Water Properties

• The conductivity of water is dependent on its concentration of dissolved salts and other
chemical species which tend to ionize in the solution. The purer the water is, the lower the
conductivity will be (the higher the resistivity will be). The conductivity is also dependant
on the temperature
These are the typical values of water conductivity:
• Ultra pure water: 5.5 × 10−6 S/m
• Distilled water: 0.001 S/m
• Drinking water: 0.005 − 0.05 S/m
• Sea water: 4 − 5.3 S/m
• Great Salt Lake, USA: 15.8 S/m
However, if the conductivity increases, the channel attenuation increases too. Conductivities
greater than (a)=0.1S/m do not allow a good communication in devices with more than
50cm of separation.
The best media for electromagnetic waves propagation are insulators where the conductivity
(σ) is zero in S/m, so they are called lossless media. If the conductivity of a medium
increases, the attenuation of radio waves is also increases.

• Permittivity of a material is a characteristic which describes how it affects any electric field
set up in it. When the material is lossy (dissipates energy), the relative permittivity is a
complex quantity given by Equation
ε = ε'r − jε'' r
ε = εr ε0 − jσ/ѡ
Water is a polar molecule, which means it has an uneven distribution of electrical charge,
with a partial positive and a partial negative end. When exposed to an alternating electric
field, water molecules tend to rotate, trying to align themselves with the field. This rotation
contributes to energy storage within the material, represented by the real part ε'r.
The imaginary part ε'' of water's permittivity is associated with the dissipation of energy
during the rotation of water molecules. As they rotate, they collide with each other and other
particles in the medium, leading to energy losses. Additionally, ε'' is related to the loss due to
free charge conduction, which can occur in the presence of ions or free charges in the water.
• Since the water is a non-magnetic medium, the value of its relative permeability is μr = 1,
so, the permeability μ of the water is the same as that of free space μ0.
 Water is considered a non-magnetic medium, which means that its magnetic properties are
close to those of free space or a vacuum. In a non-magnetic medium like water, the relative
permeability (μr) is indeed very close to 1, which essentially indicates that the material does
not have a significant effect on the magnetic field passing through it. As a result, the
permeability (μ) of water is nearly the same as that of free space (μ0).
This is because water is composed of electrically neutral molecules and does not exhibit the
same magnetic properties as materials with magnetic domains (like iron) that can be
influenced by an external magnetic field. In other words, water doesn't become magnetized
or show a significant response to magnetic fields in the same way that magnetic materials
do.
The permeability of water being approximately equal to the permeability of free space (μ0)
simplifies the mathematical modeling of electromagnetic waves and their behavior in
aquatic environments. It allows electromagnetic waves, including radio waves and
microwaves, to propagate through water without significant distortion due to magnetic
effects.
• The complex propagation constant describes the behaviour of an EM wave is defined in
Equation (3) with α attenuation constant and β phase constant:
γ = α+ jβ
The main factor that effects EM propagation underwater is the attenuation. Attenuation
refers to the decrease in the magnitude of a signal as it propagates through a medium (e.g.
air, rock, water). Attenuation may be due to the spreading of energy as it propagates away
from its source as well as due to the medium itself absorbing the energy of the signal.
Attenuation of a plane wave in a lossy medium can be calculated from the homogeneous
Helmholtz equation

Media where σ<<ωε’ are considered dielectric media or insulators and media where σ>>ωε’
are considered conductors. It has been proven that fresh water becomes a conductor for
frequencies below some tens of MHz. It has been also proven that attenuation increases with
the frequency and conductivity. So, it is necessary to use frequencies below 1 GHz to get a
reasonable communication range in fresh water environment.
• The behavior of conductivity in materials, including seawater and freshwater, can be
understood through the principles of electrical conduction and the complex interactions of
molecules and ions within the material.
3. Ionic and Polar Behavior:
• Conductivity in liquids, such as seawater or freshwater, is primarily due to the
presence of ions and polar molecules. These materials contain charged particles,
either positive (cations) or negative (anions), and they can move in response to an
electric field.
4. Ion Mobility:
• At low frequencies, there is sufficient time for ions and polar molecules to respond to
the changing electric field. They migrate and align themselves with the field, creating
electric currents. This behavior results in an increase in conductivity because the
charged particles can contribute to electrical conduction.
5. Frequency-Dependent Polarization:
• At low frequencies, the polarization of the material due to the presence of ions and
dipoles (polar molecules) is more pronounced. This polarization occurs as charges
within the material are shifted and oriented in response to the electric field. This
polarization effect enhances conductivity.
6. Lack of Inertia:
• At low frequencies, the ions and dipoles do not encounter the limitations of inertia
that might restrict their movement at higher frequencies. This allows them to respond
more readily to the electric field.
7. Energy Dissipation:
• At low frequencies, the interaction of ions and dipoles with the electric field results
in energy dissipation in the form of heat. This dissipation contributes to the
conductivity and is responsible for the attenuation of electromagnetic waves.
8. Complex Permittivity:
• The complex permittivity (ε) of a material includes a real part (ε') and an imaginary
part (ε''). The real part represents the ability of the material to store electrical energy
(capacitive behavior), and the imaginary part represents the dissipation of energy
(dielectric loss) due to conductive losses.
In summary, at low frequencies, the ability of ions and polar molecules to move and respond
to the electric field allows for enhanced electrical conduction and polarization effects. This
leads to an increase in conductivity in materials like seawater and freshwater. The
relationship between frequency and conductivity is a fundamental aspect of
electromagnetics and the behavior of materials in electrical and electromagnetic fields.
• Intrinsic impedance, often denoted as "Z" (pronounced as "Zeta"), plays a crucial role in the
behavior of electromagnetic (EM) waves when interacting with antennas. The intrinsic
impedance of a material determines how EM waves are transmitted, reflected, or absorbed
by the antenna.
Intrinsic impedance, often denoted by "Z" (pronounced as "Zeta"), is indeed a fundamental
property of a medium that characterizes the relationship between the electric field strength
(E) and the magnetic field strength (H) in an electromagnetic wave. This property is also
known as the wave impedance of the medium through which the electromagnetic wave
propagates. It is a key parameter that describes how electromagnetic waves interact with and
propagate through different materials and environments.
The intrinsic impedance of a medium is defined as:
Z=E/H
Where:
Z is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.
E is the electric field strength.
H is the magnetic field strength.

This ratio helps determine how the electromagnetic wave behaves as it travels through the
medium, including factors like reflection, transmission, and absorption. Matching the
intrinsic impedance of an antenna to that of the surrounding medium is crucial for efficient
energy transfer and minimizing reflections, as mentioned earlier. Thank you for the clear and
accurate description of this important concept.
Impedance Matching:
Intrinsic impedance affects the impedance matching between the antenna and the
surrounding medium. For efficient power transfer from the antenna to the
surrounding space, the intrinsic impedance of the antenna must match the intrinsic
impedance of the medium. Mismatched impedance can result in signal reflections,
reducing the antenna's effectiveness.
Reflection Coefficient:
The intrinsic impedance of the antenna and the surrounding medium influences the
reflection coefficient. When the impedance is mismatched, a portion of the incident
EM wave energy is reflected back from the antenna. A well-matched impedance
minimizes reflections.
Transmission and Absorption:
The intrinsic impedance affects the ability of the antenna to transmit EM waves into
space. If the impedance is well-matched, more energy is transmitted effectively.
When impedance is mismatched, energy can be absorbed or reflected instead of
being transmitted.
Antenna Efficiency:
Intrinsic impedance impacts the efficiency of the antenna. A well-matched
impedance allows the antenna to maximize power transfer to the surrounding
medium, resulting in higher efficiency.
Radiation Pattern:
Intrinsic impedance can influence the radiation pattern of the antenna. The pattern
describes how the antenna radiates EM waves in different directions. Matching
impedance correctly can help shape the desired radiation pattern for specific
applications.
Broadband vs. Narrowband Operation:
Intrinsic impedance can affect whether an antenna operates in a broadband (wide
range of frequencies) or narrowband (limited range of frequencies) mode. The
 impedance matching and characteristics can be designed to suit the frequency range
of interest.
Material Selection:
The intrinsic impedance of the materials used in the antenna design is a critical
factor. By choosing materials with the right intrinsic impedance, you can optimize
the antenna's performance for specific applications.
Antenna Types:
Different antenna types, such as dipoles, patch antennas, or bowtie antennas, have
varying intrinsic impedance characteristics. Selecting the appropriate antenna type
and designing its impedance to match the application is crucial.
Intrinsic impedance has a significant impact on the performance and behavior of antennas.
Proper impedance matching ensures efficient power transfer and minimizes reflections,
leading to better antenna performance and radiation characteristics. Engineers and antenna
designers carefully consider intrinsic impedance to optimize antenna designs for specific
applications and frequency ranges.