NATS1525 Extraterrestrial Life Debate

Assignment No.2
October 24th, 2022

Note: my responses are below, I want to apologize for the

formatting but the document wasn’t really tech friendly. Everything
is spaced but I outlined my responses for TA to view. Thank you.

1 Excerpts from Voltaire’s Micromegas

Note: It is preferred that you respond to the questions by editing this pdf file
and resubmitting it. If that is not possible, then you may copy-paste the
questions (in the order the questions appear) and submit your own file.

In this homework, we will take a closer look at the novel Micromegas (1752) and
see how Voltaire employed his pluralistic contentions to criticize some of the
religious beliefs or the socio-political climate of his time. The novel begins with a
depiction of the early life of Micromegas, an inhabitant of a planet orbiting the star
Sirius, and describes how he embarked on his voyage to our planet.
On one of the planets that orbits the star named Sirius there lived a
spirited young man, who I had the honour of meeting on the last voyage
he made to our little ant hill. He was called Micromegas, a fitting name
for anyone so great .... Mr. Micromegas, inhabitant of the country of
Sirius, is ..... 120,000 feet [tall]..... we citizens of the earth are hardly five
feet tall, and our sphere 9,000 leagues around; [it then follows] that it is
absolutely necessary that the sphere that produced him [Micromegas]
was 21,600,000 times greater in circumference than our little
Earth. .....As for his mind, it is one of the most cultivated that we have. He
knows many things. He invented some of them. He was not even 250
years old when he studied, as is customary, at the most celebrated

1
 colleges of his planet, where he managed to figure out by pure
willpower more than 50 of Euclid’s propositions. ...... Towards his 450th
year, near the end of his infancy, he dissected many small insects no
more than 100 feet in diameter, which would evade ordinary
microscopes. He wrote a very curious book about this, and it gave him
some income. The mufti of his country, an extremely ignorant
worrywart, found some suspicious, rash, disagreeable, and heretical
propositions in the book, smelled heresy, and pursued it vigorously; it
was a matter of finding out whether the substantial form of the fleas of
Sirius were of the same nature as those of the snails. Micromegas gave a
spirited defense; he brought in some women to testify in his favour; the
trial lasted 220 years. Finally the mufti had the book condemned by
jurisconsults who had not read it, and the author was ordered not to
appear in court for 800 years..... He was thereby dealt the minor
affliction of being banished from a court that consisted of nothing but
harassment and pettiness....... he took to voyaging from planet to planet
in order to develop his heart and mind...... Our voyager was very familiar
with the laws of gravity and with all the other attractive and repulsive
forces. He utilized them so well that, whether with the help of a ray of
sunlight or some comet, he jumped from globe to globe.....Micromegas,
after having toured around, arrived at the planet Saturn. As accustomed
as he was to seeing new things, he could not, upon seeing the smallness
of the planet and its inhabitants, stop himself from smiling with the
superiority that occasionally escapes the wisest of us. For in the end
Saturn is hardly nine times bigger than Earth, and the citizens of this
country are dwarfs..... He got to know the Saturnians after their shock
wore off. He built a strong friendship with the secretary of the academy
of Saturn.....

1. Perhaps the most bizarre aspect of the above introduction is the huge sizes of
the extraterrestrial protagonist and his friend. By referring to the huge size of
Sirians and Saturanians Voltaire is mocking one of the individuals we
discussed in this course so far. Refer to your notes and find out who this
individual is.

2
 Response to Question 1:

Voltaire chose the name Micromegas which means small-large to mock the
professor of mathematics and sciences Christian Wolff’s overall idea of attempting
to determine sizes of inhabitants by setting out to measure the height of Jupiterians
using the amount of light they receive on Jupiter (Tajbakhsh, Lecture 6 slide 12)
Wolff ‘s calculations were based on the inverse square light law in which the
understanding was that the amount of light is inversely corresponding to the
square distance of that planet from the sun (Tajbakhsh, Lecture 6 slide 13). For
example, if the distance between a planet and the sun increases by a factor of d,
the light received on that planet decreases by a factor of d squared (Tajbakhsh,
Lecture 6 slide 13). Following this approach, Saturn is 10 times farther from the
sun than the earth, so it receives 1/100 light that the earth receives (Tajbakhsh,
Lecture 6 slide 13). Wolff also believed that the square of the diameter of a pupil
is inversely proportional to light available and so he argued that the size of the
human eye is proportional to the height, thus calculating the height of Jupiterians
to be 13.5 feet (Tajbakhsh, Lecture 6 slide 13).

2. In your opinion, how our modern perception of the size and anatomy of
extraterrestrials differs from that of Micromegas? You might want to do a
quick search on the net before responding to this question (your answer
should be about 200 words here).
Response to Question 2:
The modern perception of extraterrestrial's is heavily reflected of what is seen in
scientific fiction usually depicts somewhat of similarities in humans but are
extremely different. Their structure usually encompasses green skin, bald head,
massive black eyes and a short stature (Brandon). In terms of anatomy, since
modern perception follows science-fiction they probably are seen to have a
complex anatomy that humans don't want to learn about probably with green
liquid surrounding alien organs rather than having water serving as a regulatory
aspect in their bodies. This significantly differs from Voltaire's depiction of

3
 extraterrestrials by describing Micromegas in particular to be a fictional 120,000
feet tall, with a circumference of 21,600,000 times greater than our little earth.
Voltaire does not indicate in the passage above regarding Micromegas anatomy
rather only his structure. Voltaire's extraterrestrial description definitely shares no
similarities with the modern perception humans believe in. This could do with the
difference of time, in terms of perception of extraterrestrial's science fiction, I
would imagine Voltaire's time the idea of a green skinned creature was farfetched
rather he fictionally constructed an extraterrestrial to mock and what he believed
in his thoughts what species outside of earth would look like visually.

Chapter 2 of Micromegas starts with a conversation between the Saturnian

and Micromegas on their senses:
We only have 72 [senses],” said the academic [Saturnian], “and we
always complain about it. Our imagination surpasses our needs. We
find that with our 72 senses, our ring, [and] our five moons, we are
too restricted; and in spite of all our curiosity and the fairly large
number of passions that result from our 72 senses, we have plenty
of time to get bored.” “I believe it,” said Micromegas, “for on our
planet we have almost 1,000 senses; and yet we still have a kind of
vague feeling, a sort of worry, that warns us that there are even
more perfect beings. I have traveled a bit; and I have seen mortals
that surpass us, some far superior. But I have not seen any that
desire only what they truly need, and who need only what they
indulge in. Maybe someday I will happen upon a country that lacks
nothing; but so far no one has given me any word of a place like
that.
3. In the above passage, discuss how Voltaire’s description of extraterrestrials
and their senses differs from that of Huygens (you might want to refer to your
notes).
Response to Questions 3:
Voltaire’s description of extraterrestrial’s can be described as a perfect advanced
superior creation. Voltaire could be alluding to the concept of Copernican

4
principle in this passage as he describes these species with enhanced vast senses,
basically providing this perspective that there is nothing special about earth and its
inhabitants , and that there are far more superior creations than humankind.
Voltaire could also be alluding to the concept of anthropocentrism, in which
describing these enhanced vast senses of these species, were created this way to
serve a purpose that benefits themselves and not humankind. Huygen’s differs in
his description of extraterrestrials in attempt to humanize and sustain an equality
amongst extraterrestial’s and humankind by limiting their number of senses to
what they need to survive. He indicates that there are many similarities that are
shared by living beings on earth (Tajbakhsh, Lecture 5 slide 12). He argues that
extraterrestial need of sight and hearing to find food and be cautious of danger
(Tajbakhsh, Lecture 5 slide 12). Huygen further describes extraterrestial’s with
having a smelling, tasting and touching senses but he does argue that these senses
are suffice for survival (Tajbakhsh, Lecture 5 slide 12) Huygens argues that
extraterrestial’s must not be very different from beings on earth rather the only
difference is the relative location of the planet from parent star (Tajbakhsh,
Lecture 5 slide 12). Lastly, Huygen mentions that these planets must have rational
beings otherwise earth would have advantage of them in being the only universe
that could brag of such creature so far above (Tajbakhsh, Lecture 5 slide 12).

5
4. How does our modern perception of extraterrestrials compare to the
views ofVoltaire? More specifically, do we believe that extraterrestrials
have evolved similar senses to us or do we believe that they might possess
additional senses (again, you might want to do a quick search before
responding to this question. Don’t forget your references)?

Response to Question 4:
To answer this question, it is important to discuss it in an Astrobiology
framework. For a planet to be deemed habitable it must have the existence of
liquid water on the planet surface (Airapetian and Kuang). Now for a species
to exist and not face the threat of inexistence, it needs to have a reliable energy
source to sustain life (Freudenrich). Since it needs to have a reliable energy
source, same as humans it will have predatory roots to avoid being the prey
rather being the predator (Schulze-Mach). With this line of reasoning,
extraterrestial’s will have evolved similar senses of humans such as sight,
sound, touch to obtain information from the environment and respond to
stimuli (Freudenrich). It is important to note that extraterrestial’s
hypothetically have to be involved in a energy hierarchy in other words
possibly a food chain, where the same senses shared with humans are crucial
and required for survival and sustainability. Extinction of species is also
dependent the evolution of natural selection which requires the same survival
senses that humans have this includes organisms with favourable variations
will survive and pass traits to their offspring (Freudenrich).

Now it is speculated that while we use our sense of vision this may not be true
with extraterrestial’s, they would possibly have specific type of brain or
nervous system to process information (Freudenrich). Now, due to science
fiction or Xenofiction we as humans have been heavily influenced to believe
that aliens could serve as more of a superior advanced creation meaning their
biological senses differ from humans such as echolocation, thermographic
vision or sensitivity to electrical impulses or vibration (“Bizarre Alien
Senses”). I think whether humans believe extraterrestials have the same senses
or additional is dependent on individual exposure to Astrobiology and research
of extraterrestial life. Voltaire description of extraterrestial’s matches our
modern perception of extraterrestial’s which is different, superior and
advanced, once again this is probably the most favoured perspective amongst
humans.

6
The second chapter continues with many descriptions of scientific exchanges
between the two extraterrestrials:
Finally, after having told each other a little of what they knew and a lot
of what they did not know, after having reasoned over the course of a
revolution around the sun, they resolved to go on a small
philosophical voyage together......... They stopped at Jupiter and stayed
for a week, during which time they learned some very wonderful
secrets...... Upon leaving Jupiter they traversed a space of around one
hundred million leagues and approached the planet Mars, which, as
we know, is five times smaller than our own; they swung by two
moons that cater to this planet but have escaped the notice of our
astronomers. I know very well that Father Castel will write, perhaps
even agreeably enough, against the existence of these two moons; but
I rely on those who reason by analogy. These good philosophers
know how unlikely it would be for Mars, so far from the sun, to
have gotten by with less than two moons.

5. The above quote is another interesting passage from the book where
Voltaire describes the two moons of Mars. The two moons of Mars were
only discovered in 1877, while Micromeags was published 125 years
earlier. On what grounds does Voltaire predict the existence of the two

7
moons of Mars. What are the two lines of reasoning which he uses in
concluding that Mars must have two moons (hint: you might want to go
back to Kepler and his discussion of the moons of Jupiter)

Response to Question 5:

Voltaire was a deist and very critical of anthropocentrism, so on the basis of

farther planets having moons, he basically had made a lucky guess and argued
that since earth had one moon, Mars required two as it is farther away from the
sun. This line of reasoning is shown in the passage when it mentions that Mars
existence of two moons can be understood through analogy in which during
the time Kepler’s observation of four moons in Jupiter was known (Tajbakhsh,
Lecture 4 slide 27). This could serve as an analogical reason to say that if Mars
just like Jupiter exist within the solar system and is distant from the sun, there
should be no reason not to be able to predict that moons for Mars exist to serve
of some purpose as they do for Jupiter. There is also an anthropocentric
perspective to this question, as in the middle set of lines within the passage,
Voltaire indicates the catering of two moons to the planet, but it escaped
unnoticed. It escaped unnoticed possibly by astronomers, and was written this
way by Voltaire to criticize anthropocentrism and organized religion, that the
prediction and later on proving of those moons catering Mars not serving a
purpose to humankind or during this time not knowing what purpose it serves
to mankind, that it made no sense to astronomers who follow organized
religion to even predict something of that nature.

8
Finally, the two itinerants arrive on planet Earth. Exploring their
surroundings for a while, the Sirian and the Saturnian started debating
whether Earth was inhabited or not:
Finally the Saturnian saw something elusive that moved in the
shallow waters of the Baltic sea; it was a whale. He carefully picked
it up with his little finger and, resting it on the nail of his thumb,
showed it to the Sirian, who began laughing for a second time at the
ludicrously small scale of the things on our planet. The Saturnian,
persuaded that our world was inhabited, figured very quickly that it
was inhabited only by whales; and as he was very good at
reasoning, he was determined to infer the origin and evolution of
such a small atom; whether it had ideas, a will, liberty. Micromegas
was confused. He examined the animal very patiently and found no
reason to believe that a soul was lodged in it. The two voyagers
were therefore inclined to believe that there is no spirit in our
home, when with the help of the microscope they perceived
something as large as a whale floating on the Baltic Sea. We know
that a flock of philosophers [from Earth] was at this time returning
from the Arctic Circle, where they had made some observations,
which no one had dared make up to then.........Micromegas slowly
reached his hand towards the place where the object had appeared,
extended two fingers, and withdrew them for fear of being
mistaken, then opened and closed them, and skillfully seized the
vessel that carried these fellows, putting it on his fingernail without
pressing it too hard for fear of crushing it. “Here is a very different
animal from the first,” said the dwarf from Saturn. The Sirian put
the so-called animal in the palm of his hand. The passengers and the
crew, who believed themselves to have been lifted up by a
hurricane, and who thought they were on some sort of boulder,
scurried around; the sailors took the barrels of wine, threw them
overboard onto Micromegas hand, and followed after. The
geometers took their quadrants, their sextants....... and descended
onto the Sirian’s fingers. They made so much fuss that he finally felt
something move, tickling his fingers. It was a steeltipped ba- ton
being pressed into his index finger. He judged, by this tickling, that
it had been ejected from some small animal that he was holding; but

9
he did not suspect anything else at first. The microscope, which
could barely distinguish a whale from a boat, could not capture
anything as elusive as a man....... What marvellous skill it must have
taken for our philosopher from Sirius to perceive the atoms I have
just spoken of. ...... Micromegas, a much better observer than his
dwarf, clearly saw that the atoms were speaking to each other........
[Micromegas] briskly took out a pair of scissors with which he cut
his fingernails, and from the parings of his thumbnail he improvised
a kind of speaking-trumpet, like a vast funnel, and put the end up to
his ear. The circumference of the funnel enveloped the vessel and
the entire crew. The weakest voice entered into the circular fibers
of the nails in such a way that, thanks to his industriousness, the
philosopher above could hear the drone of our insects below
perfectly. In a small number of hours he was able to distinguish
words, and finally to understand French. The dwarf managed to do
the same, though with more difficulty. The voyagers’ surprise
redoubled each sec- ond. They heard the mites speak fairly
intelligently. This performance of nature’s seemed inexplicable to
them. You may well believe that the Sirian and the dwarf burned
with impatience to converse with the atoms. The dwarf feared that
his thunderous voice, and assuredly Micromegas, would deafen the
mites without being understood. They had to diminish its force.
They placed toothpicks in their mouths, whose tapered ends fell
around the ship. The Sirian put the dwarf on his knees and the ship
with its crew on a fingernail. He lowered his head and spoke softly.

.....If anyone has ever been surprised, it was the people who heard
these words. They could not figure out where they were coming
from. The chaplain of the vessel recited the exorcism prayers, the
sailors swore, and the philosophers of the vessel constructed
systems; but no matter what systems they came up with, they could
not figure out who was talking. The dwarf from Saturn, who had a
softer voice than Micromegas, told them in a few words what
species they were dealing with. He told them about the voyage from
Saturn, brought them up to speed on what Mr. Micromegas was, and
after lamenting how small they were, asked them if they had
always been in this miserable state so near nothingness......”

10
 6. In the sentence, appearing in bold, which one of the following concepts
isMicromegas referring to? Discuss your response in a short paragraph.
a. Anthropocentrism
b. Copernican principle
c. Doctrine of Atonement
d. Principle of Plenitude

Response to Question 6:
Micromegas is referring to the Copernican principle. The reason he is referring to this
principle is to truly portray that observer’s, specifically species that are in the universe
don’t occupy a special place. All species should consider themselves randomly located
among those observers in that capacity. Interestingly, with Micromega’s being the
protagonist of this story, he began to question the small state of dwarfs basically
reflecting that he embarked on the voyage from the planet Sirius which is all he has
known maybe in a sense perceiving everything revolved around him and then now
reflecting upon the small dwarfs comes full circle in terms of realization that no species
occupies a special place in this universe not even himself or dwarfs thus framing a new
perspective being the Copernican principle. Micromega’s moment reflects Copernican
principle as once they may have been a bias to what he will discover in his exploration
which may been long lasting extraterrestials but with him lamenting mourning over it
proves via this principle that he only see’s being that observer’s serve no special place
but he wasn’t prepared to comprehend until the loss.

11
After establishing contact with humans, the extraterrestrials are surprised at
the level of intellect of the tiny inhabitants of Earth. In conversation with
humans, Micromegas and his friend are puzzled upon hearing about war
between the Russians and the Turks which was happening at the time of
Voltaire:

“Oh intelligent atoms, in which the Eternal Being desired to

make manifest his skill and his power, you must, no doubt,
taste pure joys on your planet; for having so little matter, and
appearing to be entirely spirit, you must live out your life
think- ing and loving, the veritable life of the mind. Nowhere
have I seen true bliss, but it is here, without a doubt.” At this all
the philosophers shook their heads, and one of them, more frank
than the others, avowed that if one excepts a small number of
inhabitants held in poor regard, all the rest are an assembly of mad,
vicious, and wretched people. “We have more substance than is
necessary”, he said, “to do evil, if evil comes from substance; and too
much spirit, if evil comes from spirit. Did you know, for example,
that as I am speaking with you, there are 100,000 madmen of our
species wearing hats, killing 100,000 others..... wearing turbans, or
being massacred by them, and that we have used al- most surface of
the Earth for this purpose since time immemorial?” “It is a matter,”
said the philosopher, “of some piles of mud as big as your heel. It is
not that any of these millions of men that slit each other’s throats
care about this pile of mud. It is only a matter of determining if it
should belong to a certain man who we call ’Sultan,’ or to another
who we call, for whatever reason, ’Czar.’ Neither one has ever seen
nor will ever see the little piece of Earth, and almost none of these
animals that mutually kill themselves have ever seen the animal for
which they kill.”

7. In the above quote, what is Micromegas’s initial impression of the

sociopolitical conditions of the planet Earth? How does Micromegas’s
initial impression compare to our modern speculations about
extraterrestrial societies? Do we speculate advanced extraterrestrial
societies to be peaceful Utopias free of war and violence? Discuss your
answer.

12
Response to Question 7:
Micromegas first impression of earth that it is a Utopian society but then he is
amazed about the fact of war and unjustness he is told about. This above
passage displays Voltaire’s deist practices which shows in Micromegas
amazement because deist belief is that God has created all and does not
actively engage in the world except for human reason which allows for species
to find God by doing good. Carrying out good also requires the practice of
morality which isn’t what Micromega’s is being told about on planet earth.
Micromega’s initial impression of amazement compares to our curiosity of
modern speculations within extraterrestial societies because it is an outsider’s
observations to how a unique species not only structures societies but how that
species behaves in the society and how certain elements such as justice,
cooperation, conflict is carried out. In Micromega’s perspective, an inhabitant
from another planet visiting earth, being in contact with a species that he has
never interacted with before and observing war and unjustness, I’d imagine it
would bring amazement to a species that was curious of life beyond their
planet. In terms of humans on earth, science fiction has depicted many visual
speculations of extraterrestial superior advanced technology societies, in which
this understanding that extraterrestial life is far more intelligent than humans
possessing the ability to have sustainable cooperative societies.

In terms of speculating extraterrestial societies to be peaceful Utopians free of

war and violence, it is important to start with the fact that living species require
a source of energy to sustain life (Freudenrich). Intelligent extraterrestial
species would probably have predatory roots because of evolutionary trait of
intelligence is nurtured when having to hunt for food (Schulze-Makuch). This
is being mentioned to elaborate on the fact that predatory species would have
to learn sustainability to not become extinct, and as humans developed
agriculture, extraterrestial’s as a living species would have to rely on
additional food sources which requires more of a cooperative social structure
and communication (Schulze-Makuch). Social structure is also key to
speculating about extraterrestial societies as critical knowledge is gained from
generation to generation and a species social behavior cannot be too
aggressive, now it is unknown what could lead to aggression in

13
 extraterrestial’s possibly the need for competition but it is difficult to clarify as
extraterrestial’s didn’t follow the same development of humans and their social
structure could be different (Schulze-Makuch). Overall, cooperation is
beneficial over competition with extraterrestial’s because without cooperation
complex societies would not be possible (Schulze-Makuch). The biggest threat
to extraterrestial life is not dominancy but from misunderstandings, like
humans they will probably have aggressive traits which could possibly result
in conflict or war but if they reflect upon how they had to fight in order to
arrive at the top of the food chain to be existent (Schulze-Makuch). In my
personal opinion, they seem to be more intelligent and advanced, a chance of
conflict is possible but war is highly unlikely as they probably proceed to deal
with negotiations regards to land or power more with morality and reason to
co-exist not like humans where societies, groups have nurtured for creating
turmoil.

Finally, Micromegas asks the travellers aboard the ship: “ Tell me what your
soul is, and how you form ideas.” Here, each philosopher’s response is to
rep- resent the views of one the famous philosophers who was either a
contemporary of Voltaire or lived before him. The reader is reminded of the
views of Aristotle, Descartes, Leibniz..... Finally, a theologian takes up the
stage:
[a] little animalcule in a square hat who interrupted all the other
animalcule philosophers.... said that he knew the secret: that
everything would be found in the Summa of Saint Thomas. He
looked the two celestial inhabitants up and down. He argued that
their people, their worlds, their suns, their stars, had all been
made uniquely for mankind. At this speech, our two voyagers
nearly fell over with that inextinguishable laughter which,
according to Homer, is shared with the gods. Their shoulders and
their stomachs heaved up and down, and in these convulsions the
vessel that the Sirian had on his nail fell into one of the Saturnian’s
trouser pockets. These two good men searched for it a long time,
found it finally, and tidied it up neatly. The Sirian resumed his
discussion with the little mites. He spoke to them with great
kindness, although in the depths of his heart he was a little

14
 angry that the infinitely small had an almost infinitely great
pride.
8. In the above passage, what concept is the theologian referring to? Is
Voltaire’sposition favourable to that of Micromegas or that of
theologian’s? Based on the lecture for this week, why do you think Voltaire
is criticizing the theologian and his views?
Response to Question 8:
The theologian is referring to the anthropocentrism concept in which all creation
was created for the sake of humankind. Voltaire’s position is favorable to
Micromegas because in the beginning of the passage, Voltaire is criticizing the
theologian for his anthropocentric perspective by putting his own words as a deist
in Micromegas mouth through natural theology, questioning how one forms ideas
and what a soul is. Voltaire also alludes to favouring Micromegas at the end of
passage where Micromegas expresses anger to theologians for pridefully believing
that everything has been created to serve the purpose of humankind, which reflects
Voltaire deists beliefs of rejecting organized religion that emphasizes a human
centered ideology. Voltaire is criticizing theologian views because despite god
being the creator of universe, as a deist, everything created is not meant to serve
humankind as believed in organized religion, as humans are not the most
significant or central creation. Rather Voltaire believes that god does not actively
engage in the world except the creation of reason in which it is humankind’s
responsibility to promote happiness and practice morality (Wikipedia
Contributors). Voltaire is attempting to express this deist perspective to educate
theologians of creation and existence but also alluding to the idea of
acknowledgement in terms of extraterrestial life or species serving another
purpose to something more significant than humankind.

15
 Work Cited

1.

Bizarre Alien Senses.” TV

Tropes, tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/BizarreAlienSenses. Accessed 2
Nov. 2022.

2.

Freudenrich, Craig, PhD. “How Aliens Work.” HowStuffWorks, 17 Sept.

2022, science.howstuffworks.com/space/aliens-ufos/alien-physiology.htm.

3.

Wikipedia contributors. “Moralistic Therapeutic Deism.” Wikipedia, 29 Oct.

2022, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralistic_therapeutic_deism.

4.

Schulze-Makuch, Dirk. “The Science of Aliens, Part I: Would They Be Friendly,

or Threatening?” Smithsonian Magazine, 6 Apr.
2021, www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/science-aliens-part-i-
would-they-be-friendly-or-threatening-180977432.

16
5. Tajbakhsh, Parandis. “History of Extraterrestial Life Debate Lecture 4”. NATS
1525. 3rd October 2022, York University, Toronto. Powerpoint presentation.

6. Tajbakhsh, Parandis. “History of Extraterrestial Life Debate Lecture 5”. NATS

1525. 17th October 2022, York University, Toronto. Powerpoint presentation.

7. Tajbakhsh, Parandis. “History of Extraterrestial Life Debate Lecture 6”. NATS

1525. 24th October 2022, York University, Toronto. Powerpoint presentation.

8.

9.

Brandon, John. “What Do Aliens Look Like?” Popular Mechanics, 16 Sept.

2022, www.popularmechanics.com/space/deep-space/g1592/we-asked-7-experts-
what-would-aliens-actually-look-like.

10.
11.

Airapetian, Vladimir, and Weijia Kuang. “What Makes a Planet

Habitable?” https://seec.gsfc.nasa.gov/what_makes_a_planet_habitable.html#:~:
text=The%20standard%20definition%20for%20a,Be%20on%20the%20planet
%27s%20surface., www.scribbr.com/citation/generator/folders/
3OvP33csD0VzyHoGL53Joo/lists/4tg5MU5YAGtUrxbciapEH6/cite/webpage.

17