Chapter 3

Amplitude Modulation

3.1 Introduction to AM
⁂ As explained in chapter 2, modulation to modify the carrier (its amplitude, phase or
frequency) according to another low frequency signal (in comparison to carrier signal).

⁂ The carrier is generally a sinusoidal wave, in this case the modulation process is called
continuous wave modulation.

The signal that modes the carrier signal is called Baseband Signal. (It is called baseband
signal because it represents the basic bands of frequencies of message signal to be
transmitted).

⁂ If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as
Amplitude Modulation.

⁂ In case of amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave modulates, i.e. it
varies with the amplitude of the information signal. Thus, the modulation is called
amplitude modulation. It is to be noted that the frequency and the phase of the
carrier remain constant during amplitude modulation.

⁂ The main drawback of the using amplitude modulation technique is the lower
efficiency and poor quality. The modulated signal obtained from amplitude
modulator does not resemble the transmitted signal as its quality gets degraded.
Besides, the noise immunity of amplitude modulators is also poor.

⁂ The advantage of using amplitude modulation technique is that it requires low

bandwidth which makes it less costly.

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Chapter 3
3.2 Mathematical Expressions

a] Carrier Wave

If a continuous sine wave is used as a carrier; a general expression for carrier

v c ( t)=V c cos( ω¿¿ c t+θ)¿

Now, if the concentration is only upon the modification in the amplitude of the carrier;
then it is called amplitude modulation.

As the frequency and phase of carrier remain unchanged, so for the shake of simplicity
the above equation is modified as:

v c (t)=V c cos(ω¿¿ c t)¿

Where:

v c (t):- Instantaneous value of the carrier sine wave.

V c :- Peak amplitude of the constant unmodulated carrier sine wave. It is measured

between zero and maximum amplitude of either the positive going or the
negative going alteration.

ω c:- Angular frequency of the carrier sine wave, ω c =2 π f c

b] Baseband Signal/ Modulating signal

It is called modulating Signal because it is the signal that modulate the carrier signal.

Let we assume that the baseband signal/modulating signal is also sinusoidal. Then

m(t)=V m cos(ω¿¿ m t)¿

Where:

v m:- Instantaneous value of the information signal.

V m:- Peak amplitude of the information signal.

ω m:- Angular frequency of the information signal, ω m=2 π f m

⁂ Note: The amplitude of the modulating signal should be less than the amplitude of the
carrier (V m <V c ¿. When the amplitude of the modulating signal is greater than
the amplitude of the carrier, distortion will occur, causing incorrect information
to be transmitted.

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Chapter 3

c] Amplitude Modulated Wave

According to the definition of amplitude modulation, the amplitude of carrier is varied

according to the instantaneous value of modulating signal; then the general expression
for modulated wave

φ AM (t)=V AM cos(ω¿¿ c t)¿

As there is no change in the frequency of carrier wave.

Now, modified amplitude of carrier wave

φ AM (t)=V c +m(t) ⇒ V c +V m cos (ω¿¿ mt)¿

So, the instantaneous value of the complete modulated wave v AM (t )

φ AM (t)=¿

∴ φ AM (t)=V c cos (ω ¿¿ c t )+V m cos (ω ¿¿ mt ). cos (ω¿ ¿ c t)¿ ¿ ¿

Where:

φ AM (t):- Instantaneous value of AM wave.

V c cos(ω¿¿ c t)¿:- Carrier waveform.

V m cos (ω¿¿ mt) . cos( ω¿¿ c t)¿ ¿ :- Carrier waveform multiplied by the modulating
signal waveform.

V c +V m cos (ω¿¿ m t)¿:- Envelope of the AM wave (contains the message signal)

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Chapter 3
⁂ Note:- The peak value of the carrier is the reference point for the modulating signal;
the value of the modulating signal is added to or subtracted from the peak
value of the carrier.

⁂ Notes:

1- Sometimes known as double side band with carrier or full AM.

2- The modulated signal consists of 2 side bands [lower side band and upper side
band] and carrier.
3- This is the most widely used type of AM modulation. in fact, all radio channels in
the AM band use this type of modulation.
4- In AM, the information signal varies the amplitude of the carrier sine wave. The
instantaneous value of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the
amplitude and frequency variations of the modulating signal.
5- The carrier frequency remains constant during the modulation process, but its
amplitude varies in accordance with the modulating signal.
6- An increase or decrease in the amplitude of the modulating signal causes a
corresponding increase or decrease in both the positive and the negative peaks of
the carrier amplitude.

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Chapter 3
7- The circuit used for producing AM is called a modulator, its 2 inputs, the carrier
and the modulating signal, the resulting output is the modulated wave.
8- The circuit that changes a lower frequency baseband signal to a higher frequency
signal is usually called a modulator.
9- A circuit used to recover the original baseband signal from AM wave is known as
a detector or demodulator.
10- The AM envelope is time-varying shape of the amplitude-modulated waveform.
11- The AM envelope contains all the frequency components (the carrier signal, sum
and difference of carrier frequency and modulating frequency) that make up the
AM signal.

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Chapter 3

3.3 Modulation Index and Percentage of Modulation

3.3.1 Modulation Index

⁂ Modulation Index:- Is a relationship between the amplitude of the modulating signal

and the amplitude of the carrier signal.

⁂ It is also called:

(1) Modulating Factor,

(2) Modulating Coefficient,
(3) Degree of Modulation,
(4)Depth of Modulation.

V m peak value of themodulating signal

m= =
Vc peak value of the carrier signal

⁂ The maximum allowed value of m is 1. If this is exceeded, the envelope of the output
waveform is distorted. This is known as “Over-Modulation”.

⁂ If an AM signal is being displayed on an oscilloscope, it can be difficult to read V m and

V c . Instead the form for expressing m can be modified to make it easier to read. The
modulation index can be computed by V max and V min.

V max =V c +V m ………………..(1)

V min =V c −V m………………..(2)

Subtract (1) from (2)

V max −V min =V c +V m−V c +V m

V max −V min =2 V m

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Chapter 3
V max −V min
V m=
2

Add (1) to (2)

V max + V min =V c +V m +V c −V m

V max + V min =2V c

V max +V min
V c=
2

V m V max −V min
∴ m= =
V c V max +V min

⁂ There are three degrees of modulation

(1) Under Modulation ⇒ m<1∧V c >V m

When m<1, then ¿ m(t)∨max<V c, the envelope is
not reaching the zero-amplitude axis of the AM
wave, and the baseband signal is fully preserved in
the envelope of the AM wave. An envelope detector
can recover the baseband signal without distortion.

(2) Fully Modulated [100% modulation] ⇒ m=1∧V c =V m

When m=1, then ¿ m(t)∨max=V c, the waveform
envelope just touches the zero-amplitude axis. The
baseband signal remains preserved in the envelope and
can be recovered by using an envelope detector.
However, this is a limiting factor as even a small variation
in the magnitude of m(t) will cause envelope distortion.

(3) Over Modulation ⇒ m>1∧V c <V m

When m>1, then ¿ m(t)∨max>V c, the amplitude of a
baseband signal exceeds carrier amplitude. This
situation is called overmodulation. In overmodulation,
the portion of the envelope crosses the zeroamplitude
axis, for both positive and negative excursions
cancelling each other. The envelope and the baseband
signal are not the same. An envelope detector will
provide distorted baseband signal. A portion of the
detected baseband signal is clipped.

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Chapter 3

3.3.2 Percentage of Modulation

⁂ The modulation index can be expressed as a percent modulation, M . Percent

modulation gives the percentage change in the amplitude of the output AM
waveform when the carrier signal is amplitude modulated by a modulating signal. It
can be calculated by multiplying modulation index by 100. That is

M =m ×100 %

⁂ Examples:- Calculate the modulation index, m and percentage M . If the modulation voltage
is given as 3V, while the carrier voltage is 6V. Conclude if the resultant
modulated waveform is fully-modulated, under-modulated or over-modulated.

Vm 3
m= = =0.5<1 [Under-modulated]
Vc 6

M =0.5 × 100 %=50 %

⁂ Examples:- Suppose that on an AM signal, the V max ⁡( p− p) value read from the graticule on
the oscilloscope screen is 5.9 division and V min ⁡( p− p) is 1.2 divisions.

a) What is the modulation index

V max (p −p ) 5.9
V max = = =2.95
2 2

V min( p− p) 1.2
V min = = =0.6
2 2

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Chapter 3
V max + V min 2.95−0.6
m= = =0.662
V max −V min 2.95+ 0.6

b) Calculate V c , V m and m if the vertical scale is 2 V per division.

V max +V min 2.95+0.6 2V

V c= = =1.775 @
2 2 ¿

V c =1.775 × 2=3.55 V

V max −V min 2.95−0.6 2V

V c= = =1.175 @
2 2 ¿

V m =1.175× 2=2.35 V

V m 3.55
m= = =0.662
V c 2.35

⁂ Examples:- A carrier signal having 10 V peak amplitude is amplitude-modulated by three

different modulating frequencies with peak amplitude levels of 2V, 3V, and
4V, respectively. Compare the modulation index of the resultant complex AM
signal.

The three respective amplitude modulation indices can be determined as,

V m1 2
m a 1= = =0.2
V c 10

V m2 3
m a 2= = =0.3
V c 10

V m3 4
m a 3= = =0.4
V c 10

The total resultant modulation index is the square root of the quadratic sum of the individual
modulation indices due to the individual modulating frequency components. That is;

maT =√ (ma 1)2 +(ma 2)2 +( ma3 )2

¿ √ (0.2)2 +(0.3)2 +(0.4)2

¿ 0.538

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Chapter 3

3.4 Sidebands Calculations

⁂ Whenever a carrier is modulated by an information signal, new signals at different

frequencies are generated as part of the process.

⁂ The new frequencies, which are called side frequencies, or side band, occur in the
frequency spectrum directly above and directly below the carrier.

⁂ When signals of more than one frequency makeup a waveform, it is often better to
show the AM signal in the frequency domain rather in the time domain.

⁂ When only a single frequency sine wave modulating signal is used, the modulation
process generates two side bands.

⁂ If the modulating signal is complex wave, such as voice or process, a whole range of
frequencies modulate the carrier and thus, a whole range of side bands are generated.

⁂ Now

φ AM (t)=V c cos(ω¿¿ c t)+V m cos (ω¿¿ m t) .sin (ω¿ ¿ c t)¿ ¿ ¿

As,

1 1
cosα cosβ= cos ( α −β )+ cos(α + β )
2 2

Then,

Vm Vm
φ AM (t)=V c cos(ω¿¿ c t)+ cos 2 π (f c −f m)+ cos 2 π ( f c +f m)¿
2 2
st nd rd
I II III

Analysis of the above equation represents that:

(i) I st term of equation is unmodulated carrier signal
(ii) II nd term form of equation represents a signal that has the frequency f m less than that
of carrier wave so called lower side band.

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Chapter 3
(iii) III nd term form of equation represents a signal that has the frequency f m higher than
that of carrier wave.As the value of frequency is higher than that of carrier wave so it
is called upper side band.

f c ≤ USB ≤ f c + f m

f c −f m ≤ LSB ≤ f c

Therefore
LSF=f c −f m

USF =f c + f m

And the total BW is the difference between USB and LSB

BW =f USB−f LSB

¿ f c + f m −f c + f m

¿2f m

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Chapter 3

3.5 Spectrum of AM Wave

Let
m(t)=V m cos ω m t

Then,

φ AM (t)=V c cos ω c t+ V m cos(ω¿¿ m t)¿ .cos (ω¿ ¿ c t)¿

Applying the modulation property of the Fourier Transform

Ƒ {φ AM (t )}= Ƒ {V c cos ω c t +V m cos(ω¿¿ m t)¿.cos (ω¿ ¿ c t)}¿

Ƒ {φ AM (t )}= Ƒ {V c cos ω c t }+ Ƒ {m(t) .cos (ω¿ ¿ c t)}¿

Where,
Vo Vo
Ƒ {V o cos 2 πf o t }= δ (f −f o)+ δ(f + f o )
2 2

Ƒ {V o cos ω o t }=π V o δ(ω−ωo )+π V o δ(ω +ω o)

1 1
Ƒ {m (t ) cos 2 πf o t }= M (f −f o)+ M (f + f o )
2 2

1 1
Ƒ {m (t ) cos ω o t }= M (ω−ω o)+ M (ω+ ω o)
2 2

Vo Vo
Ƒ { V o sin 2 πf o t }= j δ (f + f o)− j δ (f −f o)
2 2

Ƒ { V o sin ωo t }= jπ V o δ ( ω+ω o )− jπ V o δ (ω−ω o )

j j
Ƒ {m (t ) sin 2 πf o t }= M (f +f o)− M ( f −f o )
2 2

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Chapter 3
j j
Ƒ {m (t ) sin ω o t }= M ( ω+ω o )− M (ω−ω o)
2 2

Then,

Vc Vc 1 1
Φ AM ( f )= δ (f −f c )+ δ(f + f c )+ M ( f −f c )+ M (f + f c )
2 2 2 2

1 1
Φ AM ( ω)=π V c δ (ω−ω c )+ π V c δ (ω +ω c )+ M (ω−ωc )+ M (ω+ω c )
2 2

or

φ AM (t)=V c cos ω c t+ V m cos(ω¿¿ m t)¿ .cos (ω¿ ¿ c t)¿

Vm Vm
φ AM (t)=V c cos(ω¿¿ c t)+ cos (ω c −ωm )+ cos (ω c + ωm )¿
2 2

Ƒ {φ AM ( t ) }= Ƒ { V c cos ωc t }+ Ƒ { Vm
2 } {
cos ( ω c −ω m ) + Ƒ
Vm
2
cos (ω c +ω m ) }
Φ AM ( f )=
Vc
2
Vc
δ ( f −f c ) + δ ( f +f c ) +
2 [Vm
4
δ ( f −f c +f m ) +
Vm
4 ][
δ ( f + f c −f m ) +
Vm
4
δ ( f −f c −f m ) +
Vm
4
δ ( f + f c+ f m ) ]

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Chapter 3

⁂ Examples:- An audio signal 15 sin 2 π (1500t ) amplitude modulates a carrier

60 sin 2 π (100,000 t).

a)Sketch the audio signal

b)Sketch the carrier

c)Construct the modulated wave

d)Determine the modulation factor and percent modulation

V max −V min 75−45
m= = =0.25
V max + V min 75+ 45

M =m ×100 %=0.25 ×100 %=25 %

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Chapter 3
e)What are the frequencies of the audio signal and the carrier

**Audio Signal
ω m=2 π f m ⇒ 2 π (1500)=2 π f m ⇒ ∴ f m=1500 Hz

** Carrier Signal
ω c =2 π f c ⇒ 2 π (100,000)=2 π f c ⇒ ∴ f c =100,000 Hz

f) What frequencies would show up in a spectrum analysis of the modulated wave?

φ AM (t)=V c sin ωc t+V m sin(ω¿¿ m t)¿.sin(ω¿¿ c t)¿

φ AM (t)=60 sin(2 π ×100,000)t +15 sin(2 π ×1500)t .sin(2 π ×100,000)t

15 15
¿ 60 sin ( 2 π ×100,000 ) t + cos [ 2 π (100,000−1500 ) t ] − cos [2 π (100,000+1500)t]
2 2

¿ 60 sin ( 2 π ×100,000 ) t +7.5 cos [ 2 π ( 98,500 ) t ] −7.5 cos [2 π (101,500) t]

∴ f c =100,000 Hz ,

f LSB =98,000 Hz ,

¿ f USB=101,500 Hz

⁂ Examples:- A 75-MHz carrier having an amplitude of 50V is modulated by a 3-KHz audio

signal having an amplitude of 20V.

a) Sketch the audio signal

b) Sketch the carrier

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Chapter 3

c) Construct the modulated wave

d) Determine the modulation factor and percent modulation

V m 20
m= = =0.4
V c 50

M =m ×100 %=0.4 ×100 %=40 %

e) What frequencies would show up in a spectrum analysis of the modulated wave?

f c =75 MHz,

f LSB =75 M −3 k =74,997 kHz ,

¿ f USB=75 M + 3 k=75,003 kHz

f) Write trigonometric equations for carrier and the modulating wave.

** Carrier Wave
v c =V c . cos ωc t ⇒ 50 cos 2 π ( 75,000,000 ) t

∴ v c =50 cos 150 × 106 πt

** Modulating Wave
v m=V m . cos ω m t ⇒ 20 cos 2 π ( 3,000 ) t

∴ v m=20 cos 6 ×103 πt

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Chapter 3

3.6 Carrier and Sideband Power in AM

AM
Signal

Carrier LSB USB

Voltage Voltage Voltage

⁂ Each of these signals produces power in the antenna

⁂ The total transmitted power PT is simply the sum of the carrier power PC and the power
of the two sidebands PUSB and P LSB.

⁂ The complete AM wave

Vm Vm
φ AM (t)=V c cos(ω¿¿ c t)+ cos 2 π (f c −f m)+ cos 2 π ( f c +f m)¿
2 2

Where

V c :- Peak value of the carrier

V m :- Peak value of the modulating wave

V
Now, converting from peak to RMS value, V rms = , we can convert from peak to RMS by
√2
multiplying the peak values by 0.707.

Vc Vm Vm
φ AM (t)= cos(ω¿¿ c t)+ cos 2 π (f c −f m )+ cos 2 π (f c + f m )¿
√2 2√ 2 2 √2

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Chapter 3
The power in the carrier and side bands can be calculated by using the power formula
2
V
P=
R

Where

P :- Is the output power

V : - Is the RMS output voltage

R :- Resistive part of the load impedance

We just need to use the coefficient on the sine and cosine terms.

PT =PC + PUSB+ PLSB

2 2 2
V C V USB V LSB
¿ + +
R R R

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
Vc Vm Vm
√2 2 √2 2 √2
¿ + +
R R R
2 2 2
V C Vm Vm
¿ + +
2R 8R 8 R
2 2
V C 2V m
¿ +
2R 8R
2 2
V C Vm
¿ +
2R 4 R

We know that V m =mV C , then

[ ]
2
m
PT =PC 1+
2

and
2
VC
PC =
2R
2 2 2
m V C Vm
PUSB=P LSB= =
8R 8R

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Chapter 3
The power carried by the 2 side bands,

PSB =PUSB+ P LSB

2 2 2 2 2 2
m VC m VC m V C
¿ + =
8R 8R 4R

Power Efficiency μ

Sidebands power
μ=
Total Power
2 2
m VC
4R
¿

[ ]
2
VC m2
1+
2R 2
2
m
¿
[ ]
2
m
2 1+
2
2
m
∴ ζ= 2
×100 %
2+m

** In amplitude modulated wave, the 66.66% of the transmitted power is used by the carrier
signal and remaining 33.33% of the power is used by the sidebands (PUSB and PLSB).

⁂ Examples:- An AM transmitter has a carrier power of 30W.The percentage of modulation is

85 percent, calculate.

a)The total power

PC =30 W
m=0.85

[ ] [ ]
2 2
m 0.85
PT =PC 1+ ⇒ 30 1+ =40.8 W
2 2

b)The power in one side band

PT =PC + PUSB+ PLSB

40.8=30+2 PSB

∴ P LSB =10.8

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Chapter 3
10.8
¿ PUSB=P LSB= =5.4
2

Or
2 2 2
m V C m2 V C
PUSB=P LSB= ⇒ .
8R 4 2R
2 2
m 0.85
∴ P USB=PLSB = . PC ⇒ 30 × =5.4 W
4 4

⁂ Examples:- If an AM wave is represented by the expression.

3
φ AM ( t )=10 ( 1+0.5 cos 9425 t ) sin1508 × 10 t

Determine

a) Modulation factor
φ AM ( t )=V c ( 1+ mcos ωm t ) sin ωc t

¿ [ V c +mV c cos ωm t ] sin ω c t

∴ φ AM ( t )= [ 10+5 cos 9425 t ] sin 1508 ×103 t

Where,
m V c =V m

Then

Vm 5
m=0.5 ,∨m= ⇒ =0.5
V c 10

b) Carrier amplitude

V c =10 V

c) Carrier frequency
ω c =2 π f c

3
1508 ×10 =2 π f c ⇒ f c =240 kHz

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Chapter 3

d) Message frequency
ω m=2 π f m

9425=2 π f m ⇒ f m =1500 Hz

e) Message amplitude
V c =10 V

f) Bandwidth
BW =2 f m ⇒ 2×1500=3000 Hz

g) Lower sideband frequency

f LSB =f c −f m

¿ 240 kHz−500 kHz=238.500 Hz

h) Upper sideband frequency

f USB=f c + f m

¿ 240 kHz+ 500 kHz=241.500 Hz

i) Power carrier

2
V C 102
PC = ⇒ =50 W
2R 2

j) Total power

[ ] [ ]
2 2
m 0.5
PT =PC 1+ ⇒ 50 1+ =56.25W
2 2

k) Power side bands

PT =PC + PSB ⇒ PSB =56.25−50

PSB =6.25 W

l) Efficiency

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Chapter 3

2 2
m 0.5
ζ= 2
× 100 % ⇒ 2
× 100 %=11.11… %
2+ m 2+0.5

m) Draw spectral wave double side bands

⁂ Examples:- The total power content of an AM signal is 1000 W. Determine the power
being transmitted at the carrier frequency and at each of the side bands when the
percent modulation is 100%.

[ ] [ ]
2
m 1
1 ¿ P ¿ T =PC 1+ ⇒ 1000=PC 1+
2 2

PC =666.667 W

2 ¿ P¿ T =PC + P SB ⇒ 1000=666.667+ P SB

PSB =333.33 W

333.33
¿ PUSB=P LSB= =166.667 W
2

⁂ Examples:- Determine the power content of the carrier and each of the sidebands for an
AM signal having a percent modulation of 80% and a total power of 2500W.

[ ] [ ]
2 2
m 0.8
1 ¿ P ¿ T =PC 1+ ⇒ 2500=PC 1+
2 2

PC =1893.9 W

2 ¿ P¿ T =PC + P SB ⇒ 2500=1893.9+ P SB

PSB =606.06 W

606.06
¿ PUSB=P LSB= =303.03 W
2

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Chapter 3
⁂ Examples:- The power content of the carrier of an AM wave is 5 kW. Determine the power
content of each of the side bands and the total power transmitted when the
carrier is modulated 75%.
2 2 2
m V C m2 V C
PUSB=P LSB= ⇒ .
8R 4 2R
2 2
m 0.75 3
∴ P USB=PLSB = . PC ⇒ × 5× 10 =703.125 W
4 4

[ ] [ ]
2 2
m 3 0.75
PT =PC 1+ ⇒ 5× 10 × 1+
2 2

PT =6406.25 W

⁂ Examples:- An amplitude-modulated wave has a power content of 800 W at it’s carrier

frequency. Determine the power content of each of the side bands for a 90%
modulation.

PC =800W ,m=0.9
2 2
m 0.9
∴ P USB=PLSB = . PC ⇒ × 800=162 W
4 4

⁂ Examples:- Determine the percent modulation of an amplitude – modulated wave which

has a power content at the carrier of 8kW and 2 kW in each of its side bands
when the carrier is modulated by a simple audio tone.
3
PC =8000W , ∴ PUSB=P LSB=2 ×10 W

[ ]
2
m
PC + PUSB + P LSB=PC 1+
2

[ ]
2
m
8000+2000+ 2000=8000 1+
2

[ ]
2
12000 m
= 1+ ⇒m=1
8000 2

∴ μ=1 ×100 %=100 %

⁂ Examples:- The total power content of an AM wave is 600W. Determine the percent
modulation of the signal if each of the side bands contains 75W.

PC + PUSB + P LSB=PT

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Chapter 3
PC =600−75−75=450W

[ ] [ ]
2 2
m m
PT =PC 1+ ⇒ 600=450 1+
2 2

∴ m=0.816 ,∧μ=81.6 %

⁂ Examples:- Find the percent modulation of an AM wave whose total power content is
2500W and whose side bands each contain 400W.

PC + PUSB + P LSB=PT

PC =2500−400−400=1700 W

[ ] [ ]
2 2
m m
PT =PC 1+ ⇒ 2500=1700 1+
2 2

∴ m=0.97 ,∧μ=97 %

⁂ Examples:- Determine the power content of each of the side bands and of the carrier of an
AM signal that has a percent modulation of 85 % and contains 1200 W total
power.

m=0.85 , PT =1200

[ ] [ ]
2 2
m 0.85
PT =PC 1+ ⇒ 1200=PC 1+
2 2

∴ P C =881.54 W

PT =PC + PSB

∴ P SB=1200−881.54 ⇒ P SB=318.46

318.46
P LSB=PUSB= =159.23 W
2

⁂ Examples:- An AM signal in which the carrier is modulated 70% contains 1500 W at the
carrier frequency. Determine the power content of the upper and lower side
bands for this percent modulation. Calculate the power at the carrier and the
power content of each of the side bands when the percent modulation drops to
50%.

[ ] [ ]
2 2
m 0.7
PT =PC 1+ ⇒ 1500 1+ =1867.5 W
2 2

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Chapter 3
PT =PC + PSB ⇒ PSB =1867.5−1500=367.5

367.5
P LSB=PUSB= =183.75 W
2

⁂ Examples:- A given AM (DSB-LC) broadcast station transmits an average carrier power

output of PC =40 kw and uses a modulation index of m=0.707 for sine wave
modulation. Calculate:

1- The total average power output

[ ] [ ]
2 2
m 3 0.707
PT =PC 1+ ⇒ 40 ×10 1+
2 2
∴ P C =50 kw

2- The transmission efficiency

2 2
m 0.707
ζ= 2
× 100 % ⇒ 2
=20 %
2+ m 2+0.707

3- The peak amplitude of the output if the antenna is represented by a 50Ω resistive load.

2
VC 2
PC = ⇒ 40000 ×2 ×50=V C
2R

V C =2000V

∴ peak amplitude=V C +V m

[ ]
¿ V C 1+
Vm
VC
⇒ V C [ 1+m ] ⇒ 2000 [ 1+0.707 ] =3414 V

4- The amplitude of the modulating tone is decreased until the total power is 45 kw.
Assume that the carrier power remained constant; compute the new modulation index
and transmission efficiency.

PT =PC + PSB ⇒ PSB =45000−40000=5000 W

141
Chapter 3
P SB 5000
ζ= ×100 % ⇒ × 100 %=11.11%
PT 45000

Where
2
m 2 2
ζ= 2
⇒ 0.2222+0.1111m =m
2+ m

m=0.5

⁂ Examples:-

1- Find the modulation index for the sinusoidally modulated DSB-LC waveform shown
below, if f ( t )=25 cos 2 πt

V max −V min 100−50

m= ⇒ =0.33333
V max + V min 100+50

2- Find the carrier amplitude

V max =V m +V c

[ ]
V max =V c 1+
Vm
Vc
⇒ V c [ 1+ m ] ⇒

100=V c [ 1+0.33333 ]

∴ V c =75

3- Determine the amplitude of the additional carrier, which must be added to attain a
modulation index of 10%.

141
Chapter 3
Vm Vm
m= ⇒
V c V c +V Added

25
0.1= ⇒ V Added =175
75+V Added

4- Find the transmission efficiency, in both cases.

2 2
m 0.33333
1 ¿ ζ= 2
×100 % ⇒ 2
×100 %
2+m 2+ 0.33333

μ=5.26 %
2 2
m 0.1
2 ¿ ζ= 2
×100 % ⇒ 2
×100 %
2+m 2+ 0.1

μ=0.498 %

141
Chapter 3

3.7 Generation of Double SideBand-Large Carrier [DSB-LC]

The easiest way to generate a DSB-LC is to generate a DSB-SC signal and add some
carrier as shown in the figure below.

141
Chapter 3

3.8 Demodulation of Double SideBand-Large Carrier [DSB-LC]

3.8.1 Demodulation of DSB-LC using envelope detector

** Any circuit whose output follows the envelope of the input signal waveform will serve
as envelope detector.

** The simplest form of an envelope detector is a nonlinear charging circuit with a fast
charge time and slow discharge time.

** It can be easily be constructed using a diode in series with a capacitor.

** A resistor placed across the capacitor controls the discharge time constant.

** Envelope detector extracts positive envelope of the applied signal and produces as
output.

** The envelope detector is used for m ≤1 as in this condition message signal is

completely stored in the form of positive envelope.

** The envelope detector circuit:

141
Chapter 3

1- The input signal waveform charges capacitor C to the waveform’s maximum value
during the positive half-cycles of the input signal. [During the positive cycle of the
input signal, the diode conducts and the capacitor C charges up to peak voltage of the
input signal].
2-As the input signal falls below its maximum, the diode turns off. [When the input
signal falls below this peak value, the diode is cut off, because the diode voltage which
is nearly the peak voltage is greater than the input signal voltage causing the diode to
open].
3- That is followed by a slow discharge of the capacitor through the resistor until the next
positive half-cycle when the input signal becomes greater than the capacitor voltage
and diode turns on again. The capacitor charges to the new peak value, etc. [At this
stage the capacitor discharge at the slew rate (with time constant RC ) and during the
next positive cycle the process repeats].
4-During each positive cycle, the capacitor charges up to the peak voltage of the input
signal and then decays slowly until the next positive cycle.
5-This behavior of the capacitor makes output voltage v 0 (t) follow the envelope of the
input signal.
6-Capacitor discharges between positive peaks causes a ripple signal of frequency ω c at
the output.
7-This ripple can be reduced by increasing the time constant RC so the capacitor
discharge very little between positive peaks of the input signal [ RC ≫ 1 /ωc ].
8-Making RC too large, makes capacitor voltage impossible to follow the envelope.
9-The envelope detector output is v 0 ( t )=V c +m(t) with a ripple of frequency ω c.
10- The DC term V c can be blocked by a capacitor or simple RC high pass filter, and the
ripple may be reduced further by another low pass RC filter.
11-The time constant RC must be selected to follow the variations in the envelope of the
modulated signal.

141
Chapter 3
a) If RC is too large, then the discharge of
the capacitor is too slow and again the
output will not follow the envelope. The
envelope detector may miss some positive
half-cycles of the carrier.

b) If RC is too small, then the output of the

filter falls very rapidly after each peak
and will not follow the envelope closely.
The envelope detector generates a very
ragged waveform, losing some of its
efficiency.

c) For good performance of the envelope detector

1 1
fc ⏟
≪ RL C ≪
fm
τ

⁂ Examples:- An AM signal is detected using an envelope detector. The carrier frequency and
modulating signal frequency are 1 MHz and 2 KHz respectively. An
appropriate value for the time constant of the envelope detector is

a ¿ 500 μsec b ¿ 20 μsec a ¿ 0.2 μsec b ¿ 1 μsec

1 1
fc ⏟
≪R LC ≪
fm
τ
1 1
≪ RL C ≪
10
6
2000

1 μsec ≪ RL C ≪ 0.5 msec

⁂ Examples:- A message signal m ( t ) =cos 2000 πt + 4 cos 4000 πt modulates the carrier
c ( t ) =cos 2 π f c t where f c =1 MHz to produce an AM signal . For demodulating

141
Chapter 3
the generated AM signal using an envelope detector, the time constant RC of
the detector circuit should be satisfy

a ¿ 0.5 msec ≪ R L C ≪ 1 msec

b ¿ 1 μsec ≪ R L C ≪ 0.5 msec
c ¿ R L C ≪ 1 μsec
d ¿ R L C ≫ 0.5 msec

⏟ πt +4 cos 2∗2000
m ( t ) =cos 2∗1000 ⏟ πt
f1 f2

f m=2 kHz , f c =1 MHz

1 1
fc ⏟
≪R LC ≪
fm
τ
1 1
≪ RL C ≪
10
6
2000

1 μsec ≪ RL C ≪ 0.5 msec

3.8.2 Demodulation of DSB-LC using rectifier detector

⁂ Diode removes the negative part of the modulated signal, whereas the filter remove
the carrier. The DC term is eliminated by using an AC coupling [AC coupling uses a
capacitor to block the DC current].

** AM signal is applied to a diode and resistor circuit, the negative part of the AM wave
will be suppressed.

** The output across the resistor is the half wave rectified version of the AM signal.

** The LPF will filter out the high frequency components and a capacitor removes the
DC level.

141
Chapter 3

** In the diode: the diode works as a unidirectional flow of current, so whenever the AM
signal would be in a positive direction it work as a closed circuit, so it will allow the
AM wave pass through it. But, when an AM wave would be negative, it works as an
open circuit and there will be clipped and the positive wave we will get at the output.

** The diode act as a pair of scissors by cutting off any negative half cycle of the
modulated sinusoid.

** At the output of the diode, AM is multiplied by w (t) which is a periodic square plus
train with a fourier series as:

w (t )=
[ (
1 2 1 1
+ cos ωc t− cos 3 ω c t+ cos 5 ωc t+ …
2 π 3 5 )]
After multiplying, we get

v 2 ( t )=v1 ( t ) . w (t)
Where

v 1 ( t )=[ V c +m(t) ] . cos ω c t

∴ v 2 ( t )= [ [ V c + m(t) ] .cos ωc t ] .
[ (
1 2 1 1
+ cos ω c t− cos 3 ωc t + cos 5 ω c t +…
2 π 3 5 )]
1 2 2
¿
2
[ V c +m(t) ] cos ω c t+ [ V c +m(t ) ] cos ωc t−
π
2
[ V +m ( t ) ] cos ω c t .cos 5 ωc t +…
3π c

So, after passing the above equation through pass filter we get,

Vc 1 2 2 2 2
∴ v 2 ( t )= cos ωc t+ m ( t ) cos ωc t + V c cos ωc t+ m ( t ) cos ω c t−…
2 2 π π

Where
2 1 1
cos ω c t= + cos 2 ωc t
2 2

141
Chapter 3
Vc 1 Vc Vc m(t) m(t)
∴ v 2 ( t )= cos ωc t+ m ( t ) cos ωc t + + cos 2 ω c t+ + cos 2 ω c t +…
2 2 π π π π

After LPF;

V c m(t) 1
∴ v 0 ( t )=
π
+
π
⇒
π [⏟ V c +m(t)
DCterm
]
So, eliminating the DC term [DC term blocked by capacitor], we can get

v 0 ( t ) α m(t)

** Note: The rectifier detector is basically synchronous detector on the other hand envelope
detector is a asynchronous detector.

3.9 Double Side Band-Suppressed Carrier

⁂ A general sinusoidal signal can be expressed as follows,

φ ( t )=a (t ) cos θ ( t )

We can write the time varying angle

θ ( t )=ω c t+ γ (t)

∴ φ ( t )=a ( t ) cos ( ω c t+ γ (t) )

Where;

a ( t ) :- Time varying amplitude representing the envelope of the time signal φ ( t )

ω c :- Carrier Frequency

γ (t) :- Phase Modulation

141
Chapter 3
⁂ In AM, the phase is considered zero and a ( t ) is made proportional to m ( t ) [Modulating
signal].

a ( t ) ∝ m (t )

∴ a ( t )=k a m(t)

Where k a=1 [constant of proportionality]

φ DSB−SC ( t )=m ( t ) cos ( ω c t )

Where;

φ DSB−SC ( t ) :- is the modulated signal

m ( t ) :- is the modulating signal

cos ( ωc t ) :- is the carrier signal

Applying the modulation property of the Fourier transform

φ DSB−SC ( t )=m ( t ) cos ( ω c t )

Ƒ { φ ( t ) }= Ƒ {m ( t ) cos ( ωc t ) }

1 1
ϕ DSB−SC (ω)= M ( ω−ω c ) + M ( ω+ ωc )
2 2

141
Chapter 3

BW =ω c + ωm −[ ω c−ωm ]

BW =2 ω m

141
Chapter 3

Notes:-

1- AM translate the frequency spectrum of a signal by ± ω c, but leaves the spectral shape
unaltered. This type of modulation is called suppressed carrier, because the spectral shape
of φ DSB−SC ( t ) has no identifiable carrier in it.

2- The amplitude modulation with suppressed carrier provides us with a convenient means to
observe the complete frequency spectrum of a given signal m ( t ) , this type of modulation is
called double side band suppressed carrier [DSB-SC]. It is the same as the AM modulation
[DSB-LC] but without the carrier.

⁂ Examples:- Two signals f 1 (t) and f 2 (t), both band-limited to 5000 rad/Sec, are to be
transmitted simultaneously over a channel by multiplexing scheme shown
below. The signal at point b is the multiplexed signal, which now modulates a
carrier of frequency 2000 rad/Sec. The modulated signal at point c is
transmitted over a channel.

a) Define the time and frequency domain signals at points a, b and c.

** At point a

a ( t )=2 f 2 ( t ) cos 1000t In time domain

141
Chapter 3
A ( ω )=2 Ƒ { f 2 ( t ) cos 1000 t }

¿ 2 F2 ( ω )
[ 1
2
1
δ ( ω−1000 )+ δ ( ω+ 1000 )
2 ]
∴ A (ω)=F 2 ( ω−1000 ) + F2 ( ω+ 1000 ) In frequency domain

** At point b

b ( t )=f 1 ( t ) +b
∴ b ( t )=f 1 ( t )+ 2 f 2 ( t ) cos 1000 t In time domain

B ( ω )= Ƒ { f 1 (t ) +2 f 2 ( t ) cos 1000 t }

¿ F 1 ( ω )+ 2 F 2 ( ω )
[ 1
2
1
δ ( ω−1000 ) + δ ( ω+1000 )
2 ]
∴ B (ω)=F 1 ( ω ) + F2 ( ω−1000 ) + F 2 ( ω +1000 ) In frequency domain

** At point c

b ( t )=2 b cos 2000 t

¿ 2 [ f 1 ( t )+2 f 2 ( t ) cos 1000 t ] . cos 2000 t

¿ 2 f 1 ( t ) cos (2000 t)+4 f 2 ( t ) cos (1000 t)cos(2000t )

∴ c ( t ) ¿ 2 f 1 ( t ) cos ( 2000 t )+2 f 2 ( t ) cos ( 1000 t ) +2 f 2 ( t ) cos ( 3000 t ) In time domain

C ( ω )=2 F 1 ( ω )
[ 1
2
1
2 ]
1
2 [ 1
2
1
2 ] [ 1
δ ( ω−2000 ) + δ ( ω +2000 ) +2 F 2 ( ω ) δ ( ω−1000 ) + δ ( ω+1000 ) +2 F 2 ( ω ) δ ( ω−3000 ) + δ
2

∴ C ( ω )=F1 ( ω−2000 ) + F 1 ( ω +2000 ) + F 2 ( ω−1000 ) + F 2 ( ω+1000 ) + F 2 ( ω−3000 ) + F 2 ( ω+3000 )

In frequency domain

b) Sketch signal spectra signals at points a, b and c.

141
Chapter 3

c) What must e the BW of the channel.

BW =3500−500=3000 rad /Sec

⁂Examples:-The modulating signal m ( t ) =2cos 100 πt +cos 400 πt is applied as the input to a
DSB-SC modulator operates at a carrier frequency of 1kHz.Write down the
resulting DSB-SC waveform in both the time and frequency domain and sketch
the spectral density of DSB-SC waveform identifying the upper and lower side
band.

φ DSB−SC ( t )=m ( t ) cos ω c t

m ( t ) =2cos 100 πt +cos 400 πt ,

3
¿ V c ( t )=cos ω c t ⇒ cos 2 π f c t ⇒ cos 2 π ×1 ×10 t

∴ V c ( t )=cos 2000 πt

** In time domain

φ ( t )=[ 2 cos 100 πt+cos 400 πt ] .cos 2000 πt

¿ 2 cos 100 πt . cos 2000 πt +cos 400 πt .cos 2000 πt

1 1
¿ cos ( 2000 πt−100 πt ) +¿ cos ( 2000 πt+100 πt )+ ¿ cos ( 2000 πt−400 πt ) + cos ( 2000 πt+ 400 πt ) ¿¿
2 2

1 1
∴ φ ( t )=cos 2100 πt+cos 1900 πt + cos 2400 πt+ cos 1600 πt
2 2

** In frequency domain

π π
ϕ ( ω )=π δ ( ω−2100 π )+ π δ ( ω+2100 π ) + π δ ( ω−1900 π )+ π δ ( ω+1900 π ) + δ ( ω−2400 π )+ δ ( ω+2400 π ) +
2 2

141
Chapter 3

3.10 Modulation process of DSB-SC

** In DSB-SC, the modulated wave consists of only the sidebands [both upper and lower
sidebands].

141
Chapter 3
** Carrier signal is suppressed to increase the transmission efficiency.

3.10.1 Modulation through any Peridic Signal

Modulated signal can not be only obtained by only a pure sinusoid, but by any periodic signal
of fundamental frequency ω c.
∞
φ c ( t )=∑ C n cos(n ωc t +θn ) Trigonometric Fourier Series [carrier]
n=0

Hence,
∞
m ( t ) φ c ( t )=∑ m ( t ) C n cos (n ω c t+ θn ) Modulated Signal
n=0

The spectrum of the modulated signal is the spectrum M (ω) shifted to ± ω c , ±2 ω c , … … , ± n ωc

and scaled by C n.

If we pass this modulated through a band-pass filter of bandwidth 2 B tuned to ω c

C 1 m ( t ) cos (ω c t+θ 1)

Now, consider a periodic square pulse train with Fourier series as

w (t )=
[ (
1 2 1 1 1
+ cos ωc t− cos 3 ω c t+ cos 5 ωc t− cos 7 ω c t +…
2 π 3 5 7 )]
The modulated signal m ( t ) w ( t ) is given by

m ( t ) w ( t )=
m(t) 2
2 ( 1 1
+ m(t)cos ωc t− m(t )cos 3 ωc t+ m(t)cos 5 ω c t−…
π 3 5 )
1- Modulated signal m ( t ) w ( t ) consists of the component m ( t ) pluse infinite numbers of modulated
signals with carrier frequencies ω c , 3 ω c , 5 ωc , … … .
2- The spectrum of m ( t ) w ( t ) consists of M (ω) and M (ω) shifted to ± ω c , ±3 ω c , ± 5 ωc , … ….
3- As we are interested in modulated component m ( t ) cos ω c t only. To separate this component
from others, we pass m ( t ) w ( t ) through a band pass filter to bandwidth 2 B (Hz), centered at ± ω c
2
, gives the required modulated signal m ( t ) cos ω c t .
π

141
Chapter 3
4- This method of modulation is sometimes called “frequency conversion, frequency mixing and
heterodyning”.

3.10.2 Chopper Modulation/ Switching DSB-SC Modulators

** The chopper modulation is a system used to generates a DSB-SC signal.

** The operation of the chopper modulator is as follows:

1- The switch alternates between the open and closed states at a frequency of ω c rad/sec.
2- For one-half the period, the switch allows the signal m(t) to be applied to the filter input.
3- During the next-half period, the input to the filter is grounded.
4- This operation (chopping) is a multiplication of m(t) with a periodic pulse wave w (t) whose
two levels are 0 and 1.
5- The desired amplitude modulated signal φ DSB−SC ( t ) is obtained by passing the chopped signal
through a bandpass filter at ω c.

141
Chapter 3
3.10.3 Ring Modulator

** The ring modulator works on the same principle as the switch modulator with 2 exceptions:

1- Uses diodes as switches

2- Uses 4 diodes to act like two switches.

** Ring modulator is a popular circuit used in the generation of DSB-SC signal.

** The name of this modulator is derived from the observation that the four diodes are connected in
the form of a ring.

** The modulating signal is given as the input. The DSB-SC wave is obtained as the output of a
bandpass filter centered at ω c and having a pass band from ω c −ω m to ω c + ωm.

** The diodes connected in the bridge act like switches and their switching is controlled by the
carrier signal as it’s usually higher in frequency and amplitude than the modulating signal.

** Consider the scheme shown in the figure below;

1- We assume that the carrier signal is much larger than m(t). The carrier signal controls the
behavior of diodes which would be acting as ON-OFF devices.
2- Consider the carrier cycle where the terminal 1 is positive and terminal 2 is negative. T 1 is an
audio frequency transformer which is essentially an open circuit at the frequencies near about
the carrier. With the polarities assumed for the carrier signal, D1 and D4 are forwared biased,
whereas D2 and D3 are reverse biased. As a consequence, the voltage at point a gets switched to
b and voltage at point c to d .

3- During the other half cycle of the carrier signal, D2 and D3 are forward biased where D1 and D4
are reverse biased. As a result, the voltage at a get transferred to d and that at point c to b .

141
Chapter 3

4- This implies, during, say the positive half cycle of the carrier signal, m(t) is switched to the
output. Whereas, during the negative half cycle, −m(t) is switched.

5- In other words, v (t) Can be taken as

v ( t )=m ( t ) . w o (t)

Where w o (t) is square plus train, whose fourier series is

w o (t) ¿
4
π ( 1 1 1
cos ωc t− cos 3 ω c t+ cos 5 ω c t− cos 7 ωc t +…
3 5 7 )
∴ v ( t ) =m ( t ) .
[( 4
π
1 1 1
cos ω c t− cos 3 ωc t+ cos 5 ωc t− cos 7 ω c t+ …
3 5 7 )]
6- When v ( t ) is passed through a bandpass filter tuned to ω c, the filtered output will be the desired
signal DSB-SC signal, namely, φ DSB−SC ( t )

4
φ DSB−SC ( t )= m ( t ) cos ωc t
π

141
Chapter 3

3.10.4 Balanced Modulator

** The figure below shows the balanced modulator circuit. It consists of the two standard
amplitude modulators arranged in a balanced configuration so as to suppress the carrier wave.
Here, two modulators are identical, except for the sign reversal of the modulating wave applied
to the input of one of them. Therefore, the output of the two modulators can be given as;

S1 ( t ) =V c [ 1+m cos ω m t ] cos ω c t

S2 ( t ) =V c [ 1−mcos ωm t ] cos ωc t

Subtracting S1 ( t ) from S2 ( t ) , we obtain

φ DSB−S C ( t )=2 V c m cos ω m t cos ω c t

Hence, except for the scaling factor 2 V c m , the balanced modulator output is equal to the
product of the modulating and the carrier, as required.

φ DSB−SC ( t )

141
Chapter 3
3.11 Demodulation process of DSB-SC

The message signal m(t) can be uniquely recovered from a DSB-SC wave φ DSB−SC ( t ) by first
multiplying φ DSB−SC ( t ) with a locally generated sinusoidally wave, and then low pass filtering the
product as shown below. This method of demodulation is known as coherent detection or synchronized
detection.

φ DSB−SC ( t ) cos ωc t=m ( t ) cos (ω ¿¿ c t ). cos ( ωc t ) ¿

1 1
¿ m ( t ) cos ( ω c −ω c ) t + m ( t ) cos ( ω c + ωc ) t
2 2

1 1
¿ m ( t ) + m (t ) cos ( 2 ω c t )
2 2

1
The term m (t ) cos ( 2 ω c t ) is filtered out using LPF
2

1
∴ φ DSB−SC ( t ) cos ( ω c t )= m ( t )
2

Taking the Fourier transform of this equation

Ƒ {φ DSB−SC ( t ) cos ( ωc t ) }= Ƒ {12 m ( t ) + 12 m ( t ) cos (2 ω t )}

c

1 1 1
¿ M ( ω ) + M ( ω+2 ω c ) + M ( ω−2 ωc )
2 4 4

141
Chapter 3
1
The term M ( ω−2ω c ) is filtered out by LPF
4

1
∴ Ƒ { φ DSB−SC ( t ) cos ( ω c t ) }= M ( ω )
2

A LPF is required to separate out double frequency terms from the original spectral
components as indicated in the above figure. Obviously, we require that ω c ≫ Bw for proper
signal recovery.

⁂ Note:- By multiplying the modulated signal by the carrier signal, the result is a scaled
version of the original message signal plus a second term. Since ω c ≫ ωm , this
second term is much higher in frequency than the original message. Once the signal
passes through a low pass filter, the higher frequency component is removed
leaving just the original message.

⁂ Examples:- Using the orthogonality of sines and cosines makes it possible to transmit and
receive two different signals simultaneously on the same carrier frequency. A
scheme for doing this, known as quadrature multiplexing, is shown in the figure
below. Show that each signal can be recovered by synchronous detection of the
received signal using carrier of the same frequency but in phase quadrature.

φ ( t )=f 1 (t) cos ω c (t)+f 2(t)sin ωc (t)

( 1 ) φ ( t ) cos ωc ( t )= [ f 1 ( t ) cos ωc (t ) + f 2 ( t ) sin ωc ( t ) ] cos ω c ( t )

¿ f 1 ( t ) cos ω c ( t ) cos ωc ( t ) +¿ f 2 ( t ) sin ωc ( t ) cos ω c ( t ) ¿

¿ f 1(t )
[ 1
2
1
2 ]
1
2 [ 1
cos ( ω c −ω c ) t+ cos ( ω c + ωc ) t + f 2 ( t ) sin ( ω c −ω c ) t + sin ( ω c + ωc ) t
2 ]
¿ f 1(t )
[ 1 1
2 2 ] [ 1
+ cos ( 2 ω c t ) + f 2 ( t ) sin ( 2 ωc t )
2 ]
1 1 1
¿ f 1 ( t )+ f 1 ( t ) cos ( 2 ω c t ) + f 1 ( t ) sin ( 2 ω c t )
2 2 2

141
Chapter 3
1 1
The term f 1 ( t ) cos ( 2 ωc t ) + f 1 ( t ) sin ( 2 ωc t ) is filtered out by LPF
2 2

1
∴ e1 ( t )= f 1 ( t )
2

( 2 ) φ ( t ) sin ω c ( t )=[ f 1 (t ) cos ω c ( t ) +f 2 ( t ) sin ω c ( t ) ] sin ωc ( t )

¿ f 1 ( t ) cos ω c ( t ) sin ω c ( t ) +¿ f 2 ( t ) sin ω c ( t ) sin ωc ( t ) ¿

¿ f 1(t )
[ 1
2
1
2 ] [
1
2
1
sin ( ωc −ωc ) t+ sin ( ωc +ω c ) t +f 2 ( t ) cos ( ω c −ωc ) t− cos ( ωc +ω c ) t
2 ]
¿ f 1(t )
[ 1
2
)] ( ) [
1 1
sin ( 2 ωc t + f 2 t − cos ( 2 ωc t )
2 2 ]
1 1 1
¿ f 1 ( t ) sin ( 2 ω c t )− f 2 ( t ) cos ( 2 ω c t ) + f 2 ( t )
2 2 2

1 1
The term f 1 ( t ) sin ( 2 ω c t )− f 2 ( t ) cos ( 2 ω c t ) is filtered out by LPF
2 2

1
∴ e2 ( t )= f 2 ( t )
2

141
Chapter 3

3.11 Frequency and Phase Errors

** What happens if there is a phase or frequency error in cosine supplied by a local oscillator in
the receiver??

φ DSB−SC ( t )=m ( t ) cos ω c t

~
x ( t ) =φ DSB−SC ( t ) cos [ ( ωc +∆ ω ) t +θ 0 ]=m ( t ) cos ω c t .cos [ ( ω c + ∆ ω ) t +θ0 ]

1
Using trigonometric identity: cos A . cos B= [ cos( A+ B)+cos ( A−B) ]
2

~ 1 1
x ( t ) = m ( t ) cos [ ∆ ωt +θ0 ] + m ( t ) cos [ ( 2 ωc +∆ ω ) t+θ 0 ]
2 2

The second term of this equation is filtered out by the LPF, resulting the following waveform,

~y ( t )= 1 m ( t ) cos [ ∆ ωt+ θ ]
0
2

1
The output of the demodulated signal is not m (t ) unless both ( ∆ ω )∧θ 0 are zeros.
2

 If ∆ ω=0, there will be only a phase error as follows,

141
Chapter 3
~y ( t )= 1 m ( t ) cos [ θ ]
0
2

1- Nonlinear distortion of information signal m(t)

1
2- For θ0 =0, then the output signal ~y ( t )= m ( t ) and the modulating signal is recovered.
2
θ
3- For 0 always ¿ 20 , then error is small, since cos 20 0=0.94 .
0

4- For θ0 =± 900 then R x signal is completely eliminated. This effect is known as Quadrature
null effect, where the output of the receiver becomes zero in spite of the fact the there is a
transmitted signal.

 If θ0 =0, there will be only frequency error as follows,

~y ( t )= 1 m ( t ) cos [ ∆ ωt ]
2

1- This result is known as beat effect.

2- This results in undesirable and unexpected distort, it is necessary to have synchronization in
both frequency and phase between the transmitter and the receiver when DSB-SC
modulation is used.
3- Recovering the original signal m(t) from the modulated signal φ DSB−SC ( t ) using a
synchronized oscillator is called “synchronous detection or coherent detection”.

** To avoid problems due to phase and frequency errors.

1- Solution 1:- Use a PLL (Phase-Locked Loop) at the R x, a PLL can, by observing φ DSB−SC ( t ),
recover the exact frequency and phase of the carrier at the T x , and hence use these values at
the R x. The PLL is called a “carrier-recovery circuit” (complex and expensive). The
receiver in this case is known as a “synchronous or coherent receiver”.
2- Solution 2:- Do not generate a carrier at the R x, rather,let the T x send an extra copy of the
carrier (e.g., DSB-LC) to help the R x demodulate φ DSB−SC ( t ). The R x is known as
“asynchronous or incoherent receiver”, (cheaper, but the T x is power inefficient).

 Disadvantage: The demerit of the synchronous detection is that it requires an additional

system at the receiver to ensure that the locally generated carriers is synchronized with the
transmitter carrier to avoid phase and frequency errors making receiver complex and costly.

⁂ Examples:- In the previous problem, let the local carrier generated in the receiver have a
phase error of θ0 radians. Derive an expression for e 1 (t) if θ0 is small; also
estimate how small θ0 must be to keep the interference caused by f 2 (t) at least
−40 dB (1 %) of f 1 (t) and f 2 (t) are of equal magnitude.

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Chapter 3
e 1 ( t )=φ ( t ) cos ( ωc t +θ0 )

¿ f 1 ( t ) cos ω c t cos ( ωc t+θ 0 ) +f 2 ( t ) sin ω c t cos ( ω c t+ θ0 )

¿ f 1(t )
[ 1
2
1
2 ]1
2 [ 1
cos θ0 + cos ( 2ω c t +θ0 ) + f 2 ( t ) sin ( 2 ω c t+ θ0 ) ± sin θ 0
2 ]
1 1
¿ f 1 ( t ) cos θ0 ± f 2 ( t ) sinθ 0
2 2
+1
2 [ 1
f 1 ( t ) cos ( 2 ω c t+ θ0 ) + f 2 ( t ) sin ( 2ω c t +θ0 )
2 ]
1 1
e 1 ( t )= f 1 ( t ) cos θ0 ± f 2 ( t ) sin θ0
2 2

For small θ0 , cos θ 0=1 and sin θ0 =θ0, thus

1 1
e 1 ( t ) = f 1 ( t ) ± θ0 f 2 ( t )
2 2

The interference ratio is the ratio between the second signal interfered to the first signal.
Given that |f 1 ( t )|=|f 2 ( t )| this interference is given as follows,

Interference Ratio=
| 1
2
θ f ( t )| 0 2
=|±θ |=± 0.01 ,θ =± 0.01 rad=± 57
0

|2 f ( t )|
0 0
1
1

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Chapter 3

3.12 Single side band (SSB)

⁂ In DSB transmission since the side bands are the sum and difference of the carrier and
modulating signal, the information is contained in both side bands. As it turns out, there
is no reason to transmit both side bands in order to convey the information, one side band
can be suppressed; the remaining sideband is called a single side band suppressed carrier
(SSB-SC) signal.

⁂ In a single sideband (SSB) modulation only the USB or LSB is transmitted. Thus,
SSB modulation requires half the BW of AM or DSB-SC AM modulation.

M (ω)

141
Chapter 3

3.13 The generation of Single side band (SSB)

3.13.1 Modulation and filtering method [Selective filtering method]

⁂ The most straightforward way to generate an SSB-SC signal is first generate a DSB-SC
signal and then suppress one of the side bands by filtering.

φ DSB−SC ( t )=m ( t ) cos ω c t

Now, If m ( t ) =cos ω m t and V c ( t ) =cos ω c t , then

φ DSB−SC ( t )=cos ω m t . cos ω c t

1 1
¿ cos ( ωc −ω m ) t+¿ cos ( ωc −ωm ) t ¿
2 2

If we take the USB only, then

φ 1
SSB +¿ ( t ) = cos (ωc + ωm) t ¿
2

If we take the LSB only, then

141
Chapter 3
φ 1
SSB−¿ ( t ) = cos ( ωc −ωm )t ¿
2

The primary source of difficulty of using this operation is in meeting the filter requirements.
The sideband filter required must have a very sharp cut-off characterstic at ω c to reject all
frequency components on one side of ω c and to accept all frequency components on the
other side of ω c.

3.13.2 Generation of SSB by a proper phasing of a signal [phase shift method]

** The best way of producing a phase by introducing a complex exponential signal such as
j ωm t
e , which has a one side spectral density. The carrier signal is then being e j ω t . The c

spectral densities of the original signal and the carrier are shown in the figure below,

** Multiplying the original signal with the carrier yields the following

e j ω t .e j ω t =e j (ω +ω )t =cos ( ωc +ω m ) t+ jsin (ω c +ω m )t
m c c m

Ƒ { e j (ω +ω )t }=δ (ω c + ωm )
c m

** The double sided spectral density of this signal can be obtained by taking the real part of
it, representing the USB of the signal as follows;

j ( ωc +ωm ) t
e j ω t .e j ω t =e
m c
=cos ( ω c + ωm ) t+ j sin ( ωc +ω m ) t

ℜ{e }=cos ( ωc +ω m ) t
j (ωc + ωm) t

¿ cos (ω m t )cos ( ωc t ) −sin ( ω m t ) sin ⁡( ωc t)=φSSB+¿(t )¿

141
Chapter 3

** The LSB of the signal can be obtained by the same manner, taking the original signal as
− j ωm t
e as follows;

j ( ωc −ωm )t
e− j ω t . e j ω t =e
m c
=cos ( ωc −ωm ) t + j si n ( ω c −ω m ) t

ℜ{e }=cos ( ωc −ω m ) t
j (ωc −ωm ) t

¿ cos (ω m t )cos ( ωc t ) + sin ( ωm t ) sin ⁡(ω c t )=φ SSB−¿(t )¿

** From this analysis, the USB and the LSB signal can be written as follows;

φ SSB ∓ ( t )=cos (ω m t)cos ( ω c t ) ± sin ( ω m t ) sin ⁡(ω c t)

** Assuming m ( t ) =cos(ωm t), then sin(ωm t) can be obtained by shifting m(t) by 90 0, which
^ (t) .
is denoted by the symbol m

φ SSB ∓ ( t )=m(t )cos ( ωc t ) ± m

^ (t ) sin ⁡(ωc t)

** The phase shift method of generating an SSB signal is shown below;

⁂Examples:- A DSB-LC signal is generated using a 1kHz carrier and the input
m ( t ) =cos 200 πt . The modulation index is 80%. The lower side band is attenuated (assume
ideal filtering). Find an expression for the resulting SSB-LC signal if it develops 0.58 W
across a 1Ω resistive load.

φ DSB− LC ( t )=V c [ 1+m cos ω m t ] .cos ωc t

m ( t ) =cos 200 πt

141
Chapter 3
φ c ( t )=V c cos(2 π f c t)⇒ V c cos (2000 πt)

φ DSB− LC ( t )=V c [ 1+0.8 cos 200 πt ] . cos 2000 πt

¿ V c cos 2000 πt +0.8 V c cos 200 πt cos 2000 πt

0.8 V c 0.8V c
¿ V c cos 2000 πt + cos ( 2000 πt−200 πt ) + cos ( 2000 πt +200 πt )
2 2

0.8 V c 0.8 V c
¿ V c cos 2000 πt + cos ( 1800 πt ) + cos ( 2200 πt )
2 2

0.8 V c
The term cos ( 1800 πt ) is filtered out using LPF
2

∴ φ SSB ( t ) ¿ V c cos 2000 πt+0.4 V c cos ( 2200 πt )

Now,

PT =Pc + PUSB
2 2
V c V USB
¿ +
R R

Vc 0.4 V c
φ SSB ( t )= cos 2000 πt+ cos ( 2200 πt )
√2 √2
2
( V c / √2 ) (( 0.4 V c ) / √2 )
2

PT = +
R R
2 2 2
V c 0.4 V c
¿ +
2 2

Now;
2 2
V c 0.16 V c
o .58= +
2 2
2 2
1.16=V c + 0.16 V c
2
1.16=1.16 V c

∴ V c =1

And therefore

141
Chapter 3
φ SSB ( t )=cos 2000 πt +0.4 cos 2200 πt

3.14 Demodulation of Single side band (SSB)

The spectral density of the SSB signal must be translated back to ω=0 . This operation can be
achieved by synchronous [coherent] detection, where the SSB signal is multiplied by cos ωc t .

2
φ SSB ( t ) .cos ωc t=m ( t ) cos ( ω c t )

¿ m (t)
[ 1 1
+ cos 2ω c t
2 2 ]
1 1
¿ m ( t ) + m(t)cos 2 ω c t
2 2

1
The term m(t) cos 2 ω c t is filtered out by LPF
2

1
e o ( t ) = m(t)
2

Now, if m ( t ) =cos ω m t and v c ( t )=cos ωc t , then

φ DSB−SC ( t )=cos ω m t . cos ω c t

141
Chapter 3
1 1
¿ cos ( ωc +ω m ) t +¿ cos ( ωc −ω m ) t ¿
2 2

If we take the USB only, then

φ 1
SSB+¿ ( t ) = cos ( ωc +ωm ) t ¿
2

φ 1
SSB+¿ ( t ) ×cos ωc t= cos (ωc +ωm )t ×cos ωc t ¿
2

¿
[
1 1
2 2
1
cos ( ωc +ω m+ ωc ) t+ cos ( ω c + ωm−ωc ) t
2 ]
1
¿
4
[ cos ( 2ω c + ωm ) t +cos ( ωm ) t ]
1
The term cos (2 ωc t ¿ +ω m )t ¿ is filtered out by LPF
4

1
e o ( t ) = cos ( ω m ) t
4

In frequency domain,

Ƒ¿

∴ Ƒ¿

If we take the LSB only, then

φ 1
SSB−¿ ( t ) = cos (ωc −ωm ) t ¿
2

φ 1
SSB−¿ ( t ) × cos ωc t = cos ( ωc −ωm )t ×cos ωc t ¿
2

¿
[
1 1
2 2
1
cos ( ωc +ω m−ω c ) t + cos ( ωc −ω m +ω c ) t
2 ]
1
¿
4
[ cos ( 2ω c −ω m ) t+cos ( ωm ) t ]

141
Chapter 3
1
The term cos (2 ωc t ¿−ω m )t ¿ is filtered out by LPF
4

1
e o ( t ) = cos ( ω m ) t
4

In frequency domain,

Ƒ¿

∴ Ƒ¿

It was shown earlier that SSB-SC signal can be coherently demodulated. We can readily
verify this in another way. The SSB-SC can be represented by:

φ SSB ∓ ( t )=m(t )cos ( ωc t ) ± m

^ (t ) sin ⁡(ωc t)

The output of the balanced modulator will be

φ SSB ∓ ( t ) .cos ( ω c t )=[ m ( t ) cos ( ωc t ) ± m

^ ( t ) sin ( ωc t ) ] . cos ( ωc t )

¿ m ( t ) cos ( ωc t ) . cos ( ω c t ) ± m
^ ( t ) sin ( ω c t ) . cos ( ω c t )

1 +1
¿ m ( t ) [ ¿ cos 2 ω c t ]± m
^ (t )¿ ¿
2 2

1 1 1
¿ m ( t ) + m (t ) cos 2 ωc t ± m^ ( t ) sin ( 2ω c t )
2 2 2

The output of the lowpass filter will be

1
e o ( t ) = m(t)
2

141
Chapter 3
Assuming a non-coherent detection is presented with a frequency and phase errors are
present in the demodulation process. That is the demodulation carrier frequency is given by
cos [ ( ω c + ∆ ω ) t+ θo ] , when ∆ ω is the frequency error and θ o is the phase error.

φ SSB ∓ ( t )=m(t )cos ( ωc t ) ± m

^ (t ) sin ⁡(ωc t)

φ SSB ∓ ( t ) .cos [ ( ω c + ∆ ω ) t +θo ] =[ m ( t ) cos ( ω c t ) ± m

^ ( t ) sin ( ωc t ) ] . cos [ ( ωc +∆ ω ) t+θ o ]

¿ m ( t ) cos ( ωc t ) cos [ ( ωc +∆ ω ) t +θ o ] ± m
^ ( t ) sin ( ω c t ) cos [ ( ωc +∆ ω ) t+θ o ]

1 1
[
¿ m ( t ) cos ( ∆ ωt +θo ) + cos ( ( 2ω c + ∆ ω ) t +θo ) ± m
2 2 ] [
^ ( t ) −sin ( ∆ ωt +θ o ) +sin ( ( 2 ω c + ∆ ω ) t +θo ) ]
** The double carrier frequency can be eliminated by using a LPF, thus the output will be as
follows;

~e ( t ) = 1 m ( t ) cos ( ∆ ωt +θ ) ∓ 1 m
^ ( t ) sin ( ∆ ωt +θo )
0 o
2 2
** If no frequency and phase errors present (coherent), the output of the demodulator is
given by,

~e ( t ) = 1 m ( t ) cos ( 0 ) ∓ 1 m 1
^ ( t ) sin ( 0 )= m ( t )
0
2 2 2

 To study the effect of the phase error, we set (∆ ωt=0 ¿, thus;

~e ( t ) = 1 m ( t ) cos ( θ ) ∓ 1 m
^ (t ) sin ( θo )
0 o
2 2
^ ( t ) are present now in the output, we conclude that a phase error in the
Bothm(t) and m
locally generated carrier gives rise to “phase distortion” in the receiver output. The human
ear is insensitive to phase changes and thus this phase distortion is tolerable for voice
communication.

141
Chapter 3
 To study the effect of the frequency error, we set (θ o=0), thus;

1 1
e 0 ( t )= m ( t ) cos ( ∆ ωt ) ∓ m^ ( t ) sin ( ∆ ωt )
2 2

This frequency error gives rise to spectral shifts as well as to phase distortion in the
demodulated output. As well as these spectral shifts are small, they can be tolerated in voice
communication.

** Phase distortion or phase-frequency distortion is distortion, that is, change in the shape
of the waveform.

3.14.1 Envelope detection of SSB signal with carrier

** As with DSB signals, the possibility exsists here also for adding large amount of carrier
to SSB signals, which designate as SSB-LC. An expression for such SSB-LC signal is
given by,

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Chapter 3
φ SSB−LC ∓ ( t )=V c cos ( ω c t ) +m ( t ) cos ( ωc t ) ± m
^ ( t ) sin ( ωc t )

¿ [ V c +m(t) ] cos ( ωc t ) ± m
^ ( t ) sin ( ωc t )

For large carrier, envelope detector can recover the signal. The envelope of DSB-LC is
given by

r ( t )=√ [ Inphase component ] + [ Quadrature component ]

2 2

√ 2
r ( t )= [ V c + m ( t ) ] + [ m
^ (t )]
2

¿ √ V c 2+ 2V c m ( t ) +m2 ( t ) + m
^ 2(t )

√ [ ]
2 2
2 2 m(t) m (t ) + m
^ (t )
¿ V c 1+ + 2
Vc Vc

√
¿ V c 1+
2 m(t) m2 ( t ) + m
Vc
+
V c2
^ 2(t )

If the amplitude of the carrier is much larger than the envelope of the SSB-LC, the last term
2
^ 2(t )
m ( t )+ m
can be dropped.
V c2

∴ r ( t )=V c 1+
√ 2 m (t)
Vc
Using Binomial expansion r ( t ) becomes:

[
≈ V c 1+
m(t )
Vc ]
≈ V c +m(t)

When we discard the DC term introduced by the carrier, the SSB-LC signal can be
demodulated correctly, using the envelope detector.
Note:
1-If a large carrier is also transmitted, the desired signal can be recovered using an
“envelope detector”.
- If m ≤1: noncoherent detection [envelope detection] is used for demodulation.
- If m>1: coherent detection [synchronous detection] is used for demodulation.

141
Chapter 3
2-If no carrier is sent, the signal can be recovered using a “ synchronous detector”.

⁂ Examples:- Determine and plot the envelope of each of the following large carrier
signals. [Assume an input of the form m ( t ) =V m cos ω m t and normalize your answer such
that the unmodulated carrier magnitude is unity and the peak envelope magnitude at t=0 is
1.30].

1- DSB-LC

V c =1 , V c + V m=1.3 ⟹ V m=0.3 ,m=0.3

φ DSB− LC ( t )= [V c +V m cos ωm t ] . cos ωc t

[⏟
¿ V
]
c +V m cos ωm t . cos ωc t
Envelope

[⏟ ]
¿ 1+0.3 cos ωm t .cos ωc t
Envelope

2- SSB-LC
φ SSB−LC +¿ ( t )=[V + m (t )] cos ( ω t )−m^ ( t )sin (ω t ) ¿
c c c

¿ [ V c +V m cos ω m t ] cos ω c t−V m sin ω m t sin ωc t

¿ [ 1+0.3 cos ωm t ] cos ωc t−0.3sin ωm t sin ω c t

√
r ( t )= [ V c + m ( t ) ] + [ m
2
^ (t )]
2

√ 2
¿ [ 1+0.3 cos ω m t ] + [ 0.3 sin ω m t ]
2

¿ √ 1+0.6 cos ω m t+0.09 cos 2 ωm t+ 0.09sin 2 ω m t

√
¿ 1+0.6 cos ω m t+0.09 [ cos 2 ωm t+ sin2 ωm t ]

141
Chapter 3

√⏟ +0.6
⏟ cos ωm t
¿ 1.09
⏟
Vc Vm
Envelope

141
Chapter 3
3.15 Vestigial side band (VSB) AM

** In VSB modulation, instead of rejecting one sideband completely as in SSB modulation

scheme, a gradual cut-off of one sideband is allowed. This gradual cut is compensated by a
vestige or portion of the other sideband.

** In VSB, one sideband and a part of the other sideband called as vestige is transmitted. So,
the bandwidth required for VSB transmission is somewhat higher than that of SSB
modulation.

3.15.1 Generation of VSB signal

To generate a VSB signal, a DSB-SC signal is generated first and is then passed through a
sideband filter with the frequency response H v (ω) as shown in below figure. This filter will
pass the wanted sideband as it is along with a part of unwanted sideband.

The VSB signal obtained at the output of filter is applied to a chain of linear amplifiers and
raised in power by the power amplifiers. The amplified signal is the applied to the
transmitting antenna for transmission of signal.

In the frequency spectrum shown below, it is assumed that the upper sideband is transmitted
as it is and the lower sideband is modified into vestigial sideband.

The transmission bandwidth of VSB is given by

BW =( f c +f m )−( f c −f v )=f m + f v

Where f m is the bandwidth of the message signal and f v is the bandwidth of the vestigial
sideband.

141
Chapter 3

3.15.2 Modulation of VSB signal

VSB signal can be generated by passing a DSB-SC signal through an appropriate VSB filter
having transfer function H (f ).

the spectral density of the resulting vestigial-sideband signal is;

φ VSB ( t )=[ m ( t ) cos ω c t ]∗hv (t)

⏟
Impulseresponse
of the VSB filter

φ VSB ( ω )=
[ 1
2
1
]
M ( ω−ω c ) + M ( ω+ ωc ) H v (ω) ……………………….(1)
2

141
Chapter 3
3.15.3 Demodulation of VSB signal

** VSB signal can be demodulated by passing a VSB signal φ VSB ( t ) trough a product
modulator along with a carrier signal cos ωc t and then passing through a low pass filter.

** The output of the product modulator is given by

e ( t )=φVSB ( t ) . cos ω c t

Talking Fourier transform

1 1
E ( ω )= φVSB ( ω−ω c ) + φVSB ( ω+ω c ) ……………………….(2)
2 2

Substituting (1) into (2), we obtain

E ( ω )=
[
1 1
2 2
1
M ( ω−ωc −ωc ) + M ( ω−ωc +ω c ) H v ( ω−ωc ) +
2
1 1
2 2] [
1
]
M ( ω+ω c −ω c ) + M ( ω +ω c +ω c ) H v ( ω+ ωc )
2

1 1
¿
4
[ M ( ω−2 ωc ) + M (ω) ] H v ( ω−ω c ) + [ M ( ω )+ M (ω+2 ω c ) ] H v ( ω+ω c )
4

** The LPF rejects the double frequency terms an passes only the components in the frequency
range ω <ω m. Hence the signal spectrum at the output of the ideal low pass filter is:

1 1
E0 ( ω )=
4
[ M ( ω ) ] H v ( ω−ωc ) + [ M ( ω ) ] H v ( ω+ω c )
4

1
¿ M ( ω ) [ H v ( ω−ωc ) + H v ( ω +ω c ) ]
4

** For a distortionless reproduction of the original modulating signal m(t) , E0 ( ω ) must be a scaled
version of M ( ω ) . Hence, for perfect demodulation, the VSB-filter characteristic must satisfy the
condition

H v ( ω−ω c )+ H v ( ω+ω c )=constant ,|ω|< ωm

141
Chapter 3
This is called vestigial symmetry condition.

3.16 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

141
Chapter 3
** Modulation allows multiple signals to be transmitted at the same time in the same geographical
area.

** Consider TV signals, without modulation, multiple video signals will be interfering with each
other (because all video signals, inherently have the bandwidth of approximately 4.5 MHz).

** If carriers are chosen sufficiently for a part in frequency, the TV channels (signals) will not
overlap (no interference will occure).

** This process is called “Frequency Division Multiplexing”.

** FDM is the method of transmitting several signals simultaneously over nonoverlapping

frequency bands.

** To illustrate this principle, a three different signals, where each signal is band limited to ω m
rad/sec, are transmitted each using different carrier frequency such as ω 1, ω 2 and ω 3. These signals
are separated in frequency at least by 2 ωm rad/sec to ensure that they are not overlapping.

** These carrier frequencies are chosen far enough apart such that each signal spectral density is
separate from all the others. This requires that each carrier frequency be separated from an
adjacent carrier frequency by at least 2 ωm .

** The spectral density of every modulated signal has a BW of 2 ωm and each is centered at the
various carrier frequencies ω 1, ω 2 and ω 3.

141
Chapter 3
** First of all, each signal to be transmitted modulates with a different carrier frequency. The
modulation can be AM, FM, pulse modulation or SSB. The modulated signals are then added
together with a linear mixer or adder to form a composite signal which is transmitted over a single
channel. The output of the mixer is then transmitted over the single communication channel.

** At the receiver, the composite signal is received using FDM receiver. It is followed by different
band pass filters. Each band pass filter has a center frequency corresponding to one of the carriers.
Each filter will pass only its channel and rejects all the other channels. After this, the signal passes
through demodulator that removes the carrier signal and separates the original signal.

141
Chapter 3
** Commercial radio and television receivers provide a familiar example of this type of FDM.

** The carrier frequency allocations in commercial AM broadcast transmitter range from 540-
1600 kHz with 10 kHz spacing. A receiver can tune to any of these frequencies and demodulate
the signal by using the envelope or a rectifier detector to produce the desired signal.

** Each receiver performs the operations as follows

1- Antenna
2- LC-Tuning Circuit
3- Detector
4- Speaker

** If the receiver is near or far away from a broadcast

station, amplification and filtering are needed to improve
the sensitivity of the receiver.

** Note:- Sensitivity: The minimum RF signal that can be detected at the input of a receiver and
still produce a usable demodulated information signal.

** Based on the demodulation method of received signal, receivers are categorized into two:

1- Tuned Radio Frequency

141
Chapter 3
a) It is the earliest and simplest receiver design.
b) TRF consists of RF amplifier stages, detector and audio amplifier stages.
c) The received signal is tuned by the LC circuit to a pass band centered at the carrier frequency.
d) Selectivity pass only the desired signal, others are rejected. [Selectivity:- ability of a receiver to
accept a given band of frequency and reject all others. Obtained using tuned circuit].
e) The tuned signal is boosted up by an amplifier for better information detection.
f) Signal information detection is made at the demodulator and further amplified for the speaker
output.

** TRF has high sensitivity- ability to drive the speaker to an acceptable level (to amplify).

** RF stage and characteristics:

a) The RF section is a tunable circuit connected to the antenna.

b) It is where the wanted signal is selected and the unwanted signal is rejected.
c) Some basic receiver does not have an amplifier, but for R x that has one is much more superior
in performance.
d) The main advantage having RF amplifiers are:
i) Greater Gain- better sensitivity
ii) Improved image frequency
iii) Improve SNR
e) Two main characteristics of RF stage are:
i) Sensitivity-ability to amplify weak signals
ii) Selectivity- ability to reject unwanted signals
f) RF section consists of two or three amplifier stages to select the desired frequency and to
amplify the signal, so as to achieve high sensitivity.

141
Chapter 3
2- Superheterodyne Receiver

**

Superheterodyne was designed to overcome the problem in TRF. [Instability due to the large
number of RF amplifier all tuned to the same center frequency ⇒ Gain is not uniform over a wide
range of frequency].
** Complex circuitry compared to TRF but excellent performance under many conditions.
** Heterdyne mean:
1- To mix two frequencies together in a nonlinear device, or
2- To translate one frequency to another using nonlinear device.

** Superhets concepts

1- R x tunes to desired signal and converts the signal to an intermediate frequency via a signal
mixing circuit.
2- Then IF signal is optimized to fully recover the modulated information signal.

** Stages in Superhets

1) Preselector stage:-
a) Provide the initial band limiting to prevent specific unwanted radio frequency called
image frequency from entering into the receiver.
b) Reduce the noise BW of the receiver and provides the initial step toward reducing
the overall receiver BW to the minimum BW required to pass the information
signal.

141
Chapter 3
2) RF stage:- which takes the signal from the antenna and amplifies it to a level large
enough to be used in the following stage
a) Mixer (or frequency translator):- The multiplication of the band-pass signal S BP (t)
and the local oscillator output. Mixer is a nonlinear device to convert radio
frequency to intermediate frequencies (i.e. heterodyninig process).
b) Local oscillator:- The LO frequency tracks with RF tuning such that
f LO =f RF + f IF, f LO >f RF
f LO =f RF −f IF , f LO <f RF , f RF > f IF

3) IF stage:- Further amplifies the signal and has bandwidth and passband shaping
appropriate for the received signal.
a) Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and bandpass filters to achieve most of the
receiver gain and selectivity.
b) The IF is always lower than the RF because it is easier and less expensive to
construct high-gain, stable amplifiers for low frequency signals.
4) Detector stage:- Recovers (demodulates) the information signal from the carrier.
a) To convert the IF signals back to the original source information (demodulation).
b) Can be as simple as a single diode or as complex as a PLL or balanced demodulator.
5) AF stage:- The received signal is amplified for loudspeaker or interconnection to
communication systems.

Path and Frequency Changing

 Converter/ Mixer
1- RF is down converted to IF, but the shape of the envelope remains the same → information is
conserved, bandwidth is unchanged.
[Down conversion:- convert RF to lower IF frequency or to baseband to make signal
processing easier in the RFreceiver].
2- Output of the mixer: infinite number of harmonic and cross product including
f RF , f LO , f RF + f LO , f RF −f LO.
3- Local oscillator is designed, so that its frequency is always above or below the desired RF
carrier by an amount equal to an IF center frequency.

141
Chapter 3
4- f LO is usually higher than f RF .
5- If mixer and LO are in a single stage, it is called “ converter”.
6- In the superheterodyne receiver, every AM radio signal is converted to a common If of
f IF =455 kHz .

IF and IF Amplifiers

 Intermediate Frequency
1- Sum or difference in the output of a mixer that enters the IF stage.
2- A down-converted frequency that carries the information
3- The mixer contents the RF output down to some convenient frequency band called IF.
 IF Amplifiers
1-One or more stage(s).
2-Provide most gain and selectivity.
3-IF is much lower than RF→ easier to design and good sensitivity is easier to obtain with tuned
circuit.

Image Frequency and Rejection

1- It is formed after the mixer circuitry

2- It is an image of the input frequency that enters the mixer.
3- Represented in two form:
a)High side injection (f ¿ ¿ LO=f RF + f IF )¿

f image =f RF +2 f IF

b)Low side injection (f ¿ ¿ LO=f RF −f IF )¿

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f image =f RF−2 f IF

4- The image is an equal distance from the LO frequency on the other side of it from the signal.
5- An image must be rejected prior to mixing, because it’s indistinguishable and impossible to
filter out.

Detector/ Demodulator

1- To recover the original signal

2- E.g. diode detector

Audio Amplifier

To amplify the detected audio signal to be passed to the user

To eliminate the problem of the image frequency

1- Attenuating the image station heavily at the RF amplifier

2- Increasing the IF to a practical limit, such that the image station frequency is outside the
receiving band. That is 2 ω IF ≥ ( ω max−ωmin ) of the frequency band used in this broadcasting.
3- ⁂Examples:- A given radar receiver operating at a frequency of 2.8 GHz using the
super heterodyne principle has a local oscillator frequency of 2.86 GHz. A second radar
receiver operates at the image frequency of the first and interference results.

f RF =f s=2.8 GHz , f LO =2.86 GHz , f LO >f RF

a] Determine the IF frequency of the first radar receiver

f Lo =f RF + f IF

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f IF =f Lo −f RF ⇒ 2.86 GHz −2.8 GHz=60 MHz

b] What is the carrier frequency of the second receiver.

f image =f RF +2 f IF ⇒ 2.8GHz +2∗60 MHz=2.92GHz

c] If you were to redesign the radar receiver, what is the minimum intermediate frequency (IF) you
would choose to prevent image frequency problems in the 2.8-3.00 GHz radar band

.2 f IF ≥ ( f max−f min )

2 f IF ≥ ( 3−2.8 ) GHz

2 f IF ≥ ( 0.2 ) GHz

∴ f IF ≥ 100 MHz

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