Heat Transfer

Introduction
The transfer of energy in the form of heat occurs in many chemical and other
types of processes. Heat transfer often occurs in combination with other
separation processes, such as distillation, burning of fuel and evaporation. The
heat transfer occurs because of a temperature-difference driving force and heat
flows from the high- to the low-temperature region.
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer

Conduction
This is the transfer of energy from one molecule to another by direct contact.
This transfer occurs when molecules hit against each other. Conduction takes
place in solids, liquids, and gases, but works best in materials that have simple
molecules that are located close to each other (Eg. Metal is a better conductor
than wood or plastic.).
Convection
This is the movement of heat by a fluid such as water or air. The fluid (liquid or
gas) moves from one location to another, transferring heat along with it. This
movement of a mas of heated water or air is called a current.
Radiation
This is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic waves. The most common is
infrared radiation that is evident when you are warmed by the sun, fire, iron or
stove. Unlike conduction or convection, heat transfer by radiation does not need
any matter to help with transfer.

The Heat Balance and Steady-State Heat Transfer

Through applying the principle of conservation of energy, the heat balance over
a control volume can be written as
𝜕𝐸
𝑞𝑥|𝑥 − 𝑞𝑥|𝑥+Δ𝑥 + 𝑅(Δ𝑥. 𝐴) =
𝜕𝑡
where
𝑄 𝐽
𝑞= ( )
Δ𝑡 𝑠

When only considering energy changes caused by a difference in temperature

(Δ𝐸 = ΔH = ρV𝐶𝑝 Δ𝑇), thus ignoring potential and kinetic energy changes,
𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑇
= 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (Δ𝑥. 𝐴)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Therefore
𝜕𝑇
𝑞𝑥|𝑥 − 𝑞𝑥|𝑥+Δ𝑥 + 𝑅(Δ𝑥. 𝐴) = 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (Δ𝑥. 𝐴)
𝜕𝑡
where 𝑅 is the rate of heat generated per unit volume. Assuming no heat
generation and also assuming steady-state heat transfer, where the rate of
accumulation is zero, the above equation becomes
𝑞𝑥|𝑥 = 𝑞𝑥|𝑥+Δ𝑥
This means the rate of heat input to the control volume to equals the rate of heat
output from the control volume; or 𝑞𝑥 is constant with time for steady-state heat
transfer. 𝑞𝑥 can be either through conduction, convection or radiation.
In this module, we are concerned with a control volume where the rate of
accumulation of heat is zero and we have steady-state heat transfer. The
rate of heat transfer is then constant with time, and the temperatures at
various points in the system do not change with time.
To solve problems in steady-state heat transfer, various mechanistic
expressions in the form of differential equations for the different modes of
heat transfer such as Fourier’s law are integrated. Expressions for the
temperature profile are then obtained from these.

Conduction and Thermal Conductivity

Conduction as a Mechanism of Heat Transfer
In conduction, heat can be conducted through solids, liquids and gases. The heat
is conducted by the transfer of the energy of motion between adjacent
molecules. In a gas, the hotter molecules which have greater energy and
motions, impart energy to the adjacent molecules which are at lower energy
levels. This type of transfer is present in some extent in all solids, gases, or
liquids in which temperature gradient exists.
In conduction, energy can also be transferred by “free” electrons, which is quite
important in metallic solids. Examples of heat transfer mainly by conduction are
heat transfer through walls of heat exchangers or a refrigerator, freezing of the
ground during winter and so on.
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
The general equation for transfer processes can be characterized as
𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
In order to transfer a property such as heat or mass, we need a driving force to
overcome a resistance.
The transfer of heat by conduction also follows this basic equation and is
written as Fourier’s law for heat conduction in fluids or solids:
𝑞𝑥 𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘
𝐴 𝑑𝑥
where
𝑞𝑥 = the heat transfer rate in the x direction in watts (W),
𝐴 = the cross-sectional area normal to the direction of flow of heat in m2,
𝑇 = temperature in K 𝑥 is distance in m,
𝑘 = the thermal conductivity in W/m,
𝑞𝑥
= the heat flux in W/m2,
𝐴
𝑑𝑇
= temperature gradient in the x direction.
𝑑𝑥

The minus sign in the equation for Fourier’s law is required because if the heat
flow is positive in a given direction, the temperature decreases in this direction.
In the case of steady state heat transfer through a flat wall of constant cross-
sectional area 𝐴, where the inside temperature is 𝑇1 at point 1 and 𝑇2 at point 2,
a distance of 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 m away, Fourier’s law can be integrated to give
𝑞𝑥 𝑘
= − (𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
𝐴 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) 1
Example: Heat loss through an insulating wall
The wall if an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15m-thick fireclay brick
having a thermal conductivity of 1.7 W/(m . K). The steady-state operation
temperature is maintained at 1400 K and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces,
respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through the wall that is 0.5m by 1.2m
on a side?
Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity of different materials is experimentally determined by
applying Fourier’s law. In general, gases have very low values of thermal
conductivity, liquids have intermediate values, and solid metals have very high
values. i.e.
𝑘𝑔𝑎𝑠 < 𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 < 𝑘𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
Gases
In gases, molecules are in continuous random motion, colliding with one
another and exchanging energy and momentum. If a molecule moves from a
high-temperature region to a lower temperature, it transport kinetic energy to
this region and gives up this energy through collisions with other lower-energy
molecules. Since smaller molecules move faster, gases such as hydrogen should
have higher thermal conductivities.
Liquids
In liquids, heat conduction occurs similarly to gases, however the molecules are
packed so closely together that molecular force fields exert a strong effect on
the energy exchange.
Solids
Thermal conduction in homogenous solids varies quite widely. The metallic
solids of copper and aluminium have very high thermal conductivities, while
some insulating non-metallic materials such as rock, wool and corkboard have
very low conductivities. Heat or energy is conducted through solids by two
mechanisms. Firstly, in metallic solids, heat is conducted by free electrons that
move through the metal lattice. Secondly, in all solids, heat is conducted by the
transmission of energy due to vibration between adjacent atoms.
Thermal conductivities of insulating materials such as rock wool approach that
of air since the insulating materials contain large amounts of air trapped void
spaces.
Convection
Convection as a Mechanism of Heat Transfer
The transfer of heat by convection implies the transfer of heat by bulk transport
and the mixing of macroscopic elements of warmer portions with cooler
portions of a gas or liquid. It also often refers to the energy exchange between a
solid surface and a fluid.
Consider fluid flow over the heated surface as shown in the figure below:

• The fluid-surface interaction is the development of a region in the fluid

through which the velocity varies from zero at the surface to a finite
value.
• This region of the fluid is known as the hydrodynamic or velocity,
boundary layer.
• If the surface and flow temperatures differ, there will be a region of the
fluid through which the temperature varies from 𝑇𝑠 at the surface to 𝑇 in
the outer flow.
• This region is called the thermal boundary layer.
The convection heat transfer mode is sustained both by random molecular
motion and by the bulk motion of the fluid within the boundary layer. The
contribution due to random molecular motion (diffusion) dominates near the
surface (y=0) where the fluid velocity is low. In fact, at the interface between
the surface and the fluid, the fluid velocity is zero and heat is transferred by this
mechanism only. The contribution due to bulk fluid motion originates from the
fact that the boundary layer grows as the flow progresses in the x-direction.
Types of Convection
Convection heat transfer is classified according to the nature of the flow as
follows:
1. Forced convection: This is when flow of the bulk fluid is caused by
external means, such as a fan, pump or atmospheric winds.
2. Free (or natural) convection: The flow of the bulk fluid is induced by
buoyancy forces, which are due to density differences caused by
temperature variations in the fluid.
Convective Heat-Transfer Coefficient
When a fluid outside the solid surface is forced or natural convective motion,
the rate of heat transfer from the solid to the fluid, or vice versa, is expressed by
the following equations (based on Newton’s law of cooling):
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑓 )
or
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑤 )

where
𝑞 = the heat-transfer rate in W
𝐴 = the cross-sectional area in m2
𝑇𝑤 = the temperature of the solid surface in K
𝑇𝑓 = the average or bulk temperature of the fluid flowing past in K
ℎ = the convective heat-transfer coefficient in W/(m2K)
The coefficient ℎ is a function of (a) The system geometry, (b) fluid properties,
(c) flow velocity, and temperature difference. In many cases, empirical
correlations are available to predict this coefficient, since it often cannot be
predicted theoretically. Because we know that when a fluid flows past a surface
there is a thin, almost stationary layer or film of fluid adjacent to the wall that
presents most of the resistance to heat transfer, we often call the coefficient ℎ
the film coefficient.
Example
A 20mm diameter copper pipe is used to carry heated water, the external surface
of the pipe is subjected to a convective heat transfer coefficient of ℎ = 6
W/m2K , find the heat loss by convection for 20m length of the pipe when the
external surface temperature is 80oC and the surroundings are at 20oC.
Heat Transfer with Multiple Mechanisms/Materials
Plane Walls in Series
In the case where there is steady state heat flow (no generation) through a series
of different materials as shown in the image below. The heat efflux at interface
slabs A and B must be equal due to the continuity boundary condition
(otherwise heat will accumulate in zero volume!). Similarly, heat efflux at
interface of slabs B and C must be equal due to the continuity boundary
condition. It can be concluded from the above observation that the heat efflux
everywhere is the same.

Since the heat efflux must be the same in each layer, we can write Fourier’s
equation for each layer as:
𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴
𝑞= (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) = (𝑇2 − 𝑇3 ) = (𝑇 − 𝑇4 )
Δ𝑥𝐴 Δ𝑥𝐵 Δ𝑥𝐶 3
Solving each equation for Δ𝑇 and adding the equations for 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 , 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 ,
𝑇3 − 𝑇4 , the final rearranged equation becomes
𝑇1 − 𝑇4
𝑞=
Δ𝑥𝐴 Δ𝑥𝐵 Δ𝑥𝐶
+ +
𝑘𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝐴 𝑘𝐶 𝐴
𝑇1 − 𝑇4
=
𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑅𝐶
Where
Δ𝑥𝑖
𝑅𝑖 =
𝑘𝑖 𝐴
is the resistance to heat flow.
The resistance to heat flow through the 3 slabs in series is analogous to the
electrical resistance in Ohms law:
Δ𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑇1 − 𝑇4 : is the driving force ≡ electromotive force (EMF)
𝑞 : is the heat flow ≡ current (𝐼)
𝑅𝑖 : is the resistance to heat flow ≡ resistance to flow of current (𝑅)
In general, a composite wall made up of plane walls in series, has a total
resistance to heat flow, given by
𝑛
Δ𝑥𝑖
𝑅𝑇 = ∑ ( )
𝐴𝑘𝑖
𝑖=1

where 𝑖 is the number of walls. Therefore

𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑛+1
𝑞=
𝑅𝑇
For the resistance to heat flow through the 3 slabs in series, we add the
resistance like electrical resistors in series.
Example:
A cold-storage room is constructed of an inner layer of 12.7 mm of pine, a
middle layer of 101.6 mm of cork board, and an outer layer of 76.2 mm of
concrete. The wall surface temperature is 255.4 K inside the cold room and
297.1 K at the outside surface of the concrete. The conductivities for pine =
0.151 W/m · K; for cork board = 0.0433 W/m · K; and for concrete = 0.762
W/m · K. Calculate the heat loss in W for 1 m2 and the temperature at the
interface between the wood and cork board.
Conduction Through Materials in Parallel
If solids are configured in parallel, heat flow becomes multidimensional.

However, heat flow can be approximated by assuming one-dimensional heat

flow. This can be assumed via two analogies.
1. The Isothermal Surfaces Analogy
This analogy assumes:
• One-dimensional heat flow (positive 𝑥 direction in this case)
• At a given 𝑥 location, all surfaces are isothermal, ie. at the same
temperature.

Exercise: Write the expression for the total resistance to heat flow.
 2. The Adiabatic Surfaces Analogy
This analogy assumes:
• One-dimensional heat flow (positive 𝑥 direction in this case)
• Surfaces parallel to heat flow are adiabatic, i.e. no heat loss or gain

Exercise: Write the expression for the total resistance to heat flow.
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Equivalent thermal circuits may also be used for more complex systems that
have composite materials and both conductive and convective heat transfer.
Consider the system in the figure below

Using the equation

𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑛+1
𝑞=
𝑅𝑇
we get

with composite systems, it is often convenient to work with an overall heat

transfer coefficient 𝑈, which is defined by an expression analogous to Newton’s
law of cooling.
 𝑞𝑥 ≡ 𝑈𝐴Δ𝑇
The overall heat transfer coefficient is related to the total thermal resistance and
it can be seen that
1
𝑈𝐴 =
𝑅𝑇
Hence