LINEAR MOTION

Linear motion refers to motion in one dimension. In other words, attention is only given to
vertical, horizontal and any other forms of straight-line motion, such as motion on an inclined
surface.

Variables (or Quantities) of Linear Motion

Distance: is a change in position relative to a reference (or zero) point. It is a scalar2

quantity, measured in metres (m) and as such, it can only be positive.

Displacement: is a change in position relative to a reference (or zero) point in a particular

direction. It is a vector quantity and also measured in metre (m). It is distance in a particular
direction or the straight-line distance between two points in a given direction. It is commonly
represented b y S.

Average Speed: is the rate of change of distance. It is a scalar quantity, measured in metre
per second (m/s or ms-1). Since speed is likely to change over the course of motion, it is often
useful to give the average speed, which can be obtained using:

…………………………. 1

When we refer to the speed at a given point in time, we are talking about what is ‘technically’
called instantaneous speed (or simply speed). This is the speed recorded by a car’s
speedometer. It is mathematically given as:

……………………………………………………………………………………… 2

Average Velocity: is the rate of change of displacement and is also measured in metre per
second (m/s or ms-1). Unlike speed, it is a vector quantity, which is expressed as:

…………………… 3

Velocity at a specified position or a particular point in time is called instantaneous velocity

(or simply velocity). This is obtained by reducing the change in time, in principle, to zero and
is expressed mathematically as:

……………………………………………………… 4

Where

Alternatively, we can define velocity as the rate of change of distance in a particular direction
or simply speed in a particular direction. Note the phrase ‘in a particular’ which shows the
distinction between them on the basis of being either a ‘scalar’ or a ‘vector’. In the same vein,
we can say that speed is a velocity without any direction associated to it (either in words or
writing). It is therefore not surprising that they are misunderstood as synonyms and
sometimes used interchangeably especially in conversation.

Average Acceleration: is the rate of change of velocity and is measured in metre per second
squared (m/s2 or ms-2). It is also a vector quantity and can be evaluated using:

= ………………… 5

Acceleration occurs due to a change in the: (i) magnitude of the velocity only, (ii) direction of
the velocity only, or (iii) magnitude and direction of the velocity.

In other words, the speed can remain constant while a body accelerates (possibly due to a
change in direction). A typical example is a body moving in a circular path at a constant
velocity. Since the direction of the motion keeps changing at every particular point, the body
is said to accelerate although there is no change in the value of the velocity

Instantaneous acceleration (or simply acceleration) is the acceleration at a specified position

or a particular point in time. It is obtained by reducing the change in time, in principle, to
zero as:

…………………………………………………………………………………... 6

Equations of Linear Motion

There are main equations of linear motion that can be used to evaluate any of the variables in
linear motion. If we let;

From equation

= we have;

………………………………………………………… 7

Making the subject gives;

 ……………………………………………………………… 8

Equation 8 is the first equation of linear motion

For a uniformly accelerated object, the displacement is given by;

( ) …………………………………………………… 9

In terms of acceleration time can be given by

Substituting in 9 we get

( )( )

( )( )

Rearranging we have

………………………………………………………… 10

Equation 10 is the second equation of linear motion

From the equation;

( ) we replace we have;

( )

( )

………………………………………………………………………………….. 12

Table 1: Summary of Equations of Linear Motion

Table 2: Summary of Variables of Linear Motion

Graphs of Linear Motion

Graphs are used for various purposes in science and engineering, and for onedimensional
motion there is no exception. In particular, complex motion problems, which could prove
difficult with the equations of motion, can easily be solved graphically. For this we will be
using a two-axis graph where only two variables are involved. In each of the graph, time is by
default the horizontal axis

In practice we have three different graphs, i.e. (i) distance-time or displacement-time graph,
(ii) speed-time graph or velocity-time graph, and (iii) acceleration-time graph.

Distance-Time or Displacement-Time Graph

The slope of the graph gives the velocity or speed at a given time

Case 1: A body at rest

The graph is a straight line parallel to tine axis as displacement remains constant with time

Case 2: Uniform velocity

Straight line

Case 3: Uniform acceleration

Graph is a curve of increasing gradient while uniform deceleration is a curve of decreasing
gradient

Straight lines' on a distance-time graph tell us that the object is travelling at a constant
speed. Note that you can think of a stationary object (not moving) as travelling at a constant
speed of 0 m/s. On a distance-time graph, there are no line sloping downwards. A moving
object is always 'increasing' its total length moved with time.
When describing the motion of an object try to be as detailed as possible.
For instance;

During 'Part A' of the journey the object travels +8m in 4s. It is travelling at a constant
velocity of +2ms-1
During 'Part B' of the journey the object travels 0m in 3s. It is stationary for 3 seconds
During 'Part C' of the journey the object travels -8m in 3s. It is travelling at a 'constant
velocity' of '-2.7ms-1' back to its starting point, our reference point 0.

VELOCITY TIME GRAPH

The slope of the graph is given by:

Step 1: Split the graph up into distinct sections, these can be seen in the image
as A,B,C and D.

Step 2: In detail describe each part of the journey, ensuring to use numerical values
throughout.

Section A – The car accelerated from 00 to15 m/s over the first10 seconds (because the line
is straight, the acceleration is constant).

Section B – The line is flat, meaning the car’s speed did not change for10 seconds – meaning
it was moving at a constant speed.

Section C – The car accelerated up to 25 m/s over the next 10 seconds,

Section D – Finally it spent the last 20 seconds decelerating back down

to 0 m/s.(acceleration is negative)

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

They relate force and motion. A force in simple layman’s language can be described as a
push or a pull on an object.

We can define force as an action exerted upon a body, in order to change its state, either of rest, or
of uniform motion in a straight line. Suppose the body was in motion then the force causes the body
to move. The body must undergo acceleration a from rest to a new velocity in the direction of the
force. If let | ̅| be the magnitude of the acceleration and | ̅ | the magnitude of the force acting on
the object is the product of the mass m with the magnitude of the acceleration.
| ̅| | ̅| ………………………………………………………………. 1

In order to justify the statement that force is a vector quantity, we need to apply two forces F 1 and
F2 simultaneously to our body and show that the resultant force FT is the vector sum of the two
forces when they are applied one at a time.

The two forces cause acceleration a1 and a2 which add up just like the forces.

Now …………………………………………………………….. 2

…………………………………………………………….. 3

…………………………………………………………….. 4

Comparing equations 2,3 and 4 we conclude that:

………………………………………………………… 5

………………………………………………………… 6

VECTOR DECOMPOSITION SOLUTION AND RESOLUTION OF FORCES

Consider Two horizontal ropes are attached to a post that is stuck in the ground. The ropes pull the
post producing the vector forces:

and as shown in Figure below. We want to Find

the direction and magnitude of the horizontal component of a third force which is the resultant of
the two forces.
The horizontal components of the two forces are:

The position vector F1 is F(70,20) while F2 is F(-30,40). The Horizontal component is

therefore is:

( ) ( )

We find the magnitude and the Direction of the resultant force as follows:

| | ( ) ( )

| |

we find the angle of the direction of action of the force from the horizontal axis:

construct a right angled triangle from the origin

60 N

40 N
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW

Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to
change that state by forces impressed upon it.

The first law is an experimental statement about the motions of bodies. When a body moves with
constant velocity, there are either no forces present or there are forces acting in opposite directions
that cancel out.

If the body changes its velocity, then there must be an acceleration, and hence a total non-zero force
must be present. We note that velocity can change in two ways. The first way is to change the
magnitude of the velocity; the second way is to change its direction.

MOMENTUM, NEWTON’S SECOND LAW AND THIRD LAW

The quantity of motion is the measure of a quantity arising from the velocity and quantity of matter
conjointly. This quantity of motion is momentum (P) and it is a vector quantity.

⃗ …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1

where m is the inertial mass and v is the velocity of the body (velocity is a vector quantity). Newton’s
Second Law is the most important experimental statement about motion in physics

Suppose that a force is applied to a body for a time interval Δt. The acting force or impulse (a vector
quantity, I) produces a change in the momentum of the body,

………………………………………………………… 2

From the commentary to the second law, Newton also considered forces that were applied
continually to a body instead of impulsively.

The instantaneous action of the total force acting on a body at a time t is defined by taking the
mathematical limit as the time interval Δt becomes smaller and smaller,

…………………………………………………………… 3

When the mass remains constant in time, the Second Law can be recast in its more familiar form,

⃗
……………………………………………………………… 4

Because the derivative of velocity is the acceleration, the force is the product of mass and
acceleration;
 ……………………………………………………………………… 5

To prove this consider:

A body that is at rest and is acted upon by a force F for a time t changing its velocity from
initial velocity u to final velocity v.

The change in momentum is:

The rate of change of momentum with time is;

………………………………………………………………. 6

( )……………………………………………………………. 7

( )

( )

2nd Law: The change of motion is proportional to the motive force impressed, and is made in the
direction of the right line in which that force is impressed.

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW: ACTION-REACTION PAIRS

Newton realized that when two bodies interact via a force, then the force on one body is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the force acting on the other body.

Law III:

To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or, the mutual action of two bodies upon
each other are always equal, and opposite in direction

Example 1

A bus of mass 6400 Kg is accelerated from 4 m/s to 10 m/s by a constant force in a time 12 seconds.
Find

a) Acceleration
b) Driving force of the bus
c) Distance covered by the bus with this time
APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Motion Under Force of Gravity

Motion under gravity is influenced by gravitational force of attraction which is down wards
in direction. From the Newtons 2nd law;

Experimentally, the gravitational force on the surface of the earth is;

Consequently, for a mass of 1 kg;

NB: An object falling freely by gravitational force accelerates at 10m/s2 neglecting air
resistance.

Thus motion can be classified into 3: Free fall, vertical projection and projection at an angle
less than 900 from the horizontal (Projectile motion).

Free Fall Motion

Let h be the height from which the body falls, g be acceleration due to gravity, then from
linear motion. Initial velocity u is always zero, final velocity is v. from equations of linear
motion;

we have;

But thus the equation becomes;

where t is the time taken for object to fall to ground from height h

similarly, from the equation;

From the third equation;

Vertical Projection

When an object is projected vertically upwards (right angle to the horizontal), it decekeratres
under the influence of gravity at -. The object thus starts at a velocity such that;

It decelerates to zero at maximum height thus;

The object then turns back from velocity zero and exhibits free fall motion. The total time
taken by the object to land to the ground is called time of flight.

NB: vertical projection is exactly opposite free fall motion.

Example

A stone was thrown vertically upwards. If the stone reached a maximum height of 80 m.
Find, the velocity with which the stone was thrown, the time of flight, the velocity of the
stone as it reaches a height of 30 m going down.

Projectile Motion

Consider a body through upwards at an angle to the horizontal with velocity u. The motion
of the body has both vertical and horizontal components as shown in the figure below:

The velocity also has both horizontal and vertical components. We resolve the velocity
vectors to obtain the vertical and horizontal components.
 initial velocity of launch

initial velocity along horizontal

initial velocity in vertical direction

Considering the vertical motion, we can calculate the maximum height of the projectile;’

But

( )

To find the time we calculate the time for the stone to reach maximum height;

NB: the Range is the total horizontal distance travelled by the stone before it lands at the
same height as thrown (R). we

We find the total time of flight