Fluid Mechanics 1-Meng 215 Lecture 2 With Tutorials

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215
LECTURE 2
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
 Pressure is the force applied perpendicularly to the surface of an object per

unit area over which that force is distributed.
 When such a force is brought to bear on a solid matter by another solid,

it is often referred to as stress. Stress normally results in deformation
which can be compressive or tensile.
 On the other hand when such a force/ thrust is brought to bear on a

material by a fluid, it is referred to as pressure. Pressure in fluids can be
distinguished from stress by its characteristics.

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Since pressure is thrust/ force acting normally to the surface of a material

per unit area; its unit can be derived from the definition as follows.
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑵
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = 𝟐 = 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 = 𝑷𝒂
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝒎
Greater values include,
Unit Multiples
1000 𝑵𝒎−𝟐 = 1000𝑷𝒂 1𝒌𝑵𝒎−𝟐 = 1𝒌𝑷𝒂
1000000𝑵𝒎−𝟐 = 1𝑴𝑵𝒎−𝟐 = 1𝑴𝑷𝒂
1000000𝑷𝒂

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Other commonly used units of pressure in fluids include the following:
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉; 𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑷𝒔𝒊
𝑴𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚; 𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈
𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝑜𝑟 𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒔; 𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠, 𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝑜𝑟 𝒃𝒂𝒓

1𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1𝑏𝑎𝑟 ≈ 105 𝑁𝑚−2 = 105 𝑃𝑎
𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒓 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖 ; 𝟏𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒓 ≈ 𝟏𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟐 𝑷𝒂

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Characteristics of pressure in fluids.
In order to properly understand the behaviour of pressure in fluids, we need to
note the following characteristics of pressure in fluids.
 The pressure at any point in a fluid acts equally in every/all directions

(Pascal’s law of fluid transmission).
To establish this feature of pressure in fluids, let us
consider a small element of fluid in the form of a
triangular prism surrounding the point and in
equilibrium as shown in Fig. 2. Let 𝒑𝒙 , 𝒑𝒚 , and 𝒑𝒔 be
pressures acting in the 𝒙, 𝒚, and the inclined directions
Fig. 1 on the planes opposite them respectively.
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS 𝒚
Fig. 2
If the fluid element is at rest, then:
 𝒑𝒙 will act normally to the plane ABFE
 𝒑𝒚 will act normally to the plane CDEF
 𝒑𝒔 will act normally to the plane ABCD
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Force due to 𝑝𝑥 on area ABFE is given by;
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑝𝑥 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝐵𝐹𝐸 = 𝑝𝑥 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
Component of force due to 𝑝𝑠 in the x-direction is given by;

𝛿𝑦
𝐹𝑠𝑥 = 𝑝𝑠 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑠 = 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑦
𝛿𝑠
For equilibrium in the x-direction, we have;
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑠𝑥 𝑝𝑥 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 = 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑦
𝒑𝒔 = 𝒑𝒙 … … … . (𝒂)
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Similarly force due to 𝑝𝑦 on area CDEF is given by;
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹 = 𝑝𝑦 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧
Component of force due to 𝑝𝑠 in the y-direction is given by;

𝛿𝑥
𝐹𝑠𝑦 = 𝑝𝑠 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑠 = 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑠
For equilibrium in the y-direction, we have;
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑦 𝑝𝑦 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 = 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑥
𝒑𝒔 = 𝒑𝒚 … … … … (𝒃)

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
From equations (𝒂) and (𝒃), we have;
𝒑𝒔 = 𝒑𝒙 = 𝒑𝒚 … … … … (𝟏)
It must be noted that 𝒑𝒔 is the pressure on a plane inclined at an angle 𝜃;
The 𝒙, 𝒚 and 𝒛 planes axes have not be chosen with any particular
orientation. The element is so small that it can be considered to be a point.
This proof can be extended to the 𝒛 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔.
 It is on the basis of this characteristic of pressure in fluids that Pascal

postulated his law on pressure transmission in fluids which states that;
The pressure at any point in an incompressible and confined fluid can be

transmitted equally in all directions undiminished.
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Fig. 3
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Practical applications of Pascal’s law of pressure transmission include;
The principle of operation of a hydraulic automobile braking systems.
The principle of operation of hydraulic jacks
The principle of operation of hydraulic presses, lifts etc.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QUR4rRBHbYQ

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
The pressure in a fluid under gravity varies vertically with depth.
Considering a cylindrical element of fluid of mass density 𝝆 in the vertical plane
of constant section 𝑨 depth ℎ below datum as in Fig. 4; we can determine the
pressure at any depth below datum. If 𝑝1 is the pressure at level 𝑧1 , and 𝑝2 the
pressure at level 𝑧2 ; it can be established that:
Datum 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝜌𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑝1 𝐴 𝑧1 Forces acting fluid element are;
𝑧2 Force due to 𝑝1 on area A acting down = 𝑝1 𝐴

Force due to 𝑝2 on area A acting upwards = 𝑝2 𝐴
Force due to weight of the element = 𝑚𝑔 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑔 = 𝜌𝐴 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝑔
𝑝2 𝐴
Fig. 4 FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Neglecting shear forces on the sides for a static mass of fluid; and considering
the vertical equilibrium of the cylindrical fluid element, we have;
𝑝2 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝑝1 𝐴
𝑝2 𝐴 − 𝑝1 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝐴 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝑔
𝒑𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏 = 𝝆𝒈 𝒛𝟐 − 𝒛𝟏 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉 = 𝝎𝒉 … … … . (𝟐)
For small changes in in pressure with elevation, it can be established that;
𝒅𝒑
= −𝝆𝒈 = 𝝎 … … … … … . (𝟑)
𝒅𝒛
When the sea level is considered as the datum.
Thus for any mass of fluid under gravity, pressure increases with depth (that is
, pressure decreases with height.)
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
The mixture of gases that envelopes the earth referred as the

atmosphere/air is one of the most important fluids on earth. Water being on
almost the same scale of significance to life as air.
The atmosphere is held in place by the force of gravity which makes for the
changes in part of the pressure of the atmosphere as we move towards or
away from the earth’s surface often referenced as sea level.
The standard atmosphere comprises various layers; stratosphere

,troposphere, mesosphere thermosphere exosphere and ionosphere. Since
air is a compressible fluid assumed as a perfect gas, it pressure can be
determined at different elevations from sea level using the perfect gas
equation .
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
For a perfect gas of mass 𝑚, volume 𝑉, pressure 𝑝 and temperature 𝑇;
𝑚
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑝 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉
𝑝
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇 =𝜌
𝑅𝑇
From the pressure variation with elevation in a fluid we can derive a differential
equation for pressure variation with elevation in the atmosphere.
𝑑𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔
𝑑𝑧
𝒅𝒑 𝒈
=− 𝒅𝒛 … … … . . (𝟒)
𝒑 𝑹𝑻
In the limits at elevation 𝑧1 pressure is 𝑝1 and at elevation 𝑧2 pressure is 𝑝2 solve
the differential equation (4) considering the sea level as datum -classwork.
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Under adiabatic conditions in the atmosphere, show that the change in pressure
from 𝑝1 at elevation 𝑧1 to pressure 𝑝2 at elevation 𝑧2 is given by;
𝛾
𝑝2 𝛾 − 1 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝛾−1
= 1−
𝑝1 𝛾 𝑅𝑇1
Consider sea level as datum.
Assignment 1. Due on Monday 30 th January 2023 @ 1:00 pm

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Pressure at the same level in a static mass of fluid is the same/constant.
If any number of points say P,Q,R, S etc. are at the same level with respect to
a horizontal datum in a static mass of fluid; it has been. established that
𝑝𝑃 ,𝑝𝑄 ,𝑝𝑅 , and 𝑝𝑆 are all equal as in Fig 5.
𝑝𝑃 = 𝑝𝑄 = 𝑝𝑅 = 𝑝𝑆
This is known as the hydrostatic paradox (note the shapes of the containers)
Fig 5
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Pressure measurement
Pressure is a basic variable in the design, construction and monitoring of

industrial processes and even has a bearing on our wellbeing. Pressure
measurement is the primary variable for a wide range of process
measurements, for example: Flow rate (measuring pressure loss through a
restriction), our blood pressures etc.
In industry, pressure can be used in various sectors for safety and
containment.
“In any given plant, the number of pressure gauges used is probably larger
than all other instruments put together”
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Let us consider the basic classifications of pressure measurements.
Absolute pressure: This is pressure measured relative to that in a perfect

vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Atmospheric pressure: This pressure is also referred to as barometric

pressure. It is the pressure exerted on the earth by the envelope of air
that enclose the earth. It has been measured to be ; 1.0132x105 Pa,
760mmHg, 10mH2O.
Gauge pressure: This is pressure measured relative to the local

atmospheric pressure often referred to as zero gauge pressure. Practically
all pressure gauges register zero when open to the atmosphere.

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
When gauge pressure is positive, it implies that its absolute value exceeds that
of the local atmospheric pressure; and when negative, its absolute value is
below that of the local atmospheric pressure.
The relationship between absolute pressure (pabs),atmospheric pressure (patm),

and gauge pressure (pgauge), is given by;
Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure – Atmospheric pressure

pgauge = pabs– patm
OR
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
pabs = patm+ pgauge

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Fig 6
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Other types of pressure include the following
 Differential pressure: This is pressure difference between any two points in

a fluid.
 Static pressure; This is a type of pressure that occurs independent of fluid

velocity. It arises from the direct physical contact that a fluid makes with its
containing vessel.
 Dynamic pressure; This is a type of pressure (sometimes called velocity

pressure) that is associated with fluid flow .This effect causes the lowering
of fluid pressure (static pressure) in regions where the flow velocity is
increased.
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
 Stagnation pressure; This is the static pressure at a point of zero
velocity/stagnation point in a fluid flow. In an incompressible flow,
stagnation pressure is equal to the sum of the free-stream Static
pressure and the free-stream dynamic pressure. It is also sometimes called
pitot pressure.

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Pressure measurement
Pressure in fluids can be measured with the aid of the following devices/
instruments;
1. The Barometer (simple or Torricelli, Aneroid, Siphon)
2. Piezometer or Pressure Tube (vertical and U-shaped)
3. Manometers (U-tube,with uniform tubes and with enlarged ends)
4. The Bourdon Gauge
5. The Diaphragm Pressure Gauge
1. Electric pressure transducers

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Fig 8 A piezometer
Fig 7 Simple/Torircelli barometer

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Fig 9. U-tube manometer Fig 10 Bourdon gauge

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Fig 11 A diaphragm pressure gauge

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Fig 12 An electric pressure transducer

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
END OF LECTURE 2
QUESTIONS

PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
LECTURE 2 -TUTORIALS

Example 1: Calculate pressure, temperature and density of the atmosphere at an altitude of
1200m, if at zero altitude the temperature is 15oC and the pressure 101 kNm-2. assume
conditions are adiabatic (𝜸 = 𝟏. 𝟒) and R=287 kg-1K-1 . Take g=9.81 ms-2.. Establish the
relations used from first principle.
Data
Using sea level as datum
𝑧1 = 0 and 𝑧2 = 1200𝑚
𝑝1 = 101 × 103 𝑁𝑚−2 , 𝑝2= ?
𝑇1 = 15𝑜 𝐶 = 15 + 273 = 288𝐾, 𝑇2 =?
𝑝
𝜌1 = 1 =?, 𝜌2 =?
𝑅𝑇1
Under adiabatic conditions
𝛾 = 1.4, 𝑅 = 287 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 , 𝑔 = 9.81𝑚𝑠 −2
Required.
𝑝2= ?, 𝑇2 =? , 𝜌2 =? ,and establish laws used from first principle.

(a) Using the relation between
pressure and elevation;
𝛾
𝑝2= ? 𝑇2 =? 𝜌2 =? 𝑧2 = 1200𝑚 𝑝
2 𝛾 − 1 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝛾−1
= 1−
Atmosphere
Adiabatic condition, 𝛾 = 1.4
We can determine 𝑝2 .
To establish the relation from first

principle, note the following:
𝑝1 = 101 × 103 𝑁𝑚−2 𝑇1 = 15𝑜 𝐶 𝜌1 𝑧1 = 0  Use the perfect gas equation

𝑝 𝑝1
Fig. E1 = 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇1
𝜌 𝜌1
1
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝1 𝑝 𝛾
 For an adiabatic in a perfect gas; = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝛾, hence 𝜌 = 𝜌1
𝜌𝛾 𝜌𝛾 𝜌1 𝑝1
𝑑𝑝
 Use = −𝜌𝑔 and substitute for 𝜌 from the last bullet.
𝑑𝑧
 Rearrange the resulting equation to get the ordinary differential equation.

1 1
−𝛾 −𝛾
𝑝 𝑑𝑝 = − 𝑔𝜌1 𝑝1 𝑑𝑧
 Solve the above ordinary differential equation in the limits; when 𝑧 = 𝑧1 , 𝑝 = 𝑝1 and
when 𝑧 = 𝑧2 , 𝑝 = 𝑝2 . Note; 𝑔, 𝜌1 and 𝑝1 are constants.
Now using
𝛾
𝑝2 𝛾 − 1 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝛾−1
= 1−
𝛾
𝛾 − 1 𝑔 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝛾−1
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 1 −
𝛾 𝑅𝑇1

1.4
1.4 − 1 9.81 1200 − 0 1.4−1
𝒑𝟐 = 101 × 103 1−
1.4 287 × 288
1.4
0.4 9.81 1200 0.4
= 101000 1 − = 𝟖𝟕. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐍𝐦−𝟐
1.4 287 × 288
(b) To determine 𝑇2 , we use the relationship between temperature and elevation under
adiabatic condition shown below.
𝑑𝑇 𝑔 1−𝛾
=
𝑑𝑧 𝑅 𝛾
To establish this law, consider the following;
𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑅𝑇 𝜌 =
𝑑𝑧 𝜌 𝑅𝑇
For an adiabatic process,
𝑝
𝛾
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌
Substituting for 𝜌, we have;
𝑝
𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝1−𝛾 𝑇 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑝
𝑅𝑇
𝛾 −𝛾
1−𝛾 𝛾 1−𝛾
𝑝1−𝛾 𝑇 𝛾 = 𝑝1 𝑇1  𝑝= 𝑝1 𝑇1 𝑇 1−𝛾
Now differentiating implicitly we have;
−1 𝛾
−𝛾 1−𝛾
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑇 1−𝛾 𝑝1 𝑇1 𝑑𝑇
1−𝛾
𝑑𝑝 𝑝
Substituting for 𝜌 into = −𝜌𝑔 , from 𝜌 = ; we have;
𝑑𝑧 𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑝 𝑔𝑝 𝑅𝑇 𝑑𝑝
= −𝜌𝑔 = −  𝑑𝑧 = −
𝑑𝑧 𝑅𝑇 𝑔 𝑝
Substituting for 𝑑𝑝 and 𝑝, we will have;
−1 𝛾
−𝛾 1−𝛾
𝑇 1−𝛾 𝑝1 𝑇1
1−𝛾
𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑧 = − 𝛾 𝑑𝑇
𝑔 −𝛾
1−𝛾 1−𝛾
𝑝1 𝑇1 𝑇
𝑅 𝛾 −1 𝛾
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑇 1−𝛾 1−𝛾 +1
+
𝑑𝑇
𝑔 1−𝛾
𝑑𝑇 𝑔 1−𝛾
=
𝑑𝑧 𝑅 𝛾
So now we have;
𝑑𝑇 9.81 1 − 1.4
= = −9.76 × 10−3 Km−1
𝑑𝑧 287 1.4

But also we have;
𝑑𝑇 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
=
𝑑𝑧 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑑𝑇
𝑻𝟐 = 𝑇1 + 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = 288 + 1200 − 0 −9.76 × 10−3 = 𝟐𝟕𝟔. 𝟑𝒐 𝐂 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝐊
𝑑𝑧
(c) To determine 𝜌2 we use perfect gas equation as follows.

𝑝 𝑝2
= 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇2
𝜌 𝜌2
Hence;
𝑝2 87.33 × 103
𝝆𝟐 = = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟎𝟏 𝐤𝐠𝐦−𝟑
𝑅𝑇2 287 × 276.3

Example 2: A hydraulic press has a diameter ratio between the two pistons of 8:1. The
diameter of the larger piston is 600mm and is required to support a mass of 3500kg. The
press is filled with a hydraulic fluid of specific gravity of 0.8. Calculate the force required on
the smaller piston to provide the required force
(a) When the two pistons are level
(b) When the smaller piston is 2.6 m below the larger piston.
Data
𝑫
Ratio of piston diameters = = 𝟖: 𝟏
𝒅
Diameter of larger piston 𝑫 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝒎
Mass on larger piston 𝑴 = 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈 𝑾 = 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝑵
Specific gravity of hydraulic fluid = 𝟎. 𝟖 𝝆 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟐
Required
(a)Force required on smaller piston 𝑭 when both pistons are at the same level.
(b) Force required on smaller piston 𝑭𝟏 when it is 𝟐. 𝟔𝒎 below the larger.
𝑊
𝑃𝑋𝑋 =
𝐴2
(a) Considering equality of pressure at the same
level in a fluid. Let pressure at level XX in the
hydraulic fluid be 𝑝𝑋𝑋 .
On the left side , just beneath the smaller

𝑝𝑋𝑋 𝑝𝑋𝑋 piston, we have:
X X
𝜌 𝐹1 𝐹1 4𝐹1
𝑝𝑋𝑋 = = 2 = 2 … … … . . (𝑖)
Fig. E2a 𝐴1 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
4
On the right side , just beneath the larger piston.
𝑊 𝑊 3500 × 9.81 4 × 3500 × 9.81

𝑝𝑋𝑋 = = 2 = 2 = 2
… … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
𝐴2 𝜋𝐷 𝜋𝐷 𝜋𝐷
4 4

Equating the two equations (i) and (ii), we have.
4𝐹1 4 × 3500 × 9.81

𝑝𝑋𝑋 = 2
=
𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝐷2
2 2
4 × 3500 × 9.81 × 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑑 1
𝑭𝟏 = 2
= 137340 × = 137340 × = 𝟓𝟑𝟔. 𝟒𝟖 𝐍
𝜋𝐷 𝐷 8
𝑊
(b) 𝐅𝟏 𝑝1 =
𝐴2 Considering equality of pressure at level XX in the
hydraulic fluid we have.
𝐀𝟐
On the left side , just beneath the smaller piston,
h=2.6m 𝜌 we have:
𝑝𝑋𝑋 𝑝𝑋𝑋
𝐀𝟏 𝐹1 𝐹1 4𝐹1
𝑝𝑋𝑋 = = 2 = 2
… … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝐴1 𝜋𝑑 𝜋𝑑
4
Fig. E2b FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN
On the right side , just beneath the larger piston.
𝑊 3500 × 9.81
𝑝𝑋𝑋 = + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 2 + 800 × 9.81 × 2.6
𝐴2 𝜋𝐷
4
4 × 3500 × 9.81
= 2
+ 20404.8
𝜋𝐷
4 × 3500 × 9.81
= 2
+ 20404.8 = 141824.278 Pa … … 𝑖𝑣
𝜋 × 0.6
We can determine the diameter of the smaller piston from the diameter ratio. So we have.
𝐷 8 𝐷 × 1 0.6 × 1
=  𝑑= = = 0.075𝑚
𝑑 1 8 8
Equating (iii) and (iv), we have;
4𝐹1
2
= 141824.278
𝜋𝑑
4𝐹1
2
= 141824.278
𝜋𝑑
141824.278 × 𝜋 × 𝑑2 141824.278 × 𝜋 × 0.0752

𝑭𝟏 = = = 𝟔𝟐𝟔. 𝟔𝟒 𝐍
4 4
Example 3: A U-tube manometer shown in Fig. E3 measures the pressure difference
between two points A and B in a liquid of density 𝝆𝟏 . The U-tube contains mercury of
density 𝝆𝟐 . Calculate the difference of pressure if 𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎, 𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎 and 𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎;
and if the liquid at A and B is water and 𝝆𝟐 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝝆𝟏
Data
Density of liquid (water)=𝝆𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎, 𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝒎 and 𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎
Density of mercury =𝝆𝟐 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝝆𝟏
𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟐
Required
Difference of pressure between points A and B in the liquid (water) (𝒑𝑩 − 𝒑𝑨 )
To determine the pressure difference between A

water 𝜌1 and B in the liquid, let us consider the pressure at
𝜌1
level XX in mercury.
𝑎
𝑏−ℎ
If 𝑝𝐴 is the pressure at level A, then pressure in
𝑏 the left limb of the manometer at level XX will be;
𝑝𝑋𝑋 ℎ
𝑝𝑋𝑋
X X 𝑝𝑋𝑋 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔𝑎 … … … … … … … . … . (𝑖)
If 𝑝𝐵 is the pressure at level B, then pressure in the

𝜌2 right limb of the manometer at level XX will be;
Fig. E3
𝑝𝑋𝑋 = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌1 𝑔(𝑏 − ℎ) … … … (𝑖𝑖)

Considering pressure equality at level XX in both limbs of the manometer, we have.
𝑝𝑋𝑋 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔𝑎 = 𝑝𝐵 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌1 𝑔 𝑏 − ℎ
𝑝𝐵 − 𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌1 𝑔𝑎 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ + 𝜌1 𝑔 𝑏 − ℎ
= 𝜌1 𝑔𝑎 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ − 𝜌1 𝑔𝑏 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ
𝜌2
= 𝜌1 𝑔 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ 1 −
𝜌1
= 1000 × 9.81 1.5 − 0.75 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.5 1 − 13.6
𝒑𝑩 −𝒑𝑨 = −𝟓𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟓𝒌𝐍𝒎−𝟐

ALTERNATIVELY.

Consider the pressure at B starting with pressure at A and adding as pressure increases with
depth and subtracting as pressure decreases with elevation.
𝑝𝐵 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔𝑎 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ − 𝜌1 𝑔 𝑏 − ℎ
𝑝𝐵 − 𝑝𝐴 = 𝜌1 𝑔𝑎 − 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ − 𝜌1 𝑔𝑏 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ
𝜌2
= 𝜌1 𝑔 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ 1 −
𝜌1
= 1000 × 9.81 1.5 − 0.75 + 1000 × 9.81 × 0.5 1 − 13.6
𝒑𝑩 −𝒑𝑨 = −𝟓𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟓𝒌𝐍𝒎−𝟐

Example 4: Determine the pressure difference between the water pipe and the oil pipe
shown in Fig. E4. below.
𝑐= =𝑑
Fig. E4
Data
𝑝𝑌𝑌 𝑥 𝑥 𝑝𝑌𝑌  Density of water =𝝆𝑾 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑌 𝑌
 Density of mercury=𝝆𝑴 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝝆𝑾 =
=𝑑
𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑐=
 Density of fluid=𝝆𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟖𝝆𝑾 =
𝑝𝑂
𝟔𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
𝑝𝑊  Density of oil=𝝆𝑶 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝝆𝑾 = 𝟖𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒎−𝟑
 𝒈 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝑎=
=𝑏 Required
𝑝𝑋𝑋
𝑋 𝑝𝑋𝑋
𝑋  Pressure difference between water and
oil= 𝒑𝑾 − 𝒑𝑶 =?

Considering pressure equality in the mercury at level XX.
In the left limb;

𝑝𝑋𝑋 = 𝑝𝑊 + 𝜌𝑊 𝑔𝑎 … … … … … … … … … … . … 𝑖
In the right limb;
𝑝𝑋𝑋 = 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑝𝑌𝑌 + 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝑐 + 𝜌𝑀 𝑔𝑏 … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
Equating (i) and (ii), we have;
𝑝𝑋𝑋 = 𝑝𝑊 + 𝜌𝑊 𝑔𝑎 = (𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑝𝑌𝑌 ) + 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝑐 + 𝜌𝑀 𝑔𝑏 … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
Pressure at centre of oil pipe is given by;
𝑝𝑂 = 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑝𝑌𝑌 + 𝜌𝑂 𝑔𝑑 = 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑝𝑌𝑌 + 𝜌𝑂 𝑔𝑑 … … … … . (𝑖𝑣)
𝑝𝑂 − 𝜌𝑂 𝑔𝑑 = 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑝𝑌𝑌 … … … … … … … … (𝑖𝑣′)

Substituting into equation (𝑖𝑖𝑖) from equation (𝑖𝑣’), and rearranging,we have;
𝑝𝑊 + 𝜌𝑊 𝑔𝑎 = 𝑝𝑂 − 𝜌𝑂 𝑔𝑑 + 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝑐 + 𝜌𝑀 𝑔𝑏
𝒑𝑾 − 𝒑𝑶 = 𝝆𝑴 𝒈𝒃 + 𝝆𝑭 𝒈𝒄 − 𝝆𝑾 𝒈𝒂 − 𝝆𝑶 𝒈𝒅
ALTERNATIVELY.
We can start from the pressure at centre of the oil pipe and come from the left end through
additions and subtractions of pressures as we move towards depths and elevations
respectively.
𝑝𝑂 = 𝑝𝑊 + 𝜌𝑊 𝑔𝑎 − 𝜌𝑀 𝑔𝑏 − 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝑐 − 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝑥 + 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝑥 + 𝜌𝑂 𝑔𝑑
𝒑𝑾 − 𝒑𝑶 = 𝝆𝑴 𝒈𝒃 + 𝝆𝑭 𝒈𝒄 − 𝝆𝑾 𝒈𝒂 − 𝝆𝑶 𝒈𝒅
Substituting for numerical values of the quantities, we have;

𝑝𝑊 − 𝑝𝑂
= 13600 × 9.81 0.1 + 680 × 9.81 0.2 − 1000 × 9.81 0.15 − 860 × 9.81 0.15
= 133416 0.1 + 6670.8 0.2 − 9810 0.15 − 8436.6 0.15
= 13341.6 + 1334.16 − 1471.5 − 1265.49
= 11938.77 𝑁𝑚−2
𝒑𝑾 − 𝒑𝑶 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟑𝟖𝟕𝟕𝒌𝑵𝒎−𝟐

Example 5: The pressure of water flowing through a pipe is measured by the inclined
differential manometer shown in Fig. E5. below. For the values given, calculate the pressure in
the pipe.
Fig. E5

=𝑎 𝑝𝑊 12𝑐𝑚
𝑏−ℎ 8𝑐𝑚
=𝑏
ℎ 𝜃
X 𝑝𝑋𝑋 𝑝𝑋𝑋 X
Data 8 2
Density of water 𝜌𝑊 = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
12 3
Air pressure in tank 𝑝𝐴 = 30 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 30000𝑃𝑎
Density of gauge fluid 𝜌𝐺 = 2.4𝜌𝑊 = 2400𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
Required
Pressure of water flowing in pipe 𝑝𝑊 =?
Consider equality of pressure at level XX in the gauge fluid.
In the left limb, we have;
𝑝𝑋𝑋 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌𝑊 𝑔𝑎 … … … … . . (𝑖)
In the right limb;
𝑝𝑋𝑋 = 𝑝𝑊 + 𝜌𝑊 𝑔 𝑏 − ℎ + 𝜌𝐺 𝑔ℎ … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖)
Equating (𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖), and rearranging, we have;
𝑝𝑋𝑋 = 𝑝𝐴 + 𝜌𝑊 𝑔𝑎 = 𝑝𝑊 + 𝜌𝑊 𝑔 𝑏 − ℎ + 𝜌𝐺 𝑔ℎ
𝒑𝑾 = 𝒑𝑨 + 𝝆𝑾 𝒈𝒂 − 𝝆𝑾 𝒈 𝒃 − 𝒉 − 𝝆𝑮 𝒈𝒉
ALTERNATIVELY.
We can start from the pressure at centre of the water pipe and come from the left end
through additions and subtractions of pressures as we traverse depths and elevations
respectively.
𝒑𝑾 = 𝒑𝑨 + 𝝆𝑾 𝒈𝒂 − 𝝆𝑾 𝒈 𝒃 − 𝒉 − 𝝆𝑮 𝒈𝒉
𝑝𝑊
= 30000 + 1000 9.81 0.5 − 1000 9.81 0.08 − 0.06𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2400 9.81 0.06𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2 2
= 30000 + 9810 0.5 − 9810 0.08 − 0.06 × − 23544 0.06 ×
3 3
= 30000 + 4905 − 9810 0.04 − 23544 0.04
𝒑𝑾 = 𝟑𝟑𝟓𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟒 𝑷𝒂 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟓𝟕𝟎𝟖𝟒𝒌𝑷𝒂

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FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215

 Pressure is the force applied perpendicularly to the surface of an object per

 When such a force is brought to bear on a solid matter by another solid,

 On the other hand when such a force/ thrust is brought to bear on a

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

 Since pressure is thrust/ force acting normally to the surface of a material

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

Other commonly used units of pressure in fluids include the following:

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉; 𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑷𝒔𝒊

𝑴𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚; 𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝒈

𝑨𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝑜𝑟 𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒔; 𝑎𝑏𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠, 𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝑜𝑟 𝒃𝒂𝒓

𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒓 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖 ; 𝟏𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒓 ≈ 𝟏𝟑𝟑. 𝟑𝟐 𝑷𝒂

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

 The pressure at any point in a fluid acts equally in every/all directions

Force due to 𝑝𝑥 on area ABFE is given by;

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑝𝑥 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝐵𝐹𝐸 = 𝑝𝑥 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧

Component of force due to 𝑝𝑠 in the x-direction is given by;

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑠𝑥 𝑝𝑥 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 = 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑦

𝐹𝑦 = 𝑝𝑦 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹 = 𝑝𝑦 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧

Component of force due to 𝑝𝑠 in the y-direction is given by;

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑦 𝑝𝑦 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑧 = 𝑝𝑠 𝛿𝑧𝛿𝑥

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

 It is on the basis of this characteristic of pressure in fluids that Pascal

The pressure at any point in an incompressible and confined fluid can be

The principle of operation of a hydraulic automobile braking systems.

The principle of operation of hydraulic jacks

The principle of operation of hydraulic presses, lifts etc.

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

𝑧2 Force due to 𝑝1 on area A acting down = 𝑝1 𝐴

Fig. 4 FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

The mixture of gases that envelopes the earth referred as the

The standard atmosphere comprises various layers; stratosphere

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

Pressure is a basic variable in the design, construction and monitoring of

Absolute pressure: This is pressure measured relative to that in a perfect

Atmospheric pressure: This pressure is also referred to as barometric

Gauge pressure: This is pressure measured relative to the local

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

The relationship between absolute pressure (pabs),atmospheric pressure (patm),

Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure – Atmospheric pressure

pabs = patm+ pgauge

Other types of pressure include the following

 Differential pressure: This is pressure difference between any two points in

 Static pressure; This is a type of pressure that occurs independent of fluid

 Dynamic pressure; This is a type of pressure (sometimes called velocity

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

2. Piezometer or Pressure Tube (vertical and U-shaped)

3. Manometers (U-tube,with uniform tubes and with enlarged ends)

4. The Bourdon Gauge

5. The Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

1. Electric pressure transducers

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

Fig 9. U-tube manometer Fig 10 Bourdon gauge

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

Fig 11 A diaphragm pressure gauge

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN

Fig 12 An electric pressure transducer

FLUID MECHANICS I-MENG 215/FBC/USL/STN