PLATFORM - A Journal of Engineering

Received: 9 August 2023, Accepted: 22 September 2023, Published: 29 September 2023, Publisher: UTP Press, Creative Commons: CC BY 4.0

DEVELOPMENT AND FILTRATION PERFORMANCE OF

CERAMIC FILTERS FROM IKOT EBOM CLAY
Mfon Udo Obot1*, Obotowo William Obot1, Emmanuel Udama Odeh1, Maria Kaka Etete Enoh2

1
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Uyo, Nigeria
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Cross River State, Calabar, Nigeria

*E-mail: mfon_obot@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT

This research used the hand impress moulding method to prepare ceramic filter pots using 500 µm sieved clay, grog,
and melon shell in three ratios of 70:5:25, 75:5:20, and 80:5:15, respectively. The pot models were dimensioned to 50
mm height, 52 mm outer diameter, and 10 mm thickness and fired to 650°C, 700°C, and 750°C. The volume of effluent,
flow rate, and microbial removal efficiency were studied. From the results, filter pot 70:5:25 fired to 750°C recorded
an efficiency of 99.9% removal of heterogenic bacteria count, total fungi count, total coliform, and E.coli, and has the best
combination of flow rate and removal efficiency. This filter pot was seen to meet up with World Health Organization (WHO)
standards. Minitab analyses show a significant effect of material composition over fired temperature on the flow rate.

Keywords: Water filtration, porosity, ceramic, filter pot

INTRODUCTION

Unclean water in the environment creates a health
challenge for everyone. A compromise in water quality
severely affects the maintenance of human health and
other activities in the community. Thus, the microbial
quality of water used for consumption, cooking, and
personal hygiene is of paramount importance [1]. The
margin between untreated water bodies' proportions
and potable water in developing countries like Nigeria is
extensive. It is stated that 57% of rural Nigerians still lack
access to potable water [2]. The reasons are inadequate
water management, limited infrastructure, and
climate changes resulting in environmental flooding
and water pollution. Akpabio [3] also reported that
cities in Nigeria affected by rural-to-urban migration
are plighted by increased localities characterised by
poorly organised squatter shanties and overcrowded
dwellings. These then bring about environmental issues
such as pollution in the air and water from improper
waste disposal and overburdened sanitation services.
A primary outcome of consuming polluted water
contaminated by microorganisms is a high prevalence
of gastrointestinal diseases, causing morbidity rates to
peak in a nation [1]. A public health expert stated that
60 million Nigerians lacking access to safe drinking
water are exposed to such waterborne diseases as
diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery, hepatitis A, and hepatitis
B, with a high mortality rate amongst the young and
aged in the population [1]. Children under five years are
particularly vulnerable to death by cholera, especially
in rural communities of Nigeria, where access to
immediate treatment and spread control is severely
lacking [4].
Ceramic water filtration is described as a process of
purifying water through a porous ceramic structure [5].
The technique behind it is that microorganisms and

40 PLATFORM VOLUME 7 NUMBER 3 2023 e-ISSN: 26369877


disease pathogens bigger than water molecules are caught
in the nano and micro-pores in the ceramic structure,
allowing clean water to percolate through [6]-[8]. This
water treatment technology is simple and complete on its
own, free of chemical additives and added treatment to
the water. Thus, it remains a promising way to reduce the
burden of waterborne diseases domestically as a point-of-
use water treatment system. UNICEF highly recommended
and promoted ceramic filters as a household water
treatment and safe storage (HWTS) device. This is based
on established research on 99.9% microbial removal
efficiency under laboratory conditions [9]-[12]. Ceramic
filters can be designed into shapes of flower pots, discs, and
candles for functionality purposes [13]. Currently, the most
widely implemented ceramic filter is the Potters for Peace
design [14]-[15], which is a flower pot design with average
dimensions of 32 cm lip diameter, 23 cm base diameter, and
22 cm height, and holds about 8-10 litres of water, and sits
inside a plastic or ceramic receptacle [16].
An accepted method for developing ceramic filters is
adding a sacrificial phase (burn-out material) to the
pre-fired clay [17]. As the name implies, a burn-out is
any combustible material, typically biomass, which
can be pulverised and processed by sieving to grains
similar in size range to the clay [18]. Examples used in
literature include sawdust and rice husk [14],[18]-[23].
It is mixed with clay and water into a green ceramic
body and incinerated at elevated temperatures during
the firing stage. This ensures an aggregate of left-behind
pore spaces suitable for contaminated water filtration [6].
Researchers manipulate the proportion of burn-out
material to clay to improve upon the filter properties
such as porosity and flow rate [5],[7],[14],[18]. Another
parameter that can influence filter properties is
the sintering temperature. Research studies have
postulated the effect of sintering temperature and
burn-out material content on the performance of
ceramic filters [21]-[24]. Several researchers have varied
the sintering temperature, selecting high firing ranges
of 1000°C to 1200°C to optimise full sintering, which
improves filter mechanical properties [22]. In contrast,
others have chosen lower firing ranges of 700°C to
900°C to mitigate the effects of sintering on the ceramic
microstructure and improve filter flow rate properties
[5],[7],[21]. Among these, some researchers reported
a negative correlation between increased firing
temperature with porosity and flow rate, while others
have presented contrary findings to show a positive
correlation [5],[7],[22],[24]. Regarding the burn-out
PLATFORM - A Journal of Engineering
material proportion, researchers generally are consensual
on a positive correlation between increased burn-out
material and the flow rate [5], [7],[14],[19],[22]-[23] up to
a certain extent at which further increase interferes with
microbial removal efficiency [14],[19],[22]. However,
little has been said concerning which parameters
have the greater effect on the performance criteria of
ceramic water filters.
Locally manufactured ceramic filters have traditionally
been used in third-world nations to treat household
water for four decades now [17]. Their starting raw
materials, such as clay and burn-out materials, are
usually ubiquitous and readily available locally, and
the production methods are tenable and affordable,
which allows for the skill of local ceramists and artisans
working in correlation with research institutions. To this
end, a lot of research has gone into the development
and manufacture of filters in Nigeria as a precursor to
providing affordable alternatives to household water
treatment [14],[18]-[19], [20],[22],[25]. The purpose
of research into the viability of producing ceramic
water filters in Nigeria is also fuelled by the fact that
each clay origin lends its unique characteristics to
the filter's functionality [26]. In addition, the cost of
importation for foreign-made filters would make its
purpose as affordable amenities impossible for low-
income Nigerians. The ceramic water pot is a very
common traditional household utensil in most villages,
especially in the south-south and south-eastern parts of
the country. Leveraging on this socio-cultural appeal, it
is expected that the introduction of ceramic pot filters
will gain traction in rural communities in Nigeria.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The prong of this present research was to develop
and test laboratory scale pot filters by flow rate and
removal efficiency using clay of Ikot Ebom Itam origin
in Akwa Ibom State, south-eastern Nigeria, and melon
seed shell as burn-out material. The influent source
was a community stream at Afaha Obio Eno with GPS
Latitude 5.08◦N and Longitude 7.87◦E in Ibiono Local
Government Area (LGA), which rural indigenes collect
without close access to treated water.
Clay, melon shells, and grog were the raw materials
used to produce ceramic filters. Grog is a non-plastic
material used to control shrinkage and the effects of
thermal cracking. Melon shell is derived from seeds of
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PLATFORM - A Journal of Engineering
the melon plant (Citrullus colocynthis lanatus), known
locally as ikon in Ibibio and egusi in the Igbo dialect; it
was used as a burn-out additive.
Sample Collection from the Quarry
The clay quarry is cited in Ikot Ebom Itam with GPS
Latitude 5.03◦N and Longitude 7.59◦E in Itu LGA of Akwa
Ibom State (Figure 1). Five hundred grams clay clumps of
light grey to white colouration were carefully excavated
from multi-colour strata at a depth of 4.5 m and taken to
the laboratory for processing, depicted in Figures 2 and 3.
The clay soil comprises 69% quartz, 29% kaolin, and
2% rutile [27].
Figure 1 Map of Ikot Ebom clay sampling location in Itu LGA, Akwa Ibom State
Figure 2 Clay strata in situ with an arrow showing
sampled layer
42 PLATFORM VOLUME 7 NUMBER 3 2023 e-ISSN: 26369877
Processing of Clay and Melon Husk
Melon seeds (Figure 4), harvested from farms in Uyo,
Akwa Ibom State, were de-milled, and the empty
shells were collected into a stainless steel basin. The
melon shells (MSH) were then sun-dried for five days
and blended to powder using a blending machine
(Faberware model PC550). Clay and grog were crushed
in a steel pan using a 5 kg cast iron hammer and dried
in the sun for five days. The clay, grog, and melon shell
powder were screened separately using a 500 µm sieve.
Sieved clay, grog, and melon shell were mixed dry in
ratios of 70:25:5, 75:20:5, and 80:15:5, prepared for firing
in batches as indicated in Table 1.
Figure 3 Clay clumps excavated and taken to the
laboratory
 PLATFORM - A Journal of Engineering

Figure 4 Melon seed shells used as burnt-out material

Table 1 Batch formulation of clay, melon shell, and the fired temperature for weight percentage of grog at 5 wt%

Melon Shell Grog Temp

S/No Code Clay (wt%)
(MSH) (wt%) (wt%) (°C)
2 MSH25-700 70 25 5 700
3 MSH25-750 70 25 5 750
4 MSH20-650 75 20 5 650
5 MSH20-700 75 20 5 700
6 MSH20-750 75 20 5 750
7 MSH15-650 80 15 5 650
8 MSH15-700 80 15 5 700
9 MSH15-750 80 15 5 750

Six hundred grams dry weight of 500 μm clay, melon where,

husk, and grog in their prescribed ratios presented in D is a dry weight, S is a suspended weight and W is a
Table 1 were mixed to leather hard consistency with the saturated weight.
addition of 90 cm3 of water. Thereupon, it was worked
and rolled into a homogeneous leather-hard state. Forming of Clay to Filter Pots
A model in the Potters for Peace flower pot pattern,
Porosity Tests scaled to one-fifth size, was produced in a Plaster of Paris
Preliminary tests for porosity were conducted using (POP) mould using the handimpress mold method. The
cubed samples. Samples in the ratios were shaped produced model dimensions were a height of 50 mm,
into cubes of 50 x 50 x 50 mm. These were sintered at an a slant length of 50.4 mm, an outer diameter of 52 mm,
elevated range of 650 to 1000°C. Porosity was determined an inner diameter of 40 mm, and a thickness of 10 mm
by the Archimedes technique (ASTM C 20-87). The weight with an average volume of 83 ml, as shown in Figure 5.
of the cubes was measured using a digital balance and
recorded. The cubes were then immersed in a beaker of
water. Their soaked (saturated) weights were measured
and recorded. They were then suspended in a beaker
one after the other using a sling, and their respective
suspended weights were measured and recorded.

The apparent porosity was determined with the

following formula:
Figure 5 Diagram representation of produced
% A.P = W – D × 100 (1)
W–S ceramic filter flower pot model

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intervals of an hour, two hours, three hours, four hours,

and five hours, equated as:

Flow Rate ( mL ) = 1 mL × 60 min [28] (2)

ℎr (time (min)) (1 hr)

Figure 6 Filters charged Figure 7 Produced filters Test for Microbial Removal Efficiency
into a muffle furnace Stream water percolated out of produced ceramic filter
pots was transferred by sterile 10 ml sample bottles
After shaping in POP mold, pot samples were extracted,
to the microbiology laboratory for analysis. Serial
and the inner surfaces were fettled with a spatula. After
dilution was carried out according to the method of
that, the cups were set out to dry for 72 hours in a well-
Cheesbrough [29]. 1 ml per sample was measured using
ventilated room. After room drying, they were placed in
a syringe and introduced into 9 ml of sterile distilled
an electric oven (Witec model WOF-105) set at 110°C and
water in a test tube. The test tube was shaken, and 1 ml
preheated for eight hours to eliminate moisture content
aliquot from the dilution was transferred aseptically
further. Next, the preheated pots were charged into a
over a lit flame burner into sterile Petri dishes. The
muffle furnace (Gallenkamp size 2), (Figure 6), and fired
Pour Plate method described by Prescot [30] was used
to temperatures 650°C, 700°C, and 750°C at 10°C per
for microbial analysis of both source and filtered water
minute heating and cooling rate and kept at four hours
samples. The Total Heterotrophic Bacterial Count (THBC),
soak time in between temperatures, and cooled to room
Fungal Count (TFC), Coliform Count (TCC), and Fecal
temperature, temperature (Figure 7).
Coliform Count (FCC) were determined using Nutrient
Agar (NA), Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA), Maclonkey
Measurement of Water Filtration
Agar (MCA) and Eosine Methylene Blue Agar (EMBA) as
Four litres of stream water from Afaha Obio Eno in Ibiono
analytical media respectively. Incubation of bacterial
Ibom LGA, Akwa Ibom State, was collected for water
cultural plates was carried out for a duration of 24
filtration and quality testing. Polyethylene terephthalate
hours at 25°C, and the fungal plates were incubated
(PET) 160 ml cups served as a percolate reservoir, and
at 28°C ± 2°C for 5-7 days in a Gallenkamp incubator
50 ml syringes were used to extract and measure out
(model DV-160) for growth to occur. Microbial colonies
filtrated water at intervals. Fired ceramic pots were
that emerged on the incubated plates after incubation
soaked in distilled water for 12 hours (overnight) to
were enumerated with a colony counter and recorded
eliminate air pockets in the structure. The ceramic pot
as Colony Forming Units (CFU) per 100 millilitres of
was placed upright inside the PET cup, ensuring that
water samples.
the inner rim rests over the outer rim of the cup. Stream
water was carefully filled into the pot to the brim, and a
Microbial removal efficiency was calculated in terms of
stopwatch was used to record the duration of filtering.
percentage of removal efficiency:
The time and volume of filtrated water were recorded
on a filter log. The setup was aseptically contained in a % Removal (Cinfluent _ Ceffluent)
= ×100% [31] (3)
5-litre parent bucket with a cover (Figure 8). efficiency Cinfluent

where,

Cinfluent = Microbial concentration in the source

water sample (cfu/100 mL)
Ceffluent = Microbial concentration in the filtered
water sample (cfu/100 mL).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 8 Filtration setup
Physical Observation of the Sample
The flow was determined by measuring the quantity After firing, minute differences in the sizes and colours
of water collected in the PET cup at designated time of the filter cups could be observed (Figure 7). This can

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be explained by firing at different temperatures and
the resultant shrinkage. As a quality control measure, a
tolerance range of 83 ± 1.5 ml for volume was adopted,
and measured fired cups falling outside the range,
alongside samples with surface hairline cracks, were
discarded.
Porosity Test
Preliminary test results on porosity values of MSH
premixed Ikot Ebom Itam ceramic samples indicate
a linear relationship between firing temperature
and porosity values, Figures 9a, 9b, and 9c. There
was decreasing porosity in the samples as the firing
temperature increased from 650 to 1000°C. This report
is consistent with the sintering behaviour of clays [32],
which implies the reduction of pore spaces between
clay particles, aided by thermal-induced diffusion
of atoms across grain boundaries, viscous flow, and
grain growth [33]. There was also variation across
composition values, observed from Figure 10, with
porosity parameters increased with increasing weight
percentage of the melon shell. MSH powder acts as the
burn-out material whose specific purpose is to incinerate
at the onset of the sintering temperature (600°C) [34]
and thus provide more fractions of pore spaces in the
already shrinking and condensing structure under
sintering conditions.
Figure 9a MSH25 apparent porosity
Figure 9b MSH20 apparent porosity
PLATFORM - A Journal of Engineering
Figure 9c MSH15 apparent porosity
70
60
50
40 ◦C
30 ◦C
◦C
20
10
0
Figure 10 Apparent porosity versus MSH composition
Filtration Test
From the results of conducted filtration tests plotted
as flow rate against composition and time, Figure 11
shows a reduction in the water flow rate through
the filters fired at increased temperatures of 650 to
750°C. The interaction between the externally applied
(temperature) and the internally applied conditions
(burn-out material) is seen to influence the flow rate,
leading to filters with a maximum flowrate at the least
temperature (650°C) and highest burn-out material
content (25%), and zero flow at the highest temperature
◦C
◦C
◦C
Figure 11 Flow rate against composition and duration
for each firing temperature
(750°C) and the least burn-out content (15%). Thermal
increments impeded porosity with flow rate, and this
trend agrees with the research of Bulta and Michael
[7] and Dung et al. [21]. It can be deduced that during
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the firing of ceramic bodies to higher temperatures, premixed with 15 weight percentage of melon shell.
there is consolidation and densification of grains in the Among the fastest pots, MSH25-650, 25-700, and 25-
structure, which leads to a resultant reduction in pore 750, only MSH25-750 filtered effluent show no detected
spaces within the filters [30]. microbial load per 100 ml, which meets the standard
for clean water [36].
Effects of increased composition of melon shell
burn-out premix from 15 to 25 of weight percentage,
improve filtration rate and filtered volume of the
effluent, shown from the plots in Figures 14 and 15.
The produced ceramic pot at 650°C with 25% melon
shell filtered 38 ml of filtered water in an hour,
compared to 31 ml and 14 ml volume of filtered water
from pots premixed with 20% and 15% melon shell,
respectively. This correlation agrees with previous
research on the pertinent role burn-out biomass
plays in the production of ceramic filters by increasing
the filtration volume of water as weight percentage Figure 13 Removal efficiency for each composition
of the filter
content is increased [5],[21]-[22].
Table 2 Water quality test results using Ikot Ebom filter

Grade
Temperature THBC TFC TCC E-Coli
Clay:MSH:
(°C) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Grog
70:25:5 650 99.9 99.9 95.0 95.0

700 99.9 99.9 95.0 95.0

750 99.9 99.9 99.9 99.9

Figure 12 Effluent volume against temperature and 75:20:5 650 99.9 99.9 98.0 99.17
duration for each composition of the filter
700 99.9 99.9 99.9 99.1

However, it was observed that over time, there was a 750 99.9 99.9 99.0 99.9
reduction in the filtration rate of produced filter pots,
80:15:5 650 99.9 99.9 99.9 99.9
with a 70% reduction in filtration rate for MSH25-650,
the fastest filter over a spread of 5 hours, Figure 12. 700 99.9 99.9 99.9 99.9
This undesirable effect is deduced to be caused by the 750 - - - -
clogging of the pore spaces by the bacterial load in the
source water. Van Halem [11], Latagne [34], Fahlin [35]
Comparison of Effects
and postulated the theory that the flow rate reduces
The effects of sintered temperature and the composition
considerably in ceramic filters due to clogging, and
of the burn-out material have both been seen to impact
clogging is dependent on the quality of the influent
the filter properties and performance. Higher sintering
water. Meanwhile, the volume of percolate shows a
temperatures up to 750°C have diminished the flow
steady rise per time for all tested filters, Figure 12, with
performance of the produced ceramic filter mixed
MSH25-650 turnout increasing from 38 ml in one hour
with the least content of burn-out. However, increasing
to 53 ml after five hours.
the burn-out ratio from 15 to 25 weight percentage
has greatly increased the filter's performance, even
The quality of water filtration results, Figure 13 and
at higher sintered temperatures. The results for flow
Table 2 show a distinctive improvement in the levels
rate as a function of temperature and composition
of E. Coli, total coliform, heterotrophic bacterial and
were fed into Minitab 19 software and a Pareto Chart
fungal count between the effluent and influent at filters
was generated. From the result, it is shown that
fired in between 650°C to the 750°C firing range and

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out of the two compared parameters, the burn-out
material composition has a greater effect on the filter
performance than the fired temperature at a 0.05 level
of significance, Figure 14.
Figure 14 Pareto chart of temperature and
composition effects
CONCLUSIONS
This paper sought to develop and test water filters for
filtration (flow) rate and microbial removal using clays
derived from Ikot Ebom Itam, and melon shell husk
biomass as burn-out material. The filters were modeled
to one-fifth of the Potters for Peace pot design using
the hand impress mold method. Two parameters varied
during production were the melon shell content, from
15 to 25 weight percentage, and the fired sintering
temperature, from 650°C and 750°C, and their effect
on the filtration performance was determined using
the Minitab 19 software.
From the results, it was concluded that the porosity
and flow rate of produced ceramic filters reduce with
increasing sintered temperature between 650°C and
750°C and increase with the addition of the melon shell
burn-out material from 15 to 25 weight percentage .
Also, firing beyond 750°C with the material range of
15 weight percentage melon shell did not improve
the flow rate. However, increasing the melon shell at
this sintered temperature to 25% weight significantly
improved the filtrate quality. In addition, the filter
pot produced using melon shell premixed to 25%
weight and fired to 750°C met the WHO standard of
zero colony forming unit for every 10 ml of water.
Recorded efficiency was 99.9% removal of heterogenic
bacteria count, total fungi count, total coliform, and E.
coli. The Minitab 19 results indicate that the starting
PLATFORM - A Journal of Engineering
material composition is more significant than the fired
temperature.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the
contributions of Mrs. C. Udosen of Microbiology
laboratory, University of Uyo for her direction in micro-
bacterial analyses. There were no grants given in the
course of this research.
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