IGCSE Grade (9)

Reversible Reactions
A + B C +D
• Reversible reaction: It is when the reaction can proceed in both directions forward and
backward.
 Example (1) : Water vapour

Heat

CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O

Hydrated Anhydrous
copper sulfate copper sulfate
(blue) (white)

 N.B. Endothermic reaction.

Crystallization
CuSO4 + 5H2O Cool
CuSO4.5H2O
(white) (blue)

 N.B. Exothermic reaction.

CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O

Cool

 N.B. Very important test for presence of water.

Example (2)
3H2 + N2 2NH3

Dynamic equilibrium: is the state when rates of forward and backward reactions are
equal, where the concentrations of reactants and products are constant.
IGCSE Grade (9)

Factors affecting a reaction at equilibrium:

1. Concentration. 2. Pressure. 3. Temperature.

1. Temperature:
a] Exothermic reactions:
A + B C + D + Heat ∆ H = - ve
-By increasing temperature, the equilibrium shifts to the Left Hand Side,
decreasing the concentration of products, and increasing concentration of
reactants.
-By decreasing temperature, the equilibrium shifts to the Right Hand
Side, increasing the yield, and decreasing the reactants.

b] Endothermic reactions:

A + B + Heat C + D ∆H = + ve

-By increasing temperature, the equilibrium shifts to the Right Hand Side,
Increasing the yield, and Decreasing the reactants.

-By decreasing temperature, the equilibrium shifts to the Left Hand

Side, Decreasing the yield, and Increasing the reactants.

2. Pressure: [for gases]

2SO2 + O2 2 SO3
-By increasing pressure, the equilibrium shifts to the Right Hand Side, with
less number of water or less volume.

Note: The Equilibrium does not change its position. Particles gets much closer,
number of successive collisions increases both forward and backward
reactions increases, equilibrium reached faster, Saves Time.

-By decreasing pressure, the equilibrium shifts to the Left Hand Side, with less
number of water or less volume.

Note: If number of moles of reactants and products are equal, the pressure has
no effect.
IGCSE Grade (10)

3. Concentration: [for liquids]

A + B C + D
-By increasing concentration of A or B, the equilibrium shifts to the
Right Hand Side, increasing the yield.

-By decreasing concentration of A or B, the equilibrium shifts to the

Left Hand Side, decreasing the yield.

Ex. BiCl3 (aq) + H2O (l) BiOCl(s) + 2HCl(aq)

Colourless White

Using catalyst: Does not affect the position of equilibrium, it increases

both forward and backward reactions by lowering the activation energy, and
only the reaction reaches the equilibrium faster which saves time.

Haber process:
N2 (g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + Heat
Forward reaction is exothermic ∆H = - ve value
Conditions of reactions are:
• Iron powder catalyst.

• 450 °C temperature.
(Optimum temperature, low enough to get a reasonable yield but high enough to
get a fast reaction rate and be economical)

• 20000 kpa / 200 atm. Pressure.

(Optimum pressure, high enough to get a reasonable yield but low enough to
be economical)

• Nitrogen& hydrogen are mixed in a ratio 1 : 3 by volume.

• Source of nitrogen is fractional distillation of liquid air
• source of hydrogen is
1. Electrolysis of brine where hydrogen is collected at cathode
2. Reaction of ethane with steam in presence of nickel as catalyst
IGCSE Grade (10)
CH4 (g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)

Carbon monoxide formed could poison the catalyst, and therefore removed by
reaction with more steam
CO(g) + H2O(g) CO2(g) + H2(g)

3. BY cracking of hydrocarbon

• The mixture of the two gases will never react completely; the yield will never be
100%. Hydrogen and nitrogen are sent to be recycled and react once more.

Ammonia
- Ammonia is the world’s second most manufactured chemical after sulfuric acid.
- Can be prepared in lab by heating any ammonium compound with a strong base

2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NH3(g)

IGCSE Grade (10)

- The properties of ammonia:

i. Colourless gas with a strong, choking smell
ii. Less dens than air.
iii. Reacts with dilute hydrogen chloride gas to form a white smoke. This
reaction can be used to test for presence of ammonia.
iv. Very soluble in water forming alkaline solution.
- Ammonia is used to make fertilizers and nitric acid.
 Fertilizers: are substances added to the soil to make it more fertile
 Animal manure is a natural fertilizer. Synthetic fertilizers are made in factories
 Synthetic fertilizers are minerals which are added to the soil to promote plant growth
and contain Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium[N , P , K]
Ex. Ammonium phosphate, Potassium nitrate

15.4 Fertilizers
 Fertilizers are used to:
1. Get better growth of plant.
2. Get better yield.
3. Compensate used nutrients in the soil.

N 🡆 To make chlorophyll and proteins

P 🡆 To help leaves and roots growth and crops to ripen.
K 🡆 To promote growth and resist diseases

 It’s not all good news. There are drawbacks for using fertilizers:
1. Fertilizers seep into rivers from farmland, help algae to grow which when die
, oxygen decreases in water and bacteria that feed on them increases so fish
suffocate
2. Nitrate ions from fertilizers can end up in our water supply, changing to
nitrite ions that react with hemoglobin instead of oxygen casing illness
spatially in infants.
 IGCSE Grade (10)
Contact process

To prepare sulfuric acid, sulfur is roasted in oxygen

S(s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g) = - ve

Sulfur dioxide is further oxidized to form sulfur trioxide which is called contact
process. The reaction is exothermic

Conditions of reactions:

1. Temperature = 450°C
(Optimum temperature, low enough to get a reasonable yield but high enough to
get a fast reaction rate and be economical)

2. Pressure = 200 kpa / 2 atm.

( Although theoretically increasing pressure, increases the yield as the equilibrium
position shifts to the RHS which has less number of moles, practically the increase
in yield will be limited i.e. economically does not worth. Fair enough to use Catalyst
and relatively high temperature.)

3. Vanadium V oxide catalyst.

SO3 (g) + H2SO4(aq) H2S2O7 (l)
Oleum
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2H2SO4 (aq)
N.B. Sulfur trioxide is passed over concentrated sulfuric acid [98%] forming oleum
[99.5%]
Sulfur trioxide is not passed over water as it is a highly violent exothermic reaction
forming a toxic cloud.
IGCSE Grade (10)