MEDIA AND INFORMATION LITERACY REVIEWER PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Week 1 - The Influence of Media and Information to Communication

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
Communication is the transfer of information and common understanding from one
person to another. Communication is derived from communis, a Latin word which
means to make something common or to share. This process highlights the
transmission of meaning, ideas, and feelings. Communication happens in our daily
conversations with the people around us. However, it should be noted that “unless
a common understanding results from the transmission of information, there is no
communication” (Kelvin-Ilaofu, 2016, p.2; Lunenburg, 2010).

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Lumen Learning (n.d.) enumerated the major functions of communication within a
group or organization. These are:

1. Control – to comply with or control behavior

2. Motivation – to encourage and motivate people
3. Information – to disseminate information
4. Emotional Expression – to express emotions and interact socially.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Creative Commons Attribution (2012) and Lunenburg (2010) explained that the
quality of communication is determined by the elements in the process. These are:

1. Sender – the person who initiates the conversation and creates a message
2. Receiver – the recipient of the information
3. Message – the information created by the source or sender
4. Channel/ Medium – the carrier of messages. This is the way the information
travels between the sender and the receiver. This can be face to face
conversation, written communication or through electronic devices.
5. Feedback – the receiver’s response to the sender’s message
6. Encoding – the sender’s process of converting ideas into understandable
messages
7. Decoding – the process where the receiver interprets the information into
meaningful messages.
8. Noise – also called as interference, is anything that blocks the communication
process.
UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION
Being one of the most essential and vital elements required to lead a proper
professional and personal life, the importance of communication cannot be put down
into words so easily. To get a hold of what information transmission means today
and to understand the models of communication, let us first gain an insight into the
three main types of communication:

• Written communication (Letters, e-mails, reports, memos along with other

documents)
• Oral Communication (either face-to-face or over a phone/video call)
• Non-Verbal Communication (Using gestures, actions, expression, or body
movements, etc.). This is comparatively less popular, or in-use as compared
to the other two, but it is an equally important method to communicate.
Aristotle’s Model
One Sentence Overview: A framework for thinking about how to improve your
communication abilities, by looking at key aspects underpinning a situation.

Aristotle’s model of communication is the oldest communication model, dating back

to 300BC. The model was designed to examine how to become a better and more
convincing communicator.

Aristotle argues we should look at five elements of a communication event to

analyze how best to communicate: speaker, speech, occasion, target audience and
effect. He also identified three elements that will improve communication: ethos
(credibility), pathos (ability to connect) and logos (logical argument). Aristotle’s
model does not pay attention to the role of feedback in communication.

• The sender develops ideas and encodes information.
• The sender selects the medium or a channel to transmit the message.
• The recipient receives the message sent by the sender.
• Then, the receiver decodes or interprets the message.
• The receiver may also provide feedback to the sender, which is the essence
of two-way communication.
8 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
There are 8 models of communication that are divided into 3 sub-categories: linear,
interactive, and transactional.
Lasswell’s Model
One Sentence Overview: A basic framework for analyzing one-way communication
by asking five questions: Who, said what, through which channel, to whom, with
what effects?
Lasswell’s model of communication tries to understand a communication event by
asking five important questions. It looks at who created the message (and what their
bias may be), what they said, the channel they said it through (e.g., TV, radio, blog),
who they said it two, and what effect it had on the receiver. This model is effective
as it provides a very simple and practical way of critiquing a message and exploring
five important elements that can help explain the event under analysis in more detail.
 Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model
One Sentence Overview: Berlo’s S-M-C-R model explains communication in four
steps: Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver.

Berlo’s model of communication explains it in four steps: Source, Message,

Channel, and Receiver. The unique aspect of Berlo’s model is that it gives a detailed
account of the key elements in each step that will affect how well the message is
communicated:

Source: Elements of the source include communication skills of the sender, their
attitude, and their culture.
Message: Elements of the message include its content, structure, and code.
Channel: Elements of the channel include the senses of hearing, seeing, touching,
smelling, etc.
Receiver: Elements of the receiver include their attitude, knowledge, and culture.

Shannon-Weaver Model
One Sentence Overview: The Shannon-Weaver model is the first to highlight the
role of ‘noise’ in communication, which can disrupt or alter a message between
sender and receiver.

The Shannon-Weaver model sees communication occurring in five key parts:

sender, encoder, channel, decoder, receiver. It emphasizes the importance of
encoding and decoding messages for them to be sent (e.g., turning them into written
words, morse code, etc.). During the process of encoding, sending, and decoding,
‘noise’ occurs that can disrupt or cloud a message. In the most traditional sense, this
may be static on a radio broadcast, or even extend to mishearing a conversation or
misspelling an email. This model was the first to introduce the role of noise in the
communication process.

The idea of feedback was retroactively introduced to this model.

Osgood-Schramm Model
One Sentence Overview: The Osgood-Schramm model looks at reciprocal
communication, showing how we must encode, decode, and interpret information in
real-time during a conversation.

The Osgood-Schramm model explores communication that is equal and reciprocal.

It does not differentiate between the sender and receiver but sees each as being in
an equal position as message encoders and decoders.

This model is best for explaining and examining personal synchronous

communication where feedback is immediate (such as face-to-face discussions). As
feedback is immediate, noise can be reduced through ongoing clarification of
messages during the conversation.

Barnlund’s Transactional Model

One Sentence Overview: Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication
highlights the role of private and public cues that impact our messages.

Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication is a model that explores

interpersonal, immediate-feedback communication. Central to this approach is the
idea that feedback for the sender is the reply for the receiver.

The Westley and Maclean Model
One Sentence Overview: The Westley and Maclean model shows that our
communication is influenced by environmental, cultural, and personal factors.
The Westley and Maclean model embraces the importance of feedback in
communication. However, it also emphasizes the important role of environmental
and cultural factors in influencing communication. It shows that the things we say
and communicate are influenced by who we are, what our background is, and what
perspective we are approaching issues from. The model considers the object of
orientation (background, culture, and beliefs) of the sender and receiver of
messages. It also considers the message to have been received and sent within a
broader social context that needs to be considered to know and understand the
message.
This model also highlights the role of ‘cues’ in impacting our messages. Barnlund
highlights the role of public cues which are environmental cues, and private cues
which are a person’s personal thoughts and background. With this emphasis on
cues, Barnlund’s model highlights the factors that influence what we think and say.
Dance’s Helical Model
One Sentence Overview: Dance’s Helical Model sees communication as a circular
process that gets more and more complex as communication occurs, which can be
represented by a helical spiral.
Dance’s Helical Model builds on circular models by explaining how we improve our
messages over time by using feedback. When we communicate with others, their
feedback will influence our next statement.
We become more knowledgeable with each cycle of communication, enabling up to
‘expand our circle’, as represented by the increasingly wider and wider circles. The
movement up the spiral indicates that each communication practice is new and
different from the previous, as communication does not ever perfectly repeat itself.
Dance explains that communication is dynamic or
evolutionary. This means that change must be result of
communication, and this change must be constant as
communication progresses.
Week 2 - Introduction to Media and information Literacy
To communicate, we use different medium of
communication to carry out the message we want to
convey. There are various outlets that we can use to
deliver us message. Few of the examples are listed
below.
Media refers to various channels of communication between a person or persons
and their intended audience. Television, radio, newspapers, and the internet are
different types of Media. One of the oldest forms of media is print. Thanks to the
ever-changing technology, our exposure to media is almost nonstop. Media shapes
our perceptions of what is real. It surrounds us in the forms of billboards, signage,
and even the clothes you wear. We have
radio, television, computers, and smartphones. We have the internet, online video
channels, and all sorts of social media. So, stop and look around, media is
everywhere, and it’s not going away anytime soon. Learn about it, understand it, so
that you may be media smart.
A. Literacy - The ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, and
compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts.
Literacy involves a continuum of learning, wherein individuals can achieve their
goals, develop their knowledge and potential, and participate fully in their community
and wider society.
B. Media - The physical objects used to communicate with or the mass
communication through physical objects such as radio, television, computers, film,
etc. It also refers to any physical object used to communicate messages.
C. Media Literacy - The ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media in a
variety of forms. It aims to empower citizens by providing them with the
competencies (knowledge and skills) necessary to engage with traditional media
and new technologies.
D. Information - A broad term that covers processed data, knowledge derived from
study, experience, instruction, signals, or symbols.
E. Information Literacy - The ability to recognize when information is needed, and
to locate, evaluate, and effectively communicate information in its various formats.
F. Technology (Digital) Literacy - The ability of an individual, either working
independently or with others, to use technological tools responsibly, appropriately,
and effectively. Using these tools an individual can access, manage, integrate,
evaluate, create, and communicate information.
G. Media and Information Literacy - The essential skills and competencies that
allow individuals to engage with media and other information providers effectively,
as well as develop critical thinking and life-long learning skills to socialize and
become active citizens.
Week 3 – Responsible Use of Media and Information
WHAT IS NETIQUETTE?
Netiquette is a made-up word from the words net and etiquette. Netiquette thus
describes the rules of conduct for respectful and appropriate communication on the
internet.
Netiquette is often referred to as etiquette for the internet. These are not legally
binding rules, but recommended rules of etiquette. Netiquette is mostly used for
dealing with unknown people on the internet. The rules of netiquette very depending
on the platform and its participants. Generally, it is up to the operator of a website or
communication app to specify the type and scope of netiquette. It is also their
responsibility to monitor compliance with these basic rules and to penalize violations
of them.
DIGITAL FOOTPRINT
A digital footprint – sometimes called a digital shadow or an electronic footprint –
refers to the trail of data you leave when using the internet. It includes websites you
visit, emails you send, and information you submit online. A digital footprint can be
used to track a person’s online activities and devices. Internet users create their
digital footprint either actively or passively.
Whenever you use the internet, you leave behind a trail of information known as
your digital footprint. A digital footprint grows in many ways – for example, posting
on social media, subscribing to a newsletter, leaving an online review, or shopping
online.
Sometimes, it’s not always obvious that you are contributing to your digital footprint.
For example, websites can track your activity by installing cookies on your device,
and apps can collate your data without you knowing it. Once you allow an
organization to access your information, they could sell or share your data with third
parties. Worse still, your personal information could be compromised as part of a
data breach.
Active digital footprints
An active digital footprint is where the user has deliberately shared information about
themselves – for example, through posting or participating on social networking sites
or online forums. If a user is logged into a website through a registered username or
profile, any posts they make form part of their active digital footprint. Other activities
that contribute to active digital footprints include completing an online form – such
as subscribing to a newsletter – or agreeing to accept cookies on your browser.
Passive digital footprints
A passive digital footprint is created when information is collected about the user
without them being aware that this is happening. For example, this occurs when
websites collect information about how many times users visit, where they come
from, and their IP address. This is a hidden process, which users may not realize is
taking place. Other examples of passive footprints include social networking sites
and advertisers using your likes, shares, and comments to profile you and target you
with specific content.
Why do digital footprints matter?
Digital footprints matter because:
• They are relatively permanent, and once the data is public – or even semi-
public, as may be the case with Facebook posts - the owner has little control
over how others will use it.
• A digital footprint can determine a person’s digital reputation, which is now
considered as important as their offline reputation.
• Employers can check their potential employees’ digital footprints,
particularly their social media, before making hiring decisions. Colleges and
universities can check their prospective students’ digital footprints before
accepting them too.
• Words and photos which you post online can be misinterpreted or altered,
causing unintentional offense.
• Content intended for a private group can spread to a broader circle,
potentially damaging relationships, and friendships.
• Cybercriminals can exploit your digital footprint – using it for purposes such
as phishing for account access or creating false identities based on your
data.
Digital footprint examples:
An internet user could have hundreds of items form part of their digital footprint.
Some of the ways in which users add to their digital footprint include:
Online shopping
• Making purchases from e-commerce websites
• Signing up for coupons or creating an account
• Downloading and using shopping apps
• Registering for brand newsletters
Online banking
• Using a mobile banking app
• Buying or selling stocks
• Subscribing to financial publications and blogs
• Opening a credit card account
Social media
• Using social media on your computer or devices
• Logging into other websites using your social media credentials
• Connecting with friends and contacts
• Sharing information, data, and photos with your connections
• Joining a dating site or app
Reading the news
• Subscribing to an online news source
• Viewing articles on a news app
• Signing up for a publication’s newsletter
• Reposting articles and information you read
Health and fitness
• Using fitness trackers
• Using apps to receive healthcare
• Registering your email address with a gym
• Subscribing to health and fitness blogs
What Is Cyberbullying?
When a young person uses the Internet or technology to harass, threaten,
embarrass, or target another person, this person is called a cyberbully. Typically,
cyberbullying involves tweens and teens; but it's not uncommon for adults to
experience cyberbullying and public shaming as well.
Cyberbullying refers to the use of electronic communication to harass, threaten, or
humiliate others. Examples of cyberbullying include:
• Sending mean texts or emails
• Posting hurtful messages on social media
• Spreading rumors online
Cyberbullying has been linked to teen depression. It can cause teens to feel
increasingly anxious, embarrassed, and worried. In these instances, teens can
experience physical and emotional trauma.
Effects of cyberbullying
The effects of cyberbullying are long-lasting. It can affect a person personal life in
the following ways:
• Mentally: The victim of cyberbully remains in a state of upset, anger, and
ashamed of his own self. the victim lives in a constant state of fear and
anxiety that can lead to serious problems like depression, mood swings, etc.
• Emotionally: Cyberbullying brings a significant stressor in the lives of
people. Even the victim starts blaming himself and loses interest in
everything and eventually dries out.
• Low Self-Esteem: When cyberbullying happens, the victim feels helpless.
It also impacts his/her self-esteem. The victim starts feeling severe
dissatisfaction with who they are. Due to which they start doubting their
worth and value.
• Suicidal Thoughts and Self-Harming: Victim takes these extreme steps
when the cyberbullying feels unbearable to them. Victims who are
constantly exposed to cyberbullying start feeling the loss of hope and
take extreme steps to get rid of it.
Types of Cyberbullying
1. Exclusion
Exclusion is the deliberate act of leaving you out.
Exclusion is the deliberate act of leaving someone out.
2. Harassment
Harassment is a sustained, constant, and intentional form of bullying comprising
abusive or threatening messages sent to your child or to a group.
3. Outing
Outing is a deliberate act to embarrass or publicly humiliate your child or a group
through the online posting of sensitive, private, or embarrassing information without
their consent.
4. Cyberstalking
This form of cyberbullying can extend to the cyberbully making real threats to your
child’s physical wellbeing and/or safety. Cyberstalking can also refer to the practice
of adults using the Internet to contact and attempt to meet with young people for
sexual purposes. It is a very dangerous form of cyberbullying and can have serious
consequences if something isn’t done immediately to stop it.
5. Fraping
Fraping is when somebody logs into your social networking account and Industrial Age (1700s-1930s)
impersonates your child by posting inappropriate content in their name. People used the power of steam, developed machine tools, established iron
production, and the manufacturing of various products (including books through the
6. Fake Profiles printing press).
Fake profiles can be created for a person to hide their real identity with the intention
of cyberbullying your child. Examples:

7. Dissing • Printing press for mass production (19th century)

Dissing is the act of sending or posting cruel information about your child online, to • Newspaper- The London Gazette (1640)
damage their reputation or friendships with others. • Typewriter (1800)
• Telephone (1876)
8. Trickery • Motion picture photography/projection (1890)
Trickery is the act of gaining your child’s trust so that they reveal secrets or • Commercial motion pictures (1913)
embarrassing information that the cyberbully then shares publicly online. • Motion picture with sound (1926)
• Telegraph
9. Trolling
• Punch cards
Tolling is the deliberate act of provoking a response using insults or bad language
on online forums and social networking sites.
Electronic Age (1930s-1980s)
The invention of the transistor ushered in the electronic age. People harnessed the
10. Catfishing
power of transistors that led to the transistor radio, electronic circuits, and the early
Catfishing is when another person steals your child’s online identity, usually photos,
computers. In this age, long distance communication became more efficient.
and re-creates social networking profiles for deceptive purposes.
Examples:
Week 4 – The Evolution from Traditional to New Media
• Transistor Radio
Pre-Industrial Age (Before 1700s) • Television (1941)
People discovered fire, developed paper from plants, and forged weapons and tools • Large electronic computers- i.e. EDSAC (1949) and UNIVAC 1 (1951)
with stone, bronze, copper, and iron. • Mainframe computers – i.e. IBM 704 (1960)
• Personal computers – i.e. Hewlett-Packard 9100A (1968), Apple 1 (1976)
Examples:
Information Age (1900s-2000s)
• Cave paintings (35,000 BC) The Internet paved the way for faster communication and the creation of the social
• Clay tablets in Mesopotamia (2400 BC) network. People advanced the use of microelectronics with the invention of personal
computers, mobile devices, and wearable technology. Moreover, voice, image,
• Papyrus in Egypt (2500 BC)
sound, and data are digitalized. We are now living in the information age.
• Acta Diurna in Rome (130 BC)
• Dibao in China (2nd Century)
Examples:
• Codex in the Mayan region (5th Century)
• Printing press using wood blocks (220 AD)
• Web browsers: Mosaic (1993), Internet Explorer (1995)
• Blogs: Blogspot (1999), LiveJournal (1999), WordPress (2003)
• Social networks: Friendster (2002), Multiply (2003), Facebook (2004)
 • Microblogs: Twitter (2006), Tumblr (2007)
• Video: YouTube (2005)
• Augmented Reality / Virtual Reality
• Video chat: Skype (2003), Google Hangouts (2013)
• Search Engines: Google (1996), Yahoo (1995)
• Portable computers- laptops (1980), netbooks (2008), tablets (1993)
• Smartphones
• Wearable technology
• Cloud and Big Data
• Roles and functions of media in a democratic society
1. Channel – provides opportunities for people to communicate, share ideas,
speculate, tell stories and give information
2. Watchdog – exposes corrupt practices of the government and the private
sector. Creating a space wherein governance is challenged or scrutinized
by the governed. It also guarantees free and fair elections
3. Resource center – acts as a gateway of information for the society’s
consumption. Also, it becomes a keeper of memories of the community,
preserver of heritage and source of academic knowledge.
4. Advocate – through its diverse sources or formats, it bridges the gap of the
digital divide.
5. Media Convergence is the coexistence of traditional and new media.
Week 5 – Types of Media
FORMS OF MEDIA
Media can be classified into two: traditional and new.
TRADITIONAL MEDIA
Traditional media include those types which have been used for decades (even
centuries) already before the internet gained popularity. Traditional media include
the following:
Print Media
This type of news media used to be the only way of delivering information to the
public. For the generations of the 80s and 90s, print media was the only media of
entertain. People relied on newspapers and magazines to learn everything, from
recipes and entertainment news to important information about the country or the
world. Print media includes:
• Newspapers – printed and distributed on a daily or weekly basis. They
include news related to sports, politics, technology, science, local news,
national news, international news, birth notices, as well as
entertainment news related to fashion, celebrities, and movies. Today’s
parents grew up with this type of printed media.
• Magazines – printed on a weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annual basis.
It contains information about finance, food, lifestyle, fashion, sports, etc.
• Books – focused on a particular topic or subject, giving the reader a
chance to spread their knowledge about their favorite topic.
• Banners – used to advertise a company’s services and products, hung
on easily-noticed sights to attract people’s attention.
• Billboards – huge advertisements created with the help of computers.
Their goal is to attract people passing by.
• Brochures – a type of booklet that includes everything about one
company – its products, services, terms and conditions, contact details,
address, etc. They are either distributed with the newspapers or hand
over to people. Check this article to learn more on how to ease the
brochure design process here
• Flyers – used mostly by small companies due to the low cost of
advertising. They contain the basic information about a company, their
name, logo, service or product, and contact information, and they are
distributed in public areas.
Broadcasting Media
Broadcasting media includes videos, audios, or written content that provides
important or entertaining information shared by different methods:
• Television – in the past, there were a few channels sharing various types
of content, whereas now we have hundreds of TV channels to choose from.
Each channel delivers a different type of content, so you have a separate
channel for news, drama, movies, sports, animation, nature, travel, politics,
cartoon, and religion. It’s the number one broadcasting media due to its
reach to the audience.
• Radio – uses radio waves to transmit entertaining, informative, and
educative content to the public. Due to its high reach to the audience, radio
is widely used for advertising products and services. Radio is one of the
oldest means of entertainment, and today people often hear it to find out the
weather and traffic while commuting.
• Movies – film, motion picture, screenplay, moving picture, or movie has
world-wide reachability. It’s the best type of mass media to promote cultures
 and spread social awareness. Movies have always played a huge part in
the entertainment world.
NEW MEDIA
This includes content organized and distributed on digital platforms. All content
coming from the internet belong to new media.
Internet Media
Nowadays, we are relying on the Internet to get the news a lot more often than
traditional news sources. Websites provide information in the form of video, text, and
audio. We can even choose the way we want to receive the news. Types of Internet
media include:
• Social networks or websites – including Facebook, Instagram, Twitter,
YouTube, Tumblr, LinkedIn, Snapchat, Quora, Reddit, Pinterest, etc. They
are user-friendly and widely used by people around the world. Although we
can find any news here, they may be misleading because of the lack of
regulations on the content shared.
• Online forums - an online place where we can comment, message, or
discuss a particular topic. Forums allow us to share knowledge with other
people with the same interest. That’s why it’s regarded as the best platform
to seek support and assistance.
• Podcast – a series of audios focused on a particular topic or theme. We
can listen to them on a computer or a mobile phone. It’s a platform that
allows anyone to share their knowledge and communicate with the world.
You can browse some podcast hosting sites to see what fits your needs
best.
Week 6 – Indigenous Media and Other Common Sources of Information
Terms:
• Indigenous - native; local; originating or produced naturally in a particular
region.
• Indigenous knowledge - knowledge that is unique to a specific culture or
society; most often it is not written down.
• Indigenous communication - transmission of information through local
channels or ID forms. It is a means by which culture is preserved, handed
down, and adapted.
• Indigenous media and information - original information created by a local
group
of people. This also refers to content about indigenous peoples that may be
distributed through dominant forms of media or through forms of communication
unique to their people group.
Popular media cannot reach some rural areas. While print, broadcast, and new
media have a wide reach, there are still areas that these forms of media have not
reached. Indigenous media and information are highly credible because they are
near the source and are seldom circulated for profit.
Indigenous media are channels for change, education, and development because
of its direct access to local channels. Ignoring indigenous media and information can
result in development and education programs that are irrelevant and ineffective.
Week 7 – Media Language, Codes and Intervention
Definition of Terms
• Audience - The group of consumers for whom a media message was
constructed as well as anyone else who is exposed to the message.
• Codes - Are systems of signs, which create meaning
• Convention - Refers to a standard or norm that acts as a rule governing
behavior.
• Genre - A particular type or category of literature and art.
• Language - Pertains to the technical and symbolic ingredients or codes and
• conventions that media and information professionals may select and use
to communicate ideas, information and knowledge.
• Media Languages - Codes, conventions, formats, symbols, and narrative
structures that indicate the meaning of media messages to an audience.
• Messages - The information sent from a source to a receiver.
• Other stakeholders - Libraries, archives, museums, internet and other
relevant information providers.
• Producers - People engaged in the process of creating and putting together
media content to make a finished media product.
• Symbolic Codes - Show what is beneath the surface of what we see.
• Technical Codes - Ways in which equipment is used to tell the story.
• Written Codes - Use of language style and textual layout (headlines,
captions, speech bubbles, language style, etc.
THE LANGUAGE OF MEDIA
Media products can be classified according to its categories or genre. Each genre
uses codes and conventions to easily convey a message. Codes are systems of Written Codes
signs, which create meaning and is divided into three categories - technical, - refer to the use of language style and textual layout
symbolic, and written. (headlines, captions, speech bubbles, language style,
etc)
Technical Codes
- are the ways in which equipment is used to tell Convention
the story (ex. camera techniques, framing, - the generally accepted ways of doing something, a
depth of fields, lighting, and exposure, etc.). standard or norm that acts as a governing behavior.
- Technical codes include sound, camera
angles, types of shots and lighting. They may
include, for example, ominous music to
communicate danger in a feature film, or high-
angle camera shots to create a feeling of
power in a photograph.
Types of Conventions

Conventions refer to the

Furthermore, the recognized ways of using
following are the basic media codes. The types of
camera techniques conventions include form
used to capture conventions, story
different scenes. conventions, and genre
conventions.

Form conventions are

ways in which the types of
media codes are expected
to be arranged.

Story conventions refer to the basic structures of narratives. Examples of story

conventions involve narrative structures, character constructions, and point of view.

Symbolic Codes
- show what is beneath the surface of what we see
(ex. objects, setting, body language, clothing,
color, etc.). Symbolic codes include the language,
dress or actions of characters, or iconic symbols
that are easily understood. For example, a red
rose may be used symbolically to convey
romance, or a clenched fist may be used to
communicate anger.
Genre conventions refer to the common use of the elements of narratives such as
the characters, settings, or themes in a certain type of media. Genre conventions
can be formal or thematic and are usually linked to the expectations of the audience.
Media producers, stakeholders, and audience
The media producers
- refer to the people who initiate, plan, and produce media texts.
Stakeholders
- refer to people or organizations that share the same interests or intentions.

Audience
- is a significant element in delivering media texts. All media texts are made
with a target audience in mind.

Audience analysis
- is the process of looking into the demographics (age, gender, social status,
etc.) and psychology (values, beliefs, attitude) of the audience. Producers
also consider the reaction of the audience by looking into the following:

✓ Audience Engagement - This refers to the reaction of the audience to the

media text. Different people react in varied ways to the same text.

✓ Audience Expectations - This refers to the anticipation of the audience

about the text. Producers may satisfy or shatter the audience’s
expectations.

✓ Audience Foreknowledge - This refers to the exact information (not

expectations) which the audience brings about the media output.

✓ Audience Identification - This refers to the connection built by the media

text to the audience.

✓ Audience Placement - This refers to the strategies producers use to make

the audience feel that the media text is made specifically for them.

✓ Audience Research - This refers to the monitoring of the audience before,

during, and after the production of the media text.

Hope this helps!