − 6x3 + x − 7 + (−1)(x8 − 2x5 + 6) (using distributive law)

= x − 6x + x − 7 − x + 2x − 6
5 3 8 5

= −x8 + (x5 + 2x5 ) − 6x3 + x + (−7 − 6)

= −x8 + 3x5 − 6x3 + x − 13

Some Algebraic Identity Formulas

1. (A + B)(A − B) = A2 − B 2

2. (A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B 2

3. (A − B)2 = A2 − 2AB + B 2

4. (A + B)3 = A3 + 3A2 B + 3AB 2 + B 3

5. (A − B)3 = A3 − 3A2 B + 3AB 2 − B 3

6. (A + B)(A2 − AB + B 2 ) = A3 + B 3

7. (A − B)(A2 + AB + B 2 ) = A3 − B 3

We call “LHS =⇒ RHS” expanding.

We call “LHS ⇐= RHS” factoring.
Question: What can the A and B be?

Proof. 1. By the right distributive law and then left distributive law,

(A + B)(A − B) = A(A − B) + B(A − B)

= AA − AB + BA − BB = A2 − AB + AB − B 2 = A2 − B 2
where we have used commutative law AB = BA.

2. Exercise.

3. (A − B)2 = [A + (−B)]2 = A2 + 2A(−B) + (−B)2 = A2 − 2AB + B 2 by using the second

identity.
The remaining ones are also left as exercises.

Answer: Numbers and the algebraic terms (polynomials for now) that the laws used to
derive them hold true by the Principle of Substitution.

Expanding Examples
√
2 √ √ √
1. 3x − 2 =(3x)2 − 2(3x)( 2) + ( 2)2 = 9x2 − 6 2x + 2.

2. (2x + 3y + 1)(2x + 3y − 1) =(2x + 3y)2 − 12 = (2x)2 + 2(2x)(3y) + (3y)2 − 1= 4x2 +

12xy + 9y 2 − 1.
8 CONTENTS

√ √ 3 h
1 i  2
1 3

1 3
x2 − 5 y = x2 3 − y 5 = x 3 − y 5
3
3.
 2 3  2 2 1 2
 1 2  1 3
= x 3 − 3 x 3 y 5 + 3x 3 y 5 − y 5
4 1 2 2 3
= x2 − 3x
√ 3 y 5 + 3x 3 y 5 − y 5
√ p p
√
= x − 3 x4 5 y + 3 x2 5 y 2 − 5 y 3
2 3 3

20 5 10 6 3
= x2 − 3xp 15 y 15 + 3x 15 y 15 − y 5
p p
= x2 − 3 15 x20 y 5 + 3 15 x10 y 6 − 5 y 3 .

Factoring Examples
1. 2x6 − 2x4 =2(x6 − x4 )= 2x4 (x2 − 1) =2x4 (x + 1)(x − 1).

2. (2x + 3)(x − 7) + 6(x − 7)= [(2x + 3) + 6](x − 7) = (2x + 9)(x − 7).

3. (Factor by grouping)

(a) x3 − 3x2 + 2x − 6 =(x3 − 3x2 ) + (2x − 6) = x2 (x − 3) + 2(x − 3)= (x2 + 2)(x − 3).
(b) x3 + x2 + x + 1 =x3 + x + x2 + 1 = (x3 + x) + (x2 + 1)
= x(x2 + 1) + 1(x2 + 1)= (x + 1)(x2 + 1).
(c) x2 + 2xy + y 2 + 2x + 2y + 1 =(x + y)2 + 2(x + y) + 1 = (x + y + 1)2 .

Factoring Quadratic Polynomials

The Completing Square Technique:
1. x2 +2x−3= x2 +2x+(1−4)= (x2 +2x+1)−4= (x+1)2 −22 = [(x+1)+2][(x+1)−2] =
(x + 3)(x − 1).


 
2. x4 + x2 − 20= (x2 )2 + 2 x2 21 + 212 − 1+80
h


i
2 22

2
2


2
= x2 + 2 x2 12 + 212 − 92 = x2 + 21 − 29 = x2 + 21 + 92 x2 + 12 − 92
= (x2 + 5)(x2 − 22 ) = (x2 + 5)(x + 2)(x − 2)

2
3. x4 h+ x2 + 1 = x2 i+ 2x2 − x2 + 1

2
= x2 + 2x2 + 1 − x2 = (x2 + 1)2 − x2 = (x2 + x + 1)(x2 − x + 1)
h
2 ih
2 i
= x + 21 + 34 x − 12 + 34 .

Rational Expressions
A quotient of two algebraic expressions is called a fractional expression. For example:
√ √ √3
x x+1 x + x2
(x ̸= 1), √ (x ̸= −5).
x−1 3
x2 + 3 x+5
A rational expression is a fractional expression where both the numerator and the
denominator are polynomials.
Laws of Fractional Expressions:
AC A
1. (Simplification) = .
BC B
CONTENTS 9

A B AD + CB A + B
2. (Addition) + = ̸= , in general.
C D CD C +D
A B AB
3. (Multiplication) · = .
C D CD

Examples
1 2
1. (Addition and Simplification) +
x2 − 1 (x + 1)2
(x + 1)2 + 2(x2 − 1)
= (Exercise: Simply.)
(x2 − 1)(x + 1)2
1 2 x+1 2(x − 1)
= + = +
(x − 1)(x + 1) (x + 1) 2 (x − 1)(x + 1) 2 (x − 1)(x + 1)2
(x + 1) + 2(x − 1) 3x − 1
= = .
(x − 1)(x + 1)2 (x − 1)(x + 1)2
a2 −(a+h)2
1
(a+h)2
− 1
a2 (a+h)2 a2
2. (Simplification a Compound Fraction) =
h h
a2 −(a2 +2ah+h2 ) −2ah−h2 −(2a+h)h
(a+h)2 a2 (a+h)2 a2 −(2a + h)
(a+h)2 a2
= = = = .
h h h (a + h)2 a2
√ √
x− y
3. (Rationalization of a Fractional Expression) √ √
x+ y

(i) Rationalizing
√ the Denominator:
√ √ √ √ √
x− y x− y ( x − y)2
√ √ ·√ √ = √ √ √ √
x+ y x− y ( x + y)( x − y)
√ √ √
x−2 x y+y x − 2 xy + y
= = .
x−y x−y
(ii) Rationalizing
√ the Numerator:
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
x− y x+ y ( x − y)( x + y)
√ √ ·√ √ = √ √
x+ y x+ y ( x + y)2
x−y x−y
= √ √ = √ .
x+2 x y+y x + 2 xy + y

Equations
A linear equation in one variable equivalent to one of the form

ax + b = 0

where a, b ∈ R are constants and x is the variable. There are two possibilities:
b
1. a ̸= 0, then we say x = − is its unique solution.
a
2. a = 0, then the linear equation has no solution when b ̸= 0 or any real number is its
solution when b = 0.
10 CONTENTS

Examples 7. 1. 2x + 3 = x + 5 ⇔ 2x + 3 − x = x + 5 − x ⇔ x + 3 = 5 ⇔ x + 3 − 5 =
5 − 5 ⇔ x − 2 = 0 ⇔ x = 2 is the solution.

2. x2 + x − 1 = 0 is not a linear equation of x.

A quadratic equation is an equation of the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b, c ∈ R and a ̸= 0.

 
b c b c b c
2 2
ax + bx + c = a x + x + = 0 ⇔ x2 + x + = 0 ⇔ x2 + x = −
a a a a a a
 2 "    2 #  2 
b b b b c b
⇔ x2 + x + = x2 + 2 x+ =− +
a 2a 2a 2a a 4a2
  √ !2 √
b 2 b2 − 4ac b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac
⇔ x+ = = ⇔ x + = ±
2a 4a2 2a 2a 2a
√
b b2 − 4ac
⇔x=− ± . Therefore
2a 2a
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a

Discriminant
The discriminant of the general quadratic equation ax2 +bx+c = 0 (a ̸= 0) is D = b2 −4ac.
1. If D > 0, then the equation has two distinct real solutions.

2. If D = 0, then the equation has exactly one real solution.

3. If D < 0, then the equation has no real solution.

Next we will do some examples of other types of equations:

Examples
3 5
1. Solve + = 2.
x x+2
Multiply both sides of the equation by x(x + 2) by noting that x ̸= 0 or −2; otherwise
the left hand side of the equation is not defined. We get
 
3 5
+ [x(x + 2)] = 2x(x + 2)
x x+2

⇔ 3(x + 2) + 5x = 2x2 + 4x ⇔ 8x + 6 = 2x2 + 4x ⇔ 0 = 2x2 − 4x − 6

⇔ 0 = x2 − 2x − 3 ⇔ 0 = (x2 − 2x + 1) − 22 = (x − 1)2 − 22
⇔ 0 = [(x − 1) + 2] [(x − 1) − 2] ⇔ 0 = (x + 1)(x − 3)
Hence x − 3 = 0 or x + 1 = 0 ⇔ x = 3 or −1 are the solutions.
CONTENTS 11

√
2. Solve 2x = 1 − 2 − x.
√ √
2x = 1 − 2 − x ⇔ 2x − 1 = − 2 − x

Why?
=⇒ (2x − 1)2 = 2 − x ⇔ 4x2 − 4x + 1 = 2 − x

⇔ 4x2 − 3x − 1 = 0 ⇔ (4x + 1)(x − 1) = 0

1
⇔ 4x + 1 = 0 or x − 1 = 0 ⇔ x = − or 1
4
 
1
Now we check that (⇒) can be replaced by (⇔) if we restrict x ∈ − , 2 there!
2
1
Therefore, x = − or 1 are indeed all the solutions!
4

3. Solve x4 + x2 − 20 = 0


 
Recall that x4 + x2 − 20 = (x2 )2 + 2 x2 21 + 212 − 1+80
h


i
2
2
222



2
= x2 + 2 x2 21 + 212 − 92 = x2 + 21 − 29 = x2 + 1
2 + 9
2 x2 + 1
2 − 9
2 =
(x2 + 5)(x2 − 22 )
= (x2 + 5)(x + 2)(x − 2) = 0.
Since x2 + 5 ≥ 5 > 0, x = ±2 are the only two solutions of the equation.

4. Solve x4 + x2 + 1 = 0
"    2 # "  2 #
1 1 1
x4 + x2 + 1 = (x2 )2 + 2 x2 + + 1−
2 2 2
 2
1 3 3
= x2 + + ≥ > 0.
2 4 4
Therefore the equation has no solution.

4. Solve x1/3 + x1/6 − 2 = 0

 2  
x1/3 + x1/6 − 2 = 0 ⇔ x1/6 + x1/6 − 2 = 0
    
⇔ x1/6 + 2 x1/6 − 1 = 0 ⇔ x1/6 − 1 = 0,
 
because x1/6 + 2 ≥ 2 > 0. Hence x1/6 = 1 ⇔ x = 1 is the only solution.

5. Solve |x2 − 2| = 1.

|x2 − 2| = 1 ⇔ x2 − 2 = 1 or x2 − 2 = −1 ⇔ x2 = 3 or x2 = 1
√ √ √
⇔ x = ± 3 or x = ±1. Hence the solutions are x = − 3, −1, 1 and 3.
12 CONTENTS

Inequalities
Let A, B and C be real numbers or algebraic expressions.

RULES FOR INEQUALITIES

   
≥ ≥
1. A B ⇐⇒ A + C B + C.
> >
   
≥ ≥
2. If C > 0, then A B ⇐⇒ A · C B · C.
> >
   
≥ ≤
3. If C < 0, then A B ⇐⇒ A · C B · C.
> <
   
≥ 1 ≤ 1
4. If A, B > 0, then A B ⇐⇒ .
> A < B
5. A · B > 0 ⇐⇒ A and B are of the same sign.

6. A · B < 0 ⇐⇒ A and B are of the opposite signs.

Examples
1. (Linear Inequality)

(i) Solve the inequality 3x + 1 > 2x + 5.

3x + 1 > 2x + 5 ⇔ 3x > 2x + 4 ⇔ x > 4.

Hence the solution set is (4, ∞) = {x | x > 4}.

(ii) Solves the inequalities 4 ≤ 3x − 2 < 13.

4 ≤ 3x − 2 < 13 ⇔ 6 ≤ 3x < 15 ⇔ 2 ≤ x < 5.

Hence the solution set is [2, 5) = {x | 2 ≤ x < 5}.

2. (Quadratic Inequality) Solve x2 > 5x − 6.

x2 > 5x − 6 ⇔ x2 − 5x + 6 > 0 (by moving all terms to the LHS)

⇔ (x − 2)(x
 − 3) > 0 (byfactoring) ⇔ x − 3 and x − 2 are of the same sign
x−3>0 x−3<0
⇔ Either or
x−2>0 x−2<0
   
x>3 x<3
⇔ Either or ⇔ Either x > 3 or x < 2.
x>2 x<2
Hence the solution set is (−∞, 2) ∪ (3, ∞) = {x | either x < 2 or x > 3}.

3. (Inequality with Repeated Factors) Solve x(x − 1)2 (x − 3) < 0.

First we note that all nonzero terms are already on the LHS of the inequality sign <
and the nonzero side is already factored.
CONTENTS 13

Secondly, we note that (x − 1)2 ≥ 0 and that x = 1 must be excluded in the solution set,
because otherwise we would have 0 < 0 and it was impossible.
We divide both sides of the original inequality by (x − 2
 1) and noting
 that x ̸= 1 to
x>0 x<0
get x(x − 3) < 0 but x ̸= 1 ⇔ either or ⇔ 0 < x < 3, but
x−3<0 x−3>0
x ̸= 1. Hence the solution set is (0, 1) ∪ (1, 3) = {x | 0 < x < 1 or 1 < x < 3}.
4. (Inequality Involving Quotient) Solve 2
x ≥1+ 2
x+1 .
First we notice that x ̸= 0 and x ̸= −1, otherwise the inequality does not make sense.
2 2 2 x+1 2 2 x+3
≥1+ ⇔ ≥ + ⇔ ≥
x x+1 x x+1 x+1 x x+1
2 x+3 2(x + 1) − x(x + 3)
⇔ − ≥0⇔ ≥0
x x+1 x(x + 1)
−x2 − x + 2 x2 + x − 2
⇔ ≥0⇔ ≤0
x(x + 1) x(x + 1)
(x + 2)(x − 1)
⇔ ≤ 0 ⇔ (x + 2)(x + 1)x(x − 1) ≤ 0,
x(x + 1)
but x ̸= 0 and x ̸= −1. (Get this by multiplying both sides by x2 (x + 1)2 > 0.)

(x + 2)(x + 1)x(x − 1) ≤ 0, but x ̸= 0 and x ̸= −1.

First we deal with the inequality (x + 2)(x + 1)x(x − 1) ≤ 0! It can be solved in the following
steps:
1. Solve (x + 2)(x + 1)x(x − 1) = 0, x = −2, −1, 0 or 1. As shown by the graph on real
line:

−2 −1 0 1

2. Determine the signs of the quantity (x + 2)(x + 1)x(x − 1) for x lies on the real line. As
shown by the graph on real line :
+ −2 − −1 + 0 − 1 +

3. Solve (x + 2)(x + 1)x(x − 1) ≤ 0, it will be as shown by the graph on real line :

+ −2 − −1 + 0 − 1 +

The solution of (x + 2)(x + 1)x(x − 1) ≤ 0, is as shown by

+ −2 − −1 + 0 − 1 +

Now we deal with but x ̸= 0 and x ̸= −1 as shown by the graph on real line :
+ −2 − −1 + 0 − 1 +

In conclusion, the solution set of 2

x ≥ 1+ 2
x+1 is [−2, −1) ∪ (0, 1] = {x | −2 ≤ x <
−1 or 0 < x ≤ 1}.
14 CONTENTS

4. (Absolute Value Inequality) Solve 8 − |2x − 1| ≥ 6.

8 − |2x − 1| ≥ 6 ⇔ 2 − |2x − 1| ≥ 0 ⇔ 2 ≥ |2x − 1| ⇔

Either
3 1
2 ≥ 2x − 1≥ 0 ⇐⇒ ≥x≥
2 2
or
1 1
2 ≥ −(2x − 1)≥ 0 ⇐⇒ − ≤ x ≤
2 2
     
1 1 1 3 1 3
Hence the solution set is − , ∪ , = − , .
2 2 2 2 2 2
CONTENTS 15

Plane Geometry
The purpose of this section is to review some high school plane geometry:

Algebra ⇐⇒ Geometry.

We will discuss lines and quadratic curves (conic sections) in the plane.

Coordinate (Cartesian) Plane

As we identify points on a line with the real numbers,
we can identify points in a (Euclidean) plane with or-
y-axis
dered pairs of numbers to form the coordinate plane
or Cartesian plane, which is done by drawing two
perpendicular real lines that intersect at 0 on each line. P = (a, b)
b
The horizontal line with positive direction to the right
is called the x-axis and the other line with positive di-
II I
rection pointing upward is called the y-axis. The point
x-axis
of intersection of the two axes is called the origin O. a
These two axes divide the plane into four quadrants,
labeled I, II, III and IV. Any point P on the plan can III IV
be labeled by a unique ordered pairs of numbers (a, b).
a is called the x-coordinate of P and b is called the y-
coordinate of P .

The Distance Formula

Definition 8. By using the Pythagorean theorem, define
distance between the points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) in
the plane is y-axis
p
d(A, B) = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
B(x2 , y2 )
Definition 9. The slope m of a nonvertical line that y2
)
passes through the points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is A
,B
d( |y2 − y1 |

y2 − y1
m= y1
x2 − x1 A(x1 , y1 ) |x2 − x1 | C(x2 , y1 )

Consequently, the slope of a horizontal line is 0. x-axis

x1 x1
The slope of a vertical line is not defined.
Vertical Line Equation: x = c, where c is a fixed real number.
Point-Slope Equation: The line equation that through the point (x1 , y1 ) and has slope m
is
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).

Horizonal Line Equation: y = c, where c ∈ R is fixed.

16 CONTENTS

Line Equations

The line equation that through the points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) in the plane is

 
y2 − y1
y − y1 = (x − x1 )
x2 − x1

which is called Two-Points Form of a line equation.

y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) ⇐⇒ y = mx + b, b = y1 − mx1 .

The (red) equation is called Slope-Intercept Form of a line equation with slope m and
y-intercept b. Together

Theorem 10. The graph of a linear equation

ax + by + c = 0 (a and b are not both 0 ⇔ a2 + b2 ̸= 0)

is a line. Conversely, Every line is the graph of a linear equation.

Facts about The Slopes of Two Lines

Theorem 11. 1. Two nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope.

2. Two lines have slopes m1 and m2 are perpendicular if and only if m1 m2 = −1. The
horizonal lines y = c1 are perpendicular the the vertical lines x = c2 for any fixed
c1 , c2 ∈ R.

y y
y = m2 x y = m1 x

y = mx a
x x
O O

y = m(x − a)
CONTENTS 17

Graphing Regions in Coordinate Plane

Describe and sketch regions given by the following each set:

1. {(x, y) ∈ R2 | 2x − y ≤ 3} 2. {(x, y) ∈ R2 | 2x + y < 3}

y

3 = 2x − y

3 = 2x + y

3. {(x, y) ∈ R2 | 2x − y ≤ 3 and 2x + y < 3}

3 = 2x − y

( )
3,0
2
x

3 = 2x + y

Digression: The coordinate of intersecting point of two lines are found by solving the
system of two linear equations

(
2x − 3y = 3 (1)
2x + 3y = 3 (2)

3 3
(1) + (2) =⇒ 4x = 6 =⇒ x = . With x = plugging into (1) =⇒ 3 − 3y = 3 =⇒
  2 2
3
y = 0. Hence , 0 is the coordinate of the intersecting point.
2

4. Writing the set of region given by the graph:

18 CONTENTS

y The line on the left L1 passes through −3 2 ,0
and (0, 3) and
the line on the right L2 passes
through 25 , 0 and (0, −5), using the two-
(0, 3)
points form of line a equation:
!
( ) ( )
−3 5,0 0−3
L1 : y − 3 = −3 (x − 0) ⇔ 2x − y = −3
2
,0 2

2 −0
x

L1 L2 !
0 − (−5)
L2 : y−(−5) = (x−0) ⇔ 2x−y = 5
2 −0
5
(0, −5)

Since the region lies between them and the lines are solid, the set is

{(x, y) ∈ R2 | −3 ≤ 2x − y ≤ 5} = {(x, y) ∈ R2 | |2x − y − 1| ≤ 4}

because −3 ≤ 2x − y ≤ 5 ⇔ −4 ≤ (2x − y) − 1 ≤ 4 ⇔ |x − 2y − 1| ≤ 4.

Circles
y
The equation of a circle with center at
(a, b) and radius r is

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2
r
(a, b)
b
This is called the standard form for
a
x
equation of the circle. In particular, if the
center is O(0, 0), then the equation is

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2 x2 + y 2 = r 2 .

Examples 12. 1. Graph x2 + y 2 = 25

y

2. Show that the equation x2 + y 2 + 2x − 6y + 7 = 0 represent a circle, and find the center
and radius of the circle.
0 = x2 +y 2 +2x−6y+7 = (x2 +2x+1)+(y 2 −6y+9)+(7−1−9) = (x+1)2 +(y−3)2 −3 ⇔
√
2 √
[x − (−1)]2 + (y − 3)2 = 3 . Hence the equation represents a circle of radius 3 and
centered at (−1, 3) .
CONTENTS 19

Quadratic Curves y

Parabolas: A parabola is the set of

points in the plane that are equidistance
from a fixed point F (called focus) and a F (a, b + p)
fixed line ℓ (called directrix).
x
Equations of Parabolas
ℓ:y =b−p

equation is given by y = −p. If P (x, y) is a

1. The focus F (0, p) and the directrix ℓ p
p d(F, P ) = x + (y − p) 2 and the2distance 2from P to 2ℓ is
point on the parabola, then 2 2

|y−(−p)| = |y+p|. Hence x + (y − p) = |y+p| ⇔ x +(y−p) = |y+p| = (y+p) ⇔

2 2

x2 +y 2 −2py +p2 = y 2 +2py +p2 ⇔ x2 = 4py. Two possibilities: (a) p > 0, the parabola
opens upward; (b) p < 0, the parabola opens downward.
2. The focus F (p, 0) and the directrix ℓ equation is given by x = −p. If P (x, y) is a point
on the parabola, as before, we can have y 2 = 4px. Two possibilities: (a) p > 0, the
parabola opens rightward; (b)p < 0, the parabola opens leftward.
y

y
y

x
x

x
x y = x2 x = y2
y = x2 y = x2 y = 2x2 x = −y 2

Ellipse: An ellipse is the set of points y

in the plane that the sum of whose dis-

tances from two fixed point F1 and F2 B(0, b) P (x, y)

(called foci) is a positive constant 2a >

d(F1 , F2 ) = 2c > 0.
A′ (−a, 0) A(a, 0)
Equations of Ellipses:Let the 2a > 0 F1 (−c, 0) F2 (c, 0)
x

be the sum of distance the sum of whose

distances from two fixed point F1 and F2 .
Then if P (x, y) is any point on the ellipse,
B ′ (0, −b)
we have

d(P, F1 ) + d(P, F2 ) = 2a
Consider the following cases:
1. If the foci F1 (−c, 0), F2 (c, 0) (c > 0) are placed on the x-axis, using the Distance
Formula, we see that the equation is
x2 y 2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
where b2 = a2 − c2 (with b > 0 and so a > b). The major axis is horizontal of length 2a
and the minor axis is vertical of length 2b.
20 CONTENTS

2. If the foci F1 (0, −c), F2 (0, c) (c > 0) are placed on the x-axis, the equation is

x2 y 2
+ 2 =1
b2 a

The major axis is vertical of length 2a and the minor axis is horizontal of length 2b.

Equations of Hyperbolas: Let the 2a > 0 be the sum of distance the sum of whose
distances from two fixed point F1 and F2 . Then if P (x, y) is any point on the hyperbola, then
we have
d(P, F1 ) − d(P, F2 ) = ±2a

Consider the following cases:

1. If the foci F1 (−c, 0), F2 (c, 0) (c > a) are placed on the x-axis, using the Distance
Formula, we see that the equation is

x2 y 2
− 2 =1
a2 b

where b2 = c2 − a2 (with b > 0 and so a > b). The transverse axis is horizontal of length
2a.

2. If the foci F1 (0, −c), F2 (0, c) (c > 0) are placed on the x-axis, the equation is

x2 y 2
− + 2 =1
b2 a

The transverse axis is vertical of length 2a.

y y

bx
y = ±a

P (x, y)

y = ±a
b
x
F1 (−c, 0) F2 (c, 0)
x x
A′ (−a, 0) A(a, 0) 2 2
− x2 + y 2 = 1
b a

2
x2 − y2 = 1
a2 b
CONTENTS 21

Functions
What is a Function?
Definition 13. A function f is a rule that assigns each element x in a set A exactly one
element, called f (x) in a set B.
f (x) is read: “f of x”, “the value of f at x” or “the image of x under f ”.
The set A is called the domain of the function f .
The range of f is the set of all possible value of f (x) as x varies throughout the domain,
that is
range of f = {f (x) | x ∈ A} = f (A) ⊂ B
Some notations and terminologies for a function:
f : A −→ B or simply y = f (x) for x ∈ A, y ∈ B .
We call x a independent variable of f and y a dependent variable of f when
y ∈ f (A).

How to Represent a Function

• By explicit formula. e.g., f (x) = x2 .
• In words. e.g., The area of any disc in the Cartesian plane with fixed center at the origin
is π times the square of its radius. So the domain A of the function f is (0, ∞) because
the radius of a disc√must be positive.
√ 2 The function f in explicit formula is f (x) = πx2
for x ∈ A. (⇒ f ( 2) = π( 2) = 2π.) We can choose B = R, noticing that when
y < 0 it can not be a dependent variable for this choice. But if we choose B = f (A)
= (0, ∞)=the range of f , then any y ∈ B is a dependent variable in this case.

x f (x)
• By a table. e.g., 1 3
5 8

• Visually (by a diagram or a graph). e.g.,

f f f y

y = x2 − 4x + 5
x

The Domain of a Function

Examples 14.
1. (Explicitly Given) f (x) = x2 0 ≤ x ≤ 5.
2. (Implicitly Given)
√
(i) f (x) = x.
The maximal possible domain of f = [0, ∞)
22 CONTENTS

1
(ii) f (x) = √
x2 −x
√
First of all, because the denominator of the function is x2 − x > 0. Secondly, to
take square root of x2 − x, x2 − x must be nonnegative. Together, when 0 < x2 − x,
the function f is well-defined. Solve 0 < x2 − x = x(x − 1) ⇒ x < 0 or x > 1.
Hence (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, ∞) is the maximal possible domain of f .
√ √ (√
2x − 1 2x − 1 2x − 1 ≥ 0
(iii) f (x) = To make sense of , we must have
x2 − 1 x2 − 1 x − 1 ̸= 0
2
( (  
2x − 1 ≥ 0 x≥ 2 1
1
⇔ ⇔ ⇔ , 1 ∪ (1, ∞) is the maximal
(x − 1)(x + 1) ̸= 0 x ̸= ±1 2
possible domain of f .
x−1
(iv) Is there any difference between the functions f (x) = 1 and g(x) = ?
x−1
First we notice that f is defined on the whole real line R, but the maximal possible
domain of g = (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) = A = R \ {1}.
For x ∈ A, g(x) = 1 = f (x) and they are identical. However, f is defined when
x = 1, but g is not defined at 1. So they are different functions in this sense.

Graphs of Functions
Definition 15. If f is a real-valued function with domain A ⊂ R, then the graph of f is
the set of ordered pairs
{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ A}
plotted in a Cartesian plane. In other words, the graph of f is the set of all points (x, y) such
that y = f (x); that is the graph of f is the graph of equation y = f (x).

Examples 16. 1. (The absolute Value Function)

( y
x if x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x if x < 0.
The graph of y = |x| is x

2. (Piecewise Defined Function)

( y

x2 , if x < 1;
f (x) =
4, if x ≥ 1.
(
x2 , if x < 1;
The graph of f (x) = is
4, if x ≥ 1.
x

Question: Which curves in the xy-plane are graphs of functions?

Vertical Line Test: A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function if and only if no vertical
line intersects the curve more than once.
CONTENTS 23

Example 17.
y y

x x

Combining Functions
• Algebra of Functions: Let f and g be functions with domains A and B. Then
f + g, f − g, f g and f /g are defined as follows:
(i) (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g(x) for x ∈ A ∩ B.
(ii) (f − g) (x) = f (x) − g(x) for x ∈ A ∩ B.
(iii) (f g) (x) = f (x)g(x) for x ∈ A ∩ B.
 
f f (x)
(iv) (x) = for x ∈ {x ∈ A ∩ B | g(x) ̸= 0}.
g g(x)

Examples 18.
√ 1
(i & ii) Let f (x) = x, g(x) = , (f ± g)(x) =?
x
√ 1
The domain of f (x) = x is A = [0, ∞) and the domain of g(x) = is B =
x
√ 1
(−∞, 0)∪(0, ∞). When x ∈ A∩B = (0, ∞), (f ±g)(x) = f (x)±g(x) = x± =
√ √ √ x
3
x2 ± 1 x x±1 √ 1 2 2 1 2 2±1
= . (f ± g)(2) = f (2) ± g(2) = 2 ± = ± = .
x x √ 2 2 2 2
(ii) Let f (x) = g(x) = x for x ≥ 0. (f − g)(x) =?
Then (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) = 0 only when x ≥ 0 , even though the function
h(x) = 0 is defined for x ∈ R.
√ √
(iii & iv) Let f (x) = x√ 2 − x, g(x) = x2 , (f g)(x) =?, and (f /g)(x) =? p
First, g(x) = x = |x| is defined for all x ∈ R = B and f (x) = x2 − x =
p
2

x(x − 1) is defined if and only if when x(x − 1) ≥ p0 ⇔ x √ ∈ (−∞, 0] ∪ [1, ∞) = A.

p
Hence,
p for x ∈ A ∩ B = A, (f g)(x)
p = f (x)g(x) = x 2 − x x2 = (x2 − x)x2 =
p
x4 − x3 = x3 (x − 1) = |x| x2 − x. Before computing (f /g)(x), we must
eliminate the possibility that g(x) = 0 for x ∈ B that isrwhen x = 0.rThus, for
  √
f f (x) x2 − x x2 − x x−1
x ∈ (−∞, 0) ∪ [1, ∞), (x) = = √ = 2
= =
√ g g(x) x2   x x
x2 − x f
. Exercise: Rationalize the numerator of (x).
|x| g
• Composition of Functions: Given two functions f and g, the composite function
f ◦ g (also called the composition of f and g) is defined by
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
24 CONTENTS

See the diagram

g f

i x
a

j y

k z
b

and noticing that j is not in the range of g even though it is in the domain of f .
√ √
Examples 19. (i) f (x) = x, g(x) = 2 − x, find the following functions f ◦ g, g ◦ f , f ◦ f
and g ◦ g and their corresponding domains.
First we note that the domain of f is [0, ∞) and the domainpof g is (−∞, 2]. Now be
√ √
compute (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( 2 − x) (for x ≤ 2) = 2 − x (for x ≤ 2) =
(2 − x)1/4 (for x ≤ 2) ⇒ domain of f ◦ g = (−∞, 2].
√ p √ √
(g ◦ f ) = g(f (x)) = g( x) (for x ≥ 0) = 2 − x for x ≥ 0 and 2 − x ≥ 0 ⇔
√
2 ≥ x ≥ 0 ⇔ 4 ≥ x ≥ 0. Hence the domain of g ◦ f is [0, 4].
(f ◦ f )(x) = x1/4 and its domain is [0, ∞).( The details are left as an exercise.)
√ p √ √ √
(g ◦ g)(x) = g(g(x)) = g( 2 − x) = 2 − 2 − x ⇒ 0 ≤ 2 − 2 − x ⇔ 0 ≤ 2 − x ≤
2 ⇔ 0 ≤ 2 − x ≤ 4 ⇔ −2 ≤ x ≤ 2. Hence the domain of g ◦ g is [−2, 2].

=⇒ f ◦ g ̸= g ◦ f in general.
Before we give the next example, we will try to compose three different functions f, g
and h (by assuming no ambiguities in the domains) for f ◦ (g ◦ h) and (f ◦ g) ◦ h:
[f ◦ (g ◦ h)] = f ((g ◦ h) (x)) = f (g (h(x))).
On the other hand,
((f ◦ g) ◦ h) (x) = (f ◦ g)(h(x)) = f (g (h(x))) ⇒

f ◦ (g ◦ h) = (f ◦ g) ◦ h

i.e., the associative law hold true for composition of functions.

√ x √
(ii) Let f (x) = x, g(x) = and h(x) = 3 x. Find f ◦ g ◦ h and its domain.
x−1 s √
 √ 
√

3
x 3
x
f (g (h(x))) = f g 3 x =f √ = √ .
1 2 3
x−1 3 3
x−1
We shall find its domain: First of all, = holds true ⇔ x ∈ R. Then, = holds true
√ √ 1 2
⇔ 3 x − 1 ̸= 0 ⇔ 3 x ̸= 1 ⇔ x ̸= 1, = and = hold true ⇔ x ̸= 1. Finally, = holds
√ 1 2 3
3
x x1/3
true ⇔ 0 ≤ √ = 1/3
3
x−1 x −1
CONTENTS 25

x1/3 (x1/3 )2 + x1/3 + 1

⇔0≤ ·
x1/3 − 1 (x1/3 )2 + x1/3 + 1 h i
 1/3 2  1/3


1/3 + 1/2 2 + 3/4
x 1/3 (x ) + x + 11/3 x x
⇔0≤ =
x−1 x−1
⇔ 0 ≤ x1/3 (x − 1) and x ̸= 1 ⇔ 0 ≤ x(x − 1) and x ̸= 1 ⇔ x ∈ (−∞, 0] ∪ (1, ∞), which
is the domain of f ◦ g ◦ h.

2
(iii) (Recognizing a Composition of Functions) Given F (x) = √ , find f, g and
(3 + x)2
h so that F = f ◦ g ◦ h.
2 √
Choose f (x) = , g(x) = x2 and h(x) = 3 + x. Compute (f ◦g ◦h)(x) = f (g (h(x)))
x 
√

√
2  2
=f g 3+ x =f 3+ x = √ = F (x), as required.
(3 + x)2

One-to-One Functions and Their Inverses

Definition 20. A function with domain A is called a one-to-one function(or 1−1 function)
if no two elements of A have the same images, that is

f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) whenever x1 ̸= x2 .

Equivalently,
If f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x1 = x2 .

For functions represented by diagrams:

f f f

The first two are 1 − 1 and the third is not.

For functions represented by graphs, we have
Horizontal Line Test: A function is 1 − 1 if and only if no horizontal line intersects the
26 CONTENTS

graph more than once.

y

y = x3 y

y = x2

The first one is 1 − 1 and the second is not.

Deciding Whether Functions are One-to-One

Examples 21.

1. f (x) = x3
For any x1 , x2 ∈ R, we compute  f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) = x1 − x2 = (x1 − x2)(x1 + x1 x2 + x2 ) =
3 3 2 2
 x2  2 3 x2 2 3
(x1 −x2 ) x1 − + x22 . 0 = f (x1 )−f (x2 ) ⇔ x1 −x2 = 0 or x1 − + x22 =
2 4 2 4
0.
 x − x = 0 ⇔ x = x .
x 2 2 3 2  x 2 2
1 2 1 2
3 x2
x1 − + x2 = 0 ⇔ x1 − = 0 and x22 = 0 ⇔ x1 = and x2 = 0 ⇔
2 4 2 4 2
x1 = x2 = 0.
Hence f is one-to-one.

2. f (x) = x2 .
It is not one-to-one, since f (1) = 12 = 1 = (−1)2 = f (−1).

The Inverse of a Function

Definition 22. Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B. Then the
inverse function f −1 has domain B and range A and is define by

f −1 (y) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y for any y ∈ B.

Remarks 23.

1. When we write f −1 (y) = x, y is the independent variable and x is the dependent variable
for the inverse function.

2. f −1 (x) means the value of f −1 at x, but f (x)−1 means the reciprocal number of f (x);
1
i.e., when f (x) ̸= 0.
f (x)
 CONTENTS 27

Inverse Function Properties Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B.
The inverse function f −1 satisfying the following properties:
1. f −1 (f (x)) = x = (f −1 ◦ f )(x) for all x ∈ A
⇔ f −1 ◦ f = 1A , the identity function of A, that is 1A (x) = x for any x ∈ A.

2. f (f −1 (x)) = x = (f ◦ f −1 )(x) for all x ∈ B

⇔ f ◦ f −1 = 1B , the identity function of B, that is 1B (x) = x for any x ∈ B.

3. The graphs of y = f (x) and y = f −1 (x) are symmetric with respect to the x = y line
in the plane. See
y

y = x3

x = y3

y=x

How to Find the Inverse of a 1 − 1 Function

Step (a) Write y = f (x).

Step (b) Solve the equation for x in terms of y (if possible).

Step (c) Interchange x and y. The resulting equation is y = f −1 (x).

Examples 24.
1. f (x) = 2x + 5.
(a) y = 2x+5. We note that its a linear equation and its graph is a line in the coordinate
y−5 x−5 x−5
plane with slope 2, so 1 − 1. (b) x = . (c) y = . Hence f −1 (x) = .
2 2 2
2. f (x) = x3 .
√ √
(a) y = x3 . By the horizontal line test, it is 1 − 1. (b) y 1/3 = 3 y = x. (c) y = 3 x =
x1/3 ⇒ f −1 (x) = x1/3 .
√
3. f (x) = x2 . f −1 (x) = x, under the assumption that both the domains and ranges are
chosen to be [0, ∞).
√
4. f (x) = 1 + 1 + x.
We first note that the domain of f = [−1, ∞) = A and the range B = [1, ∞).
Secondly, we√note that f is√1 − 1. Indeed, √ 1 , x2 ∈ A, √
for x√ we compute√ f (x1 ) −
f (x2 ) = (1 + 1 + x1 ) − (1 + 1 + x1 ) = 1 + x1 − 1 + x2 = 1 + x1 − 1 + x2 ·
28 CONTENTS

√ √
1 + x1 + 1 + x2 (1 + x1 ) − (1 + x2 ) x1 − x2
√ √ = √ √ = √ √ . Hence f (x1 ) =
1 + x1 + 1 + x2 1 + x1 + 1 + x2 1 + x1 + 1 + x2
f (x2 ) ⇔ x1 = x2 and so f is 1 − 1.
√ √
y = 1 + 1 + x ⇔ y − 1 = 1 + x ⇔ (y − 1)2 = 1 + x ⇔ x = (y − 1)2 − 1 = y 2 − 2y.
Hence f −1 (x) = x2 − x.
CONTENTS 29

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Exponential Functions
For a positive base a ̸= 1, the one-to-one function f (x) = ax is defined for any exponent
x ∈ Q.
Because of great importance in mathematics and in modeling many real world phenomena,
it is desirable to extend the domain of this one-to-one function to the whole real line R and
1
range (0, ∞), so that f is still one-to-one with a0 = 1, a−x = x and ax+y = ax · ay for all
a
x, y ∈ R. If such an extension exists, and it does, its graph in the plane will look like:
y y

y = ax , a > 1 y = ax , a < 1

x x

Note that ax and xa are two different functions. Exercise: How?

Graphs of Exponential Functions for Various Bases

b>a>1>c>d>0
y

y = cx y=d x y = bx y = ax

(0, 1)

Logarithmic Functions
Let a ̸= 1 be a positive number. The logarithmic function with base a, denoted by
loga : (0, ∞) −→ R is defined by

loga x = y ⇐⇒ ay = x
30 CONTENTS

ie., it is the inverse function of the exponential function with base a.

Using the symmetricity property for the graph of a function and the graph of its inverse
and what we know about the graph of ax , we have
y y
y=x

y = ax , a > 1

(s, as )
(t, loga t)
x x

y = loga x, a > 1 y = loga x, a > 1

Graphs of Logarithmic Functions for Various Bases

b>a>1>c>d>0
y

y = loga x

y = logb x

y = logc x

y = logc x

In case the base is 10, we simply write log x for log10 x and call it the common logarithm.
Some Facts about Logarithms Let a ̸= 1 be a positive number and A, B, C ∈ R with
A, B > 0
1. loga (AB) = loga A + loga B⇒ loga (AB) = loga |A| + loga |B| whenever A · B > 0.
 
A

2. loga = loga A − loga B⇒ loga B A
= loga |A| − loga |B| whenever A · B > 0.
B
3. loga AC = C loga A.
 
ab √
Examples 25. 1. Use the laws of logarithms to expand log √ = log ab − log c =
c
1 log c
log |a| + log |b| − log c 2 = log |a| + log |b| − .
2
CONTENTS 31

1
2. Use the law of logarithm to write log x − 2 log(x2 + 1) + log(3 − x4 ) into a single
2
logarithm.

1 1
log x − 2 log(x2 + 1) + log(3 − x4 ) = log x − log(x2 + 1)2 + log(3 − x4 ) 2
2
  1
= log x − log(x2 + 1)2 + log(3 − x4 ) 2
 
x 1
= log + log(3 − x4 ) 2
(x2 + 1)2
1
x(3 − x4 ) 2
= log .
(x2 + 1)2

 (
x > 0 x>0
All the above computations make sense ⇐⇒ x2 + 1 > 0 ⇐⇒ ⇐⇒

 3 − x4 > 0
3 − x4 > 0
( (
x>0 x>0 √
⇐⇒ √ ⇐⇒
4
3>x>0
3>x ≥0
4 4
3>x>0
Here is a list of some reminders about logarithms:

1. loga (A ± B)̸= loga A ± loga B.

 
A log A
2. loga ̸= a , unless A = 1.
B loga B

3. loga AC ̸= (loga A)C .

CHANGE OF BASE FORMULA

loga x
logb x = for a, b, x > 0 and a, b ̸= 1
loga b

bx = ax loga b for a, b, x > 0 and a, b ̸= 1

Proof of Change of Base Formula

loga x
The proof of logb x = for a, b, x > 0 and a, b ̸= 1: Starting with the equation
loga b
y = logb x, we check that
y = logb x ⇐⇒ by = blogb x = x ⇐⇒ loga by = loga x
⇐⇒ y loga b = loga x.
The proof of bx = ax loga b for a, b, x > 0 and a, b ̸= 1:
Solve the equation bx = ay for y in terms of x.
bx = ay ⇐⇒ loga bx = loga ay ⇐⇒ x loga b = y loga a ⇐⇒ y = x loga b
32 CONTENTS

Examples
1. 2x+3 = 7.
2x+3 = 7 ⇔ x + 3 = log2 7 ⇔ x = log2 7 − 3.

2. 32x + 3x − 6 = 0.
0 = 32x + 3x − 6 = (3x )2 + 3x − 6 = (3x + 3)(3x − 2) ⇔ 3x + 3 = 0 or 3x = 2 ⇔ 3x = −3
(which is impossible because 3x > 0) or 3x = 2 ⇔ x = log3 2. Hence the solution is
x = log3 2.

3. log(25 − x) = 3.
log(25 − x) = 3 ⇔ 25 − x = 103 = 1000 ⇔ x = −975.

4. log2 (x + 2) + log2 (x − 1) = 1.
log2 (x + 2) + log2 (x − 1) = 1
⇔ log2 [(x + 2)(x − 1)] = 1(by remembering that x > 1) ⇔ x2 + x − 2 = 21 = 2 ⇔
 2 √ !2 √ ! √ !
1 17 1 + 17 1 − 17
x2 + x − 4 = 0 ⇔ x + − = 0 ⇔ x+ x+ =
2 2 2 2
√
1 ± 17
0⇔x= .
2

Trigonometry: Part I
Pythagorean Theorem
Angle Measure: If a circle of radius 1 (so its circumference is 2π) with vertex of an angle at
its center, then the measure of this angle in radians (abbreviated rad) is the length of the
arc that subtends the angle. See

1 r

θ radian measure of θ θ rθ

where the second graph shows that the length s of an arc that subtends a central angle of θ
radians in a circle of radius r is
s = rθ

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEGREES AND RADIANS

 ◦
◦ 180 π
180 = π rad, 1 rad = 1◦ = rad
π 180

 π  π
Examples 26. 1. Express 30◦ in radians. 30◦ = 30 rad = rad.
180 6
CONTENTS 33

 π  π
2. Express 45◦ in radians. 45◦ = 45 rad = rad.
180 4

 π  180 
π π
3. Express rad in degrees. rad = = 60◦ .
3 3 3 π

A note on terminology: We often use a phrase such as “a 30◦ degree angle” to mean an angle
whose measure is 30◦ . Also for an angle θ, we write θ = 30◦ or θ = π/6 to mean the measure
of θ is 30◦ or π/6rad. When no unit is given, the angle is assume to be in radians.
Area of a Circular Sector In a disc of radius r, the area of a sector with central angle of
θ radians

θ rθ

is
θ 1
A = πr2 × = πr2 .
2π 2
Trigonometry of Right Triangle
Pythagorean Theorem: In any right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse equals
the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two other sides. If the hypotenuse has length c,
and the legs have lengths a and b, then

c 2 = a 2 + b2 .

e π −θ
us 2
en
p ot
hy
c
b opposite

B a adjacent C

Trigonometric Function: Right Triangle Approach

π
Trigonometric Ratios for 0 < θ <
2

b a b
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
c c a
c c a
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
b a b
34 CONTENTS

π 1
Examples 27. 1. Suppose 0 < θ < and cos θ = . Find the values of sin θ, tan θ,
2 3
cot θ, sec θ and csc θ.
By
A

π −θ
2
1 √
1 − x2

B x C

s  2 √
1 2 2
we see that the length of the opposite side is 1− = = sin θ, tan θ =
3 3
√ √
2 √ 3 2
, cot θ = 2 2, csc θ = and sec θ = 3
4 4

π
2. Suppose 0 < θ < and tan θ = 2. Find the values of sin θ, cos θ, cot θ, sec θ and csc θ.
2
Use
A

π −θ
2
√
1− y2
1

B 1 C

√ 2 1
We see the length of the hypotenuse side is 5. Hence sin θ = √ , cos θ = √ , cot θ =
√ 5 5
1 √ 5
, sec θ = 5 and csc θ =
2 2

Trigonometric Function: Unit Circle Approach

The unit circle is the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin in the xy-plane. Its equation
is
x2 + y 2 = 1.

Suppose θ is a real number. Mark off a distance θ along the unit circle, starting at the
point (1, 0) and moving in a counterclockwise direction if θ > 0 or in a clockwise direction if
θ < 0. In this way we arrive at a point P (x, y) on the unit circle. The point P (x, y) obtained
CONTENTS 35

in this way is called the terminal point determined by the real number θ.

y y y

y P (x, y) y P (x, y)

θ θ x
x x x
x x
−θ
2π + θ y P (x, y)

Trigonometric Functions for θ ∈ R

y
sin θ = y cos θ = x tan θ = (x ̸= 0)
x y P (x, y)
θ
x
x
1 1 x
csc θ = (y ̸= 0) sec θ = (x ̸= 0) cot θ = (y ̸= 0)
y x y
π
Note that, when 0 < θ < , a = x, b = y and c = 1, the unit circle approach is identical with
2
the right triangle approach in the defining these trigonometric functions, but the domains of
these trigonometric functions are larger using the unit circle approach.

Trigonometric Function: Special Triangles

Special Triangles

θ in ◦ θ in rad sin θ cos θ tan θ csc θ sec θ cot θ y

0◦ 0 0 1 0 − 1 − ( √ )
√ √ √ (0, 1) 1, 3
(√ √ )
π 1 3 3 2 3 √ 2 2 2
, 2

30◦
2 2
2 3 (√ )
6 √2 √2 3 3 2
3 1
, 2

π 2 2 √ √
45◦
(1, 0)
1 2 2 1 x
4 √2 2 √ √
π 3 1 √ 2 3 3
60◦ 3 2
3 2 2 3 3
π
90◦ 1 0 − 1 − 0
2
36 CONTENTS

Fundamental Identities of Trigonometric Function

e π −θ
s
nu
2
te
ypo
h
c
b opposite

B a adjacent C

Reciprocal Identities

1 1 1
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ
sin θ cos θ
tan θ = cot θ =
cos θ sin θ

Pythagorean Identities

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

Cofunction Identities
π  π  π 
sin − θ = cos θ tan − θ = cot θ sec − θ = csc θ
2 2 2
π  π  π 
cos − θ = sin θ cot − θ = tan θ csc − θ = secθ
2 2 2

y y

y P (x, y)

θ x
x x
x
−θ
y P (x, y)

Even-Odd Identities
sin(−θ) = − sin θ cos(−θ) = cos θ tan(−θ) = − tan θ

csc(−θ) = − csc θ sec(−θ) = sec θ cot(−θ) = − cot θ

CONTENTS 37

Worked Examples on Applications of Trigonometric Identities

cos θ
1. Simplify tan θ + .
1 + sin θ
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ(1 + sin θ) + cos2 θ sin θ + sin2 θ + cos2 θ
tan θ+ = + = = =
1 + sin θ cos θ 1 + sin θ cos θ(1 + sin θ) cos θ(1 + sin θ)
1 + sin θ 1
= = sec θ
cos θ(1 + sin θ) cos θ
1 − sin θ
2. Prove = (sec θ − tan θ)2 .
1 + sin θ  
1 − sin θ 1 − sin θ 1 − sin θ (1 − sin θ)2 1 − sin θ 2
= · = =
1 + sin θ 1 + sin θ 1 − sin θ 1 − sin2 θ cos θ
 2
1 sin θ
= − = (sec θ − tan θ)2 .
cos θ cos θ

Trigonometric Graphs
A function f is periodic if there is a positive p such that f (θ + p) = f (θ) for every θ. The
least such positive number is the period of f . If f has period p, then the graph of f on any
interval of length p is called one complete period of f .

Periodic Properties of Sine and Cosine

The functions sine and cosine have period 2π:

sin(θ + 2π) = sin θ cos(θ + 2π) = cos θ

y y
y = sin x y = cos x

x x

Periodic Properties of tangent and Cotangent

The functions tangent and cotangent have period π:

tan(θ + π) = tan θ cot(θ + π) = cot θ

y y

x x

y = tan x x = kπ x = kπ + π
2 y = cot x x = kπ x = kπ + π
2
38 CONTENTS

Periodic Properties of Secant and Cosecant

The functions secant and cosecant have period 2π:

sec(θ + 2π) = sec θ csc(θ + 2π) = csc θ

y y

x x

y = sec x x = kπ x = kπ + π
2
y = csc x x = kπ x = kπ + π
2

Worked Examples
π π   π √
2π π 3
Examples 28. 1. sin = sin + = cos − = cos = .
3 2 6 6 6 2
π π   π π
2. cos π = cos + = sin − = − sin = −1.
2 2 2 2
5π h π  π π i h  π π i
3. cot = cot + + = tan − +
4 
π π
4
π
2 2 2 4
π
= − tan + = − cot − = cot = 1.
2 4 4 4
3π  π   π  π
4. tan = tan 2π − = tan − = − tan = 0.
2 2 2 2
    √
5π π π π 2 3
5. sec = sec 2π − = sec − = sec = .
6 6 6 6 3
31π  π  π h  π π i
6. csc = csc 5π + = csc π + = sec − +
6  6  6 2 6
π π π π 1 1
= sec + = csc − = − csc = − = − 1 = −2.
2 6 6 6 sin π6 2

Domains and Ranges of Trigonometric Functions

sin : R −→ [−1, 1]
cos : R −→ [−1, 1]
n π o
tan : R \ kπ + | k ∈ Z −→ R
2
cot : R \ {kπ | k ∈ Z} −→ R
n π o
sec : R \ kπ + | k ∈ Z −→ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
2
csc : R \ {kπ | k ∈ Z} −→ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
CONTENTS 39

Signs of Trigonometric Functions

Quadrant Positive Functions Negative Functions

I all none
II sin, csc cos, sec, tan, cot
III tan, cot sin, csc, cos, sec
IV cos, sec sin, csc, tan, cot

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

• The Inverse Sine Function is the function y

h π πi
sin−1 : [−1, 1] −→ − , y = sin−1 x
2 2
defined by
x
−1
sin x = y ⇐⇒ sin y = x

The inverse sine function is also called arcsine,

denoted by arcsin.

1 π
Examples 29. (i) sin−1 = .
2 6
√ !
3 π
(ii) arcsin − =− .
2 3

(iii) sin−1 2 =?
Because 2 > 1, 2 is not in the domain of arcsin, so sin−1 2 is not defined.
 π π
(iv) arcsin sin = .
4 4
   
−1 7π −1 1 π
(v) sin sin = sin − =− .
6 2 6

• The Inverse Cosine Function is the function y

cos−1 : [−1, 1] −→ [0, π]

defined by y = cos−1 x

cos−1 x = y ⇐⇒ cos y = x

The inverse cosine function is also called

x
arccosine, denoted by arccos.
40 CONTENTS

• The Inverse Tangent Function is the function

 π π
tan−1 : R −→ − , y
2 2
defined by x = ±π
2

x
tan−1 x = y ⇐⇒ tan y = x y = tan −1
x

The inverse tangent function is also called

arctangent, denoted by arctan.
• The Inverse Cotangent Function is the func-
tion y
cot−1 : R −→ (0, π)
x=π

defined by
y = cot−1 x
cot−1 x = y ⇐⇒ cot y = x

The inverse cotangent function is also called

x
arccotangent, denoted by arccot.
• The Inverse Secant Function is the function
h π  π i
sec−1 : {x ∈ R | |x| ≥ 1} −→ 0, ∪
y
,π
2 2 x=π

defined by
y = sec−1 x
sec−1 x = y ⇐⇒ sec y = x
x= π
2
The inverse cosecant function is also called x
arcsecant, denoted by arcsec.
• The Inverse Cosecant Function is the function
h π   πi
csc−1 : {x ∈ R | |x| ≥ 1} −→ − , 0 ∪ 0, y
2 2
defined by x = ±π
2

x
csc−1 x = y ⇐⇒ csc y = x −1
y = csc x

The inverse cosecant function is also called

arccosecant, denoted by arccsc.
2π −1 −π
Examples 30. 1. sin−1 cos = sin−1 = .
3 2 6
 π
2. cos−1 tan − = cos−1 (−1) = π.
4
√
1 π 3
3. tan arcsin = tan = .
2 6 3
√
−1 2 π √
4. csc cos == csc = 2.
2 4
CONTENTS 41

Trigonometry: Part II
Addition and Subtraction Formulas for Trig. Function
(
sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
Formulas for Sine:
sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
(
cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
Formulas for Cosine:
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β

 tan α + tan β
 tan(α + β) =
Formulas for Tangent: 1 − tan α tan β
 tan α − tan β
 tan(α − β) =
1 + tan α tan β
Proof of Subtraction Formula for Sine:
By the addition formula for sine and even-odd identities,
sin(α − β) = sin [α + (−β)] = sin α cos(−β) + cos α sin(−β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β.

Proof of Subtraction Formula for Cosine:

By the addition formula for cosine and even-odd identities,
cos(α − β) = cos [α + (−β)] = cos α cos(−β) − sin α sin(−β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β.

Proof Addition Formula for Tangent:

By Addition Formula for Sine and Cosine and Reciprocal Identities,
sin α cos β+cos α sin β
sin(α + β) sin α cos β + cos α sin β cos α cos β tan α + tan β
tan(α + β) = = = cos α cos β−sin α sin β =
cos(α + β) cos α cos β − sin α sin β 1 − tan α tan β
cos α cos β

7π
Examples 31. 1. sin =?
12
  π π  √ √ √
7π 3π + 4π π π π π 21 2 3
sin = sin = sin + = sin cos + cos sin = + =
12√ √ 12 4 3 4 3 4 3 2 2 2 2
(1 + 3) 2
.
4
π 2π π 2π
2. cos cos − sin sin =?
9 9 9 9
 
π 2π π 2π π 2π π 1
cos cos − sin sin = cos + = cos = .
9 9 9 9 9 9 3 2

1 + tan θ π 
3. Prove the identity = tan +θ .
1 − tan θ 4
1 + tan θ tan π
+ tan θ  π 
4
= = tan + θ .
1 − tan θ 1 − tan π4 tan θ 4

4. Express sin(cos−1 x + tan−1 y) as an algebraic expression in x and y, where x ∈ [−1, 1]

and y ∈ R.
42 CONTENTS

Let α = cos−1 x and β = tan−1 y. Then cos α = x, tan β = y and sin(cos−1 x +

tan−1 y) = sin(α + β) =psin α cos β + cos α sin β.
cos α = x ⇒ sin α = 1 − x2 . tan β = y ⇒ sin β = √ y 2 and cos β = √ 1 2 .
1+y
√ 1+y
p 1 y 1 − x 2 + xy
Hence sin(cos−1 x + tan−1 y) = 1 − x2 p + xp = p =
√ p 1 + y2 1 + y2 1 + y2
1 − x2 + xy 1 + y2
.
1 + y2
√
1 3
5. Use the addition and subtraction for sine to simplify sin θ + cos θ in terms of a
2 2
single trigonometric function.
√ 
1 3 π π π
sin θ + cos θ = cos sin θ + sin cos θ = sin θ + .
2 2 3 3 3
√ 
1 3 π π π
On the other hand, sin θ + cos θ = sin sin θ + cos cos θ = sin θ − .
2 2 6 6 6

More generally, we can write, for any A, B ∈ R with A2 + B 2 ̸= 0,

p  
A B
A cos θ + B sin θ = A2 + B 2 · √ cos θ + √ sin θ
A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2
p p
= A2 + B 2 (cos φ1 cos θ + sin φ1 sin φ1 ) = A2 + B 2 cos(θ − φ1 )
p p
= A2 + B 2 (sin φ2 cos θ + cos φ2 sin φ2 ) = A2 + B 2 sin(θ + φ2 )

For any A, B ∈ R with A2 + B 2 ̸= 0

p p
A cos θ + B sin θ = A2 + B 2 cos(θ − φ1 ) = A2 + B 2 sin(θ + φ2 )
( (
cos φ1 = √ A sin φ2 = √ A
where A2 +B 2 and A2 +B 2
sin φ1 = √ B cos φ2 = √ B
A2 +B 2 A2 +B 2

We note that by knowing the values any two distinct trigonometric functions of the six
trigonometric functions, as long as they are not from the three reciprocal identities, the values
of remaining four trigonometric functions are also determined.

cos θ − sin θ π 
Example 32. Prove the identity = tan −θ .
cos θ + sin θ 4
√  √2 √  √ √
cos θ − sin θ 2 2 cos θ − 2
2
sin θ 2
cos θ − 2
sin θ
Proof. = √ √ √  = √2 √2
cos θ + sin θ 2 2 2 2
2 2 cos θ + 2 sin θ 2 cos θ + 2 sin θ

π 
sin π4 cos θ − cos π4 sin θ sin π4 − θ
= =
= tan − θ
cos π4 cos θ + sin π4 sin θ cos π4 − θ 4
CONTENTS 43

Double Angle Formulas for Trigonometric Functions

With α = β = θ in the addition formulas for sine, cosine and tangent functions, we have

Formula for Sine Function:

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

Formula for Cosine Function:



cos θ − sin θ
2 2

cos 2θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ


2 cos2 θ − 1

Formula for Tangent Function:

2 tan θ
tan 2θ = .
1 − tan2 θ

Half Angle Formula for Trigonometric Functions

(
1 − 2 sin2 θ θ
Using cos 2θ = , replacing 2θ, θ by θ, correspondingly and rearrange terms,
2 cos2 θ − 1 2
we obtain
θ 1 − cos θ θ 1 + cos θ
sin2 = , cos2 =
2 2 2 2
and so r r
θ 1 − cos θ θ 1 + cos θ
sin = ± , cos = ±
2 2 2 2
θ
The choice of + or − sign depends on the quadrant in which lies.
2
2 tan θ 2 tan 2θ 2t θ
Using tan 2θ = ⇒ tan θ = = , where t = tan , and we
1 − tan θ
2
1 − tan 22 θ 1−t 2 2
p √ √
choose
p b = 2t and a = 1−t , so c = (2t) + (1 − t ) = 4t + 1 − 2t + t = 1 + 2t2 + t4 =
2 2 2 2 2 2 4

(1 + t2 )2 = 1 + t2 . Therefore,

2 tan 2θ 1 + tan2 θ
2
sin θ = θ
csc θ =
1 + tan2 2 2 tan 2θ

1 − tan2 2
θ
1 + tan2 2
θ
cos θ = sec θ =
1+ tan2 2θ 1− tan2 2θ

2 tan 2θ 1 − tan2 θ
2
tan θ = cot θ =
1 − tan2 θ
2 2 tan 2θ
44 CONTENTS

π
Examples 33. 1. sin =?
12 π
π π
Note that sin = sin 6 and lies in the first quadrant, we see that
12 2 12
r s p
√ √
π 1 − cos π
6 1 − 23 2− 3
sin = = =
12 2 2 2

7π
2. tan =?
8       
7π π 3π π 3π 3π 3π cos 3π
tan = tan + = tan − − = cot − = − cot =− 8
3π
8 2 8 2 8 8 8 sin 8
q v
1+cos 3π u √
3π 3π
7π 4 u 1 − 2
and = 4 is in the the first quadrant. Hence tan = − q 2 3π = −t √2 =
8 2 8 1−cos 4 1 + 22
s √ √
2
2− 2 2− 2
− √ =−
2+ 2 2

3. Write sin(2 cos−1 x) as an algebraic expression in x only, where x ∈ [−1, 1].

Let θ = cos−1 x. Then cos θ = x and sin(2 cos−1 x) = sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ. Using
A

1 √
1 − x2

B x C

√
we have sin θ = 1 − x2 . √
Hence sin(2 cos−1 x) = 2x 1 − x2 .

Product-to-Sum Formulas
(
sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
Idea: Recalling and adding the left- and right-sides
sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
of these formulas, gives

sin(α + β) + sin(α − β) = 2 sin α cos β

So
sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)
sin α cos β =
2
Similarly, by subtracting them on both sides, gives
sin(α + β) − sin(α − β)
cos α sin β =
2
CONTENTS 45

Apply similar techniques to the addition and subtraction formulas of cosine function to see

sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)
sin α cos β =
2

sin(α + β) − sin(α − β)
cos α sin β =
2
cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)
cos α cos β =
2
cos(α − β) − sin(α + β)
sin α sin β =
2
Examples 34. 1. Express sin 3x cos 5x as a sum of trigonometric functions.

sin(3x + 5x) + sin(3x − 5x)

sin 3x cos 5x =
2
sin 8x + sin(−2x) sin 8x − sin 2x
= = or
2 2
sin 3x cos 5x = cos 5x sin 3x
sin(5x + 3x) − sin(5x − 3x) sin 8x − sin 2x
= =
2 2
2. Express sin 3x sin 5x as a sum of trigonometric functions.

cos(3x − 5x) − cos(3x − 5x)

sin 3x sin 5x =
2
cos(−2x) − cos 8x cos 2x − cos 8x
= =
2 2

Sum-to-Product Formulas
( (
x+y
α = x =α+β
By applying the Product-to-Sum formulas, with 2
x−y ⇒ , and rearrang-
β = 2 y =α−β
ing terms, we obtain
x+y x−y
sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
x+y x−y
sin x − sin y = 2 cos sin
2 2
x+y x−y
cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos
2 2
x+y x−y
cos x − cos y = −2 sin sin
2 2
Examples 35. 1. Write sin 7x + sin 3x as a multiple of trigonometric functions.
7x + 3x 7x − 3x
sin 7x + sin 3x = 2 sin cos = 2 sin 5x cos 2x.
2 2
46 CONTENTS

sin 3x − sin x
2. Simply the fractional expression .
cos 3x + cos x
sin 3x − sin x 2 cos 3x+x 3x−x
2 sin 2 2 cos 2x sin x sin x
= 3x+x 3x−x = = = tan x.
cos 3x + cos x 2 cos 2 cos 2 2 cos 2x cos x cos x

Area Formulas for General Triangles

Given a triangle with side lengths a and b, and included angle θ, then the area
1
A = ab sin θ
2
A A

b b
b sin θ b sin θ

θ
θ
C B a
a C B

Heron’s Formula: p
A= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
a+b+c
where s = is the semiperimeter of the triangle; that is half of the perimeter.
2
c b

Laws of Sines and Cosines for General Triangles

A

b
c

β
γ

C a B

Law of Sines: In ∆ABC we have

sin α sin β sin γ
= =
a b c
Law of Cosines: In ∆ABC
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos α
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos β

c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos γ
CONTENTS 47

Sequences and Series

Sequences and Summation Notation
Definition 36. A sequence in a nonempty set B is a function f : N −→ B. The terms of
the sequence are the function values

f (1), f (2), f (3), . . . , f (n), . . .

In this note, B = R.
We write an = f (n). So the terms of the sequence are written as

a1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . . , a n , . . .

The number a1 is called the first term, a2 is called the second term, and in general, an is
called nth term.

Examples 37. 1. 2, 4, 6, 8, . . . is the sequence of positive even numbers with an = 2n.

1 1 1 1
2. 1, − , , − , . . . . an =? Answer: an = (−1)n+1 .
2 3 4 n
3. Recursively Defined Sequences

(a) Find the first five terms defined recursively by a1 = 1 and an = 3(an−1 + 2).
a2 = 3(a1 + 2) = 3(1 + 2) = 9, a3 = 3(a2 + 2) = 3(9 + 2) = 33, a4 = 3(a3 + 2) =
3(33 + 2) = 105, a5 = 3(a4 + 2) = 3(105 + 2) = 321.
Hence the first five terms of the sequence are 1, 9, 33, 105, 321, . . . .
(b) Fibonacci sequence is defined by F1 = 1 F2 = 1 and

Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 .

The Partial Sums of a Sequence For a sequence

a1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , . . . , a n , . . .

the partial sums are

S1 = a 1
S2 = a 1 + a 2
S3 = a 1 + a 2 + a 3
S4 = a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + a 4
..
.
Sn = a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + · · · + a n
...

S1 is called the first partial sum. S2 is the second partial sum, and so on. Sn is called
the nth partial sum. The sequence S1 , S2 , S3 , . . . , Sn , . . . is called the sequence of partial
sums.
48 CONTENTS

Examples 38. 1. Find the first four partial sums and the nth partial sum of the sequence
given by an = 21n
1 1 1
The terms of the sequence are , , , . . .
2 4 8
The first four partial sums are
1 1
S1 = =
2 2
1 1 3
S2 = + =
2 4 4
1 1 1 7
S3 = + + =
2 4 8 8
1 1 1 1 15
S4 = + + + =
2 4 8 16 16
In general, by observation, the nth partial sum
2n − 1 1
Sn = n
= 1 − n.
2 2

2. Find the first four partial sums and the nth partial sum of the sequence given by
an = n1 − n+1
1

The first four partial sums are

 
1 1
S1 = 1 − =1−
2 2
   
1 1 1 1
S2 = 1 − + − =1−
2 2 3 3
     
1 1 1 1 1 1
S3 = 1 − + − + − =1−
2 2 3 3 4 4
       
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S4 = 1 − + − + − + − =1−
2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5

In general, by observation, the nth partial sum

1
Sn = 1 − .
n+1
Sigma Notation Given a sequence

a1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , . . . , a n , . . .

we can write the sum of the first n terms using summation notation or sigma notation:
X
n
ak = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + · · · + an
k=1

The left hand side is read “The sum of ak from k = 1 to k = n.” The letter k is called the
index of summation, or the summation variable.

Examples 39. Write each sum using sigma notation.

CONTENTS 49

X
8
1. 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + 53 + 63 + 73 + 83 = k3 .
k=1

√ √
3
√
4
√
5
√
6
√
7
√
8
√
9
X
9
1
2. 3 + 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3+ 3= 3k .
k=1

X
6
3. 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 2.
k=1
Properties of Sums: Let a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . and b1 , b2 , b3 , . . . be sequences of numbers. Then for
any positive integer n and any real number c, the following properties ! hold:
X
n X n Xn X
n Xn
(a) (ak ± bk ) = ak ± bk (b) cak = c ak .
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

Arithmetic Sequences
An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of the form
a1 = a, a2 = a + d, a3 = a + 2d, a4 = a + 3d, a5 = a + 4d, . . .
The number a is the first term, and d is the common difference of the sequence. The nth
term of the arithmetic sequence is given by
an = a + (n − 1)d
To compute the nth partial sum, using the Gauss’s method,
Sn = a + (a + d) + · · ·+[a + (n − 1)d]
+)Sn = [a + (n − 1)d] +[a + (n − 2)d] + · · ·+ a
2Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]+[2a + (n − 1)d]+ · · ·+[2a + (n − 1)d]
n[2a + (n − 1)d] {(a) + [a + (n − 1)d]}
=⇒ Sn = =n· .
2 2

Geometric Sequences
An geometric sequence is a sequence of the form
a1 = a, a2 = ar, a3 = ar2 , a4 = ar3 , a5 = ar4 , . . .
The number a is the first term, and r is the common ratio of the sequence. The nth term
of the geometric sequence is given by
an = arn−1
To compute the nth partial sum, write
Sn = a + ar + · · ·+arn−1
−)rSn = ar + · · ·+arn−1 + arn
(1 − r)Sn = a − arn = a(1 − rn )
a(1 − rn )
=⇒ Sn = when r ̸= 1.
1−r
50 CONTENTS

Mathematical Induction
Principle of Mathematical Induction: For each natural number n, let P (n) be a state-
ment depending on n. Suppose that the following two conditions are satisfied:

1. P (1) is true.

2. For every natural number k, if P (k) is true, then P (k + 1) is true.

Then P (n) is true for all natural number n.

!
X
n
n[2a + (n − 1)d] X
n
n(n + 1)
Examples 40. 1. [a + (j − 1)d]] = . =⇒ k= .
2 2
j=1 k=1

X
n
a(1 − rn )
2. arj−1 = , when r ̸= 1
1−r
j=1

n 
X 
1 1 1
3. − =1− .
j j+1 n+1
j=1
The proofs are left as exercises.
X
n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
4. j2 = .
6
j=1

X
1
Proof. (a) When n = 1, the left hand side is j 2 = 12 = 1. As for the right hand
j=1
1(1 + 1)(2 · 1 + 1) 1·2·3
side, = = 1. 1=1.
6 6
X k
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
(b) Now suppose j2 = . Compute
6
j=1

X
k+1 X
k
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
2
j = j 2 + (k + 1)2 = + (k + 1)2
6
j=1 j=1
 
k(2k + 1)
= (k + 1) +k+1
6
 2 
2k + k + 6k + 6
= (k + 1)
6
2
(k + 1)(2k + 7k + 6) (k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
= =
6 6
(k + 1)[(k + 1) + 1][2(k + 1) + 1]
= .
6
This proof is completed.
CONTENTS 51

X
n  2
n(n + 1)
5. j3 = .
2
j=1

X
1
Proof. (a) When n = 1, the left hand side is j 3 = 13 = 1. As for the right hand
  j=1
1(1 + 1)
side, = 1. 1=1.
2
X k  
3 k(k + 1) 2
(b) Now suppose j = . Compute
2
j=1

X
k+1 X
k    2 
3 3 k(k + 1) 2
3 3 2 k
j = j + (k + 1) = + (k + 1) = (k + 1) +k+1
2 4
j=1 j=1
 2   
k + 4k + 4 (k + 1)2 (k + 2)2 (k + 1)[(k + 1) + 1] 2
= (k + 1)2 = = .
4 4 2

Hence the statement holds true for all n ∈ N by induction.

52 CONTENTS

Graphs and Curves

Symmetry

Let S be an arbitrary nonempty set in the xy-coordinate plane. We will only restrict our
attentions to the following special cases:

1. We say S is symmetric with respect to y-axis if and only P (a, b) ∈ S ⇐⇒ P ′ (−a, b) ∈ S.

See
y

P ′ (−a, b) b P (a, b)

θ θ
x
−a a

2. We say S is symmetric with respect to the origin O(0, 0) if and only P (a, b) ∈ S ⇐⇒
P ′′ (−a, −b) ∈ S. See
y

P (a, b)
b

−a θ
x
θ a

P ′′ (−a, −b)
−b

3. We say S is symmetric with respect to the x-axis if and only P (a, b) ∈ S ⇐⇒ P ′′′ (a, −b) ∈
S. See
y

P (a, b)
b

θ
x
θ a

−b
P ′′′ (a, −b)
CONTENTS 53

Together,
y

P ′ (a, −b) b P (a, b)

−a θ θ a
x
θ θ

P ′′ (−a, −b) b P ′′′ (a, −b)

Remarks about Symmetry

1. In case S is symmetric with respect to the y-axis, then

S ∩ I ⇐⇒ S ∩ II and S ∩ III ⇐⇒ S ∩ IV

by reflection with respect the y-axis.

2. In case S is symmetric with respect to the origin, then

S ∩ I ⇐⇒ S ∩ III and S ∩ II ⇐⇒ S ∩ IV

by reflection with respect the origin.

3. In case S is symmetric with respect to the x-axis, then

S ∩ I ⇐⇒ S ∩ IV and S ∩ II ⇐⇒ S ∩ III

by reflection with respect the x-axis.

4. If any two of the three symmetries hold true, then the third one holds true also.

Proof.
y

P ′ (a, −b) b P (a, b)

−a θ θ a
x
θ θ

P ′′ (−a, −b) b P ′′′ (a, −b)

54 CONTENTS

Even and Odd Functions

Let f be a function with domain D ⊂ R symmetrical to the origin on the real line, i.e,x ∈
D ⇐⇒ −x ∈ D. Then

f is even if f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ D.

f is odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ D.

Theorem 41. The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis and the
graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin.

Proof. If f is even, fixing x ∈ R, (x, f (x)) ∈ graph of f . Check that graph of f ∋ (−x, f (−x)) =
(−x, f (x)). The assertion is true in this case. The odd function assertion proof is left as an
exercise.

Examples 42. 1. f (x) = x2 , cos x, sec x are even functions.

2. f (x) = x3 , sin x, csc x, tan x, cot x are odd functions.

3. Determine whether the function f (x) = 2x − x2 is even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
Check that f (3) = 2 · 3 − 32 = −6, f (−3) = 2 · (−3) − (−3)2 = −15 and ±6 ̸= −15. f
is neither even nor odd.

4. Is there a function which is both even and odd? Why?

Let assume there is such a function for the moment. Then, for any x ∈ Df , f (−x) = f (x)
by the fact that f is even and f (−x) = −f (x) by the fact that f is odd.
Hence f (x) = −f (x) ⇒ 2f (x) = 0 ⇒ f (x) = 0, and so f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ Df .
Therefore, we conclude that there is an even and odd function and it must take 0 value
for all x ∈ Df .

Remark 43. Let f : R −→ R be a function. Define g and h : R −→ R by

f (x) + f (−x) f (x) − f (−x)

g(x) = and h(x) = for x ∈ R.
2 2
f (x) + f (−x) f (x) − f (−x) [f (x) + f (−x)] + [f (x) − f (−x)]
First note that (g+h)(x) = + = =
2 2 2
f (−x) + f (−(−x)) f (−x) + f (x) f (x) + f (−x)
f (x). Next we observe that g(−x) = = = =
2 2 2
f (−x) − f (−(−x)) f (−x) − f (x) f (x) − f (−x)
g(x) and so g is even; and that h(−x) = = =− =
2 2 2
−h(x) and so h is odd. Hence we conclude that:
Any function defined on R can be decomposed in the sum of an even function and an odd
function.